How Neutron Activation Analysis Works

Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA) is a nuclear process used for determining certain concentrations of elements in a vast amount of materials. NAA allows universal and infinite sampling since it disregards the chemical form of a sample, and only focuses on its nucleus. The reactor is at the bottom of a deep tank of water. Vials are placed and transported in and out of the core through an air-driven pneumatic transport system. The nuclear reactor (Reed) consists of 60 lead insulated uranium cores (20% ²⁸⁵U) which power, and therefore become an infinite source of neutrons. The usage of H₂O during NAA is a key component of “bombarding” or constantly hitting a sample with neutrons. By placing the core underwater, it creates a natural biological shield to repel possible radiation from neutron bombardment. Furthermore, hydrogen molecules share energy when they ricochet against uranium molecules, therefore creating a slower fission and a continuous chain reaction of ricocheting molecules. Since neutrons have no charge they will interact with the nucleus of the atom, rather than the electron shell. Consequently, if a neutron particle comes in contact with the nucleus of an atom, it might become absorbed. When this happens, the element will become a different isotope of the same element. This alteration in the nucleus of the atom causes the isotope to become unstable, and ultimately radioactive

General information

In chemistry, neutron activation analysis is a technique used to very accurately determine the concentrations of elements in a sample. The particular advantage of this technique is that it does not destroy the sample, and thus has been used for analysis of works of art and historical artifacts. Multicolored chemicals are frequent hallmarks of chemistry. ...

The sample is introduced into the intense radiation field of a nuclear reactor. The sample is thus bombarded with neutrons, causing the elements to form radioactive isotopes. The radioactive emissions and radioactive decay paths for each element are well known. Using this information it is possible to study spectra of the emissions of the radioactive sample, and determine the concentrations of the elements within it. Radiation has a variety of different meanings. ...

Some elements form isotopes that have very short half-lives, and so cannot be measured using this method. Others have exceptionally long half-lives, and so can be measured, but have to be measured over long periods. Half-Life For a quantity subject to exponential decay, the half-life is the time required for the quantity to fall to half of its initial value. ...

NAA Overview

Neutron Activation Analysis is a sensitive multi-element analytical technique used for both qualitative and quantitative analysis of major, minor, trace and rare elements. NAA was discovered in 1936 by Hevesy and Levi, who found that samples containing certain rare earth elements became highly radioactive after exposure to a source of neutrons [1]. This observation led to the use of induced radioactivity for the identification of elements. NAA is significantly different from other spectroscopic analytical techniques in that it is based not on electronic transitions but on nuclear transitions. To carry out an NAA analysis the specimen is placed into a suitable irradiation facility and bombarded with neutrons, this creates artificial radioisotopes of the elements present. Following irradiation the artificial radioisotopes decay via the emission of particles or more importantly gamma-rays, which are characteristic of the element from which they were emitted. Look up element in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Qualitative is an important qualifier in the following subject titles: Qualitative identity Qualitative marketing research Qualitative method Qualitative research THE BIG J This is a disambiguation page — a list of pages that otherwise might share the same title. ... A quantitative property is one that exists in a range of magnitudes, and can therefore be measured. ... George Charles de Hevesy (also known as Georg Karl von Hevesy) (August 1, 1885 in Budapest – July 5, 1966) was a Hungarian chemist who was important in the development of the tracer method where radioactive tracers are used to study chemical processes, e. ... de;Metalle der Seltenen Erden Categories: Stub | Chemical element groups ... Radioactive decay is the set of various processes by which unstable atomic nuclei (nuclides) emit subatomic particles. ... Properties In physics, the neutron is a subatomic particle with no net electric charge and a mass of 940 MeV/c² (1. ... Atoms of chemical elements may have many isotopes (different forms) with different atomic numbers and different atomic weights. ... This article is about electromagnetic radiation. ...

For the NAA procedure to be successful the specimen or sample must be selected carefully. In many cases small objects can be irradiated and analysed intact without the need of sampling. But more commonly a small sample is taken, usually by drilling in an inconspicuous place. About 50mg (one-twentieth of a gram) is a sufficient sample, so damage to the object is minimised [2]. It is often good practice to remove two samples using two different drill bits made of different materials. This will reveal any contamination of the sample from the drill bit material itself. The sample is then encapsulated in a vial made of either high purity linear polyethylene or quartz [3]. These sample vials come in many shapes and sizes to accommodate many specimen types. The sample and a standard are then packaged and irradiated in a suitable reactor at a constant, known neutron flux. A typical reactor used for activation uses uranium fission, providing a high neutron flux and the highest available sensitivities for most elements [4]. The neutron flux from such a reactor is in the order of 10¹² neutrons cm^-2 s^{-1 [5]}. The type of neutrons generated are of relatively low kinetic energy (KE), typically less than 0.5eV [6]. These neutrons are termed thermal neutrons. Upon irradiation a thermal neutron interacts with the target nucleus via a non-elastic collision, causing neutron capture. This collision forms a compound nucleus which is in an excited state. The excitation energy within the compound nucleus is formed from the binding energy of the thermal neutron with the target nucleus. This excited state is unfavourable and the compound nucleus will almost instantaneously de-excite (transmutate) into a more stable configuration through the emission of a prompt particle and one or more characteristic prompt gamma photons [7]. In most cases this more stable configuration yields a radioactive nucleus. The newly formed radioactive nucleus now decays by the emission of both particles and one or more characteristic delayed gamma photons. This decay process is at a much slower rate than the initial de-excitation and is dependent on unique half-life of the radioactive nucleus. These unique half-lives are dependent upon the particular radioactive species and can range from fractions of a second to several years. Once irradiated the sample is left for a specific decay period then placed into a detector, which will measure the nuclear decay according to either the emitted particles, or more commonly the emitted gamma-rays ^[8]. The gram or gramme, symbol g, is a unit of mass. ... Polyethylene or polyethene is a thermoplastic commodity heavily used in consumer products (over 60M tons are produced worldwide every year). ... Quartz is amongst one of the most common minerals in the Earths continental crust. ... In the various subfields of physics, there exist two common usages of the term flux, both with rigorous mathematical frameworks. ... General Name, Symbol, Number uranium, U, 92 Chemical series actinides Group, Period, Block n/a, 7, f Appearance silvery gray metallic; corrodes to a spalling black oxide coat in air Atomic mass 238. ... In general fission is a splitting or breaking up into parts. ... Kinetic energy is energy that a body possesses as a result of its motion. ... An electronvolt (symbol: eV) is the amount of kinetic energy gained by a single unbound electron when it passes through an electrostatic potential difference of one volt, in vacuum. ... Binding energy is the energy required to disassemble a whole into separate parts. ...

Variations of NAA

NAA can vary according to a number of experimental parameters. The kinetic energy of the neutrons used for irradiation will be a major experimental parameter. The above description is of activation by slow neutrons, slow neutrons are fully moderated within the reactor and have KE <0.5eV. Medium KE neutrons may also be used for activation, these neutrons have been only partially moderated and have KE of 0.5eV to 0.5MeV, and are termed epithermal neutrons. Activation with epithermal neutrons is known as Epithermal NAA (ENAA). High KE neutrons are sometimes used for activation, these neutrons are unmoderated and consist of primary fission neutrons. High KE or fast neutrons have a KE >0.5MeV. Activation with fast neutrons is termed Fast NAA (FNAA). Another major experimental parameter is whether nuclear decay products (gamma-rays or particles) are measured during neutron irradiation (Prompt Gamma), or at some time after irradiation (Delayed Gamma). PGNAA is generally performed by using a neutron stream tapped off the nuclear reactor via a beam port. Neutron fluxes from beam ports are the order of 10⁶ times weaker than inside a reactor [9]. This is somewhat compensated for by placing the detector very close to the sample reducing the loss in sensitivity due to low flux. PGNAA is generally applied to elements with extremely high neutron capture cross-sections; elements which decay too rapidly to be measured by DGNAA; elements that produce only stable isotopes; or elements with weak decay gamma-ray intensities [10]. PGNAA is characterised by short irradiation times and short decay times, often in the order of seconds and minutes. DGNAA is applicable to the vast majority of elements that form artificial radioisotopes. DG analyses are often performed over days, weeks or even months. This improves sensitivity for long-lived radionuclides as it allows short-lived radionuclide to decay, effectively eliminating interference [11]. DGNAA is characterised by long irradiation times and long decay times, often in the order of hours, weeks or longer. The neutron cross section of an element is the effective cross sectional area that an atom of that element presents to a neutron. ... Isotopes are forms of an element whose nuclei have the same atomic number - the number of protons in the nucleus - but different mass numbers because they contain different numbers of neutrons. ...

If NAA is conducted directly on irradiated samples it is termed Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis (INAA). In some cases irradiated samples are subjected to chemical separation to remove interfering species or to concentrate the radioisotope of interest, this technique is known as Radiochemical Neutron Activation Analysis (RNAA). Image File history File links Download high resolution version (2641x1471, 28 KB)Pollard, A. M., Heron, C., 1996, Archaeological Chemistry. ...

NAA Detectors

There are a number of detector types and configurations used in NAA. Most are designed to detect the emitted gamma radiation. The most common types of gamma detectors encountered in NAA are the gas ionisation type, scintillation type and the semiconductor type. Of these the scintillation and semiconductor type are the most widely employed. There are two detector configurations utilised, they are the planar detector, used for PGNAA and the well detector, used for DGNAA. The planar detector has a flat, large collection surface area and can be placed close to the sample. The well detector ‘surrounds’ the sample with a large collection surface area. A proportional counter is a measurement device to count particles of ionizing radiation and measure their energy. ... A scintillation counter measures ionizing radiation. ... A semiconductor is a material with an electrical conductivity that is intermediate between that of an insulator and a conductor. ...

Scintillation type detectors use a radiation sensitive crystal, most commonly Sodium Iodide NaI (TI), which emits light when struck by gamma photons. These detectors have excellent sensitivity and stability, and a reasonable resolution. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (2606x610, 18 KB)Fifield, F. W., Kealy, D., 1995, Principals and Practice of Analytical Chemistry, 4th edition. ...

Semiconductor detectors utilise the semiconducting element germanium. The germanium is processed to form a p-i-n (positive-intrinsic-negative) diode, and when cooled to ~77K by liquid nitrogen to reduce dark current and detector noise, produces a signal which is proportional to the photon energy of the incoming radiation. There are two types of germanium detector, the lithium drifted germanium or Ge(Li) (pronounced ‘jelly’), and the High Purity Germanium or HPGe. The semiconducting element silicon may also be used but germanium is preferred, as its higher atomic number makes it more efficient at stopping and detecting high energy gamma-rays. Both Ge(Li) and HPGe detectors have excellent sensitivity and resolution, but Ge(Li) detectors are unstable at room temperature, with the lithium drifting into the intrinsic region ruining the detector. The development of undrifted high purity germanium has overcome this problem. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1423x1318, 15 KB)Fifield, F. W., Kealy, D., 1995, Principals and Practice of Analytical Chemistry, 4th edition. ... General Name, Symbol, Number germanium, Ge, 32 Chemical series metalloids Group, Period, Block 14, 4, p Appearance grayish white Atomic mass 72. ... Types of diodes In electronics, a diode is a component that restricts the direction of movement of charge carriers. ... The kelvin (symbol: K) is the SI unit of temperature, and is one of the seven SI base units. ... General Name, Symbol, Number Nitrogen, N, 7 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 15 (VA), 2 , p Density 1. ... Dark current is the constant response exhibited by a receptor of radiation during periods when it is not actively being exposed to light. ... General Name, Symbol, Number silicon, Si, 14 Chemical series metalloids Group, Period, Block 14, 3, p Appearance dark gray, bluish tinge Atomic mass 28. ... An intrinsic semiconductor is a material which has the conductivity of a semiconductor without the introduction of a deliberate dopant species. ...

Particle detectors can also be used to detect the emission of alpha (α) and beta (β) particles which often accompany the emission of a gamma photon but are less favourable, as these particles are only emitted from the surface of the sample and are often absorbed or attenuated by atmospheric gases requiring expensive vacuum conditions to be effectively detected. Whereas gamma-rays are not absorbed or attenuated by atmospheric gases, and can also escape from deep within the sample with minimal absorption. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (2053x1687, 35 KB)Fifield, F. W., Kealy, D., 1995, Principals and Practice of Analytical Chemistry, 4th edition. ... An alpha particle is deflected by a magnetic field Alpha particles (named after the first letter in the Greek alphabet, α) are a highly ionizing form of particle radiation which have low penetration. ... Beta particles are high-energy electrons or positrons emitted by certain types of radioactive nuclei such as potassium-40. ... Look up Vacuum in Wiktionary, the free dictionary For other uses, see vacuum (disambiguation) A vacuum is a volume of space that is empty of matter, including air, so that gaseous pressure is much less than standard atmospheric pressure. ...

NAA Analytical Capabilities

NAA can detect up to 74 elements depending upon the experimental procedure. With minimum detection limits ranging from 0.1 to 1x10⁶ng g^-1 depending on element under investigation. Heavier elements have larger nuclei, therefore they have a larger neutron capture cross-section and are more likely to be activated. Some nuclei can capture a number of neutrons and remain relatively stable, not undergoing transmutation or decay for many months or even years. Other nuclei decay instantaneously or form only stable isotopes and can only be identified by PGNAA.

Table source [12]

Gamma Spectra from a Sample of Pottery Irradiated for 5 Seconds, Decayed for 25 Minutes, and Counted for 12 Minutes with an HPGe Detector. Image File history File links NAA5. ...

Gamma Spectra from a Sample of Pottery Irradiated for 24 Hours, Decayed for 9 Days, and Counted for 30 Minutes on a HPGe Detector. Image File history File links NAA6. ...

Summary of NAA

NAA can perform non-destructive analyses on solids, liquids, suspensions, slurries, and gases with no or minimal preparation. Due to the penetrating nature of incident neutrons and resultant gamma-rays the technique provides a true bulk analysis. As different radioisotopes have different half-lives, counting can be delayed to allow interfering species to decay eliminating interference. Until the introduction of ICP-AES and PIXE, NAA was the standard analytical method for performing multi-element analyses with minimum detection limits in the sub-ppm range ^[13]. Accuracy of NAA is in the region of 5%, and relative precision is often better than 0.1% ^[14]. There are two noteworthy drawbacks to the use of NAA; even though the technique is essentially non-destructive the irradiated sample will remain radioactive for many years after the initial analysis, requiring handling and disposal protocols for low-level to medium-level radioactive material; also the number of suitable activation nuclear reactors is declining, with a lack of irradiation facilities the technique has declined in popularity and become more expensive. ICP-AES (Inductively Coupled Plasma - Atomic Emission Spectrometer) uses ICP (inductively coupled plasma) to produce excited atoms that emit radiation at a wavelength characteristic of a particular element. ... PIXE (Particle Induced X-ray Emission or Proton Induced X-ray Emission) is a technique used in the determining of the elemental make-up of a material or sample. ... Parts-per notation is a measure of concentration that is used where low levels of concentration are significant. ... In science, engineering, industry and statistics, accuracy is the degree of conformity of a measured or calculated quantity to its actual, nominal, or some other reference, value. ... In Wikipedia, precision has the following meanings: In engineering, science, industry and statistics, precision characterises the degree of mutual agreement among a series of individual measurements, values, or results - see accuracy and precision. ...

External links

• NAA - University of Wisconsin Nuclear Reactor
• NAA - University of Missouri-Columbia, Research Reactor Center
• NAA - Department of Nuclear Engineering, North Carolina State University
• NAA - Del Mar Ventures
• NAA - The British Museum
• NAA - Worcester Polytechnic Institute

References

1. ↑  Pollard, A. M., Heron, C., 1996, Archaeological Chemistry. Cambridge, Royal Society of Chemistry.