The Nihil novi act adopted by the Polish Diet in 1505 transferred all legislative power from the king to the Diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as "Nobles' Democracy" or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (Rzeczpospolita szlachecka) when the state was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility (szlachta). The Lublin Union of 1569 constituted the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth as an influential player in European politics and a vital cultural entity. By the 18th century the nobles' democracy gradually declined into anarchy, making the once powerful Commonwealth vulnerable to foreign influence. Eventually the country was partitioned by its neighbors and erased from the map in 1795. The people of Poland took pride in their long history, filled with the struggle to get, keep, and regain freedom—the main value for Poles. ... (Redirected from Prehistory of Poland (until 966)) Here goes the article: See also Early East Slavs Categories: To do | To do, priority undefined ... The Jagiellon Era 1385-1572, was dominated by the union of Poland with Lithuania under the Jagiellon Dynasty, founded by the Lithuanian grand duke Jagiello. ... Although the majority of the szlachta was reconciled to the end of the Commonwealth in 1795, the possibility of Polish independence was kept alive by events within and without Poland throughout the nineteenth century. ... Main article: Second Polish Republic Interwar Poland Poland in the interbellum Piłsudskis first task was to reunite the Polish regions that had assumed various economic and political identities since the partition in the late eighteenth century, and especially since the advent of political parties. ... On 1 September 1939, without a formal declaration of war, Germany invaded Poland. ... Main article: Peoples Republic of Poland Yalta and the fate of Poland (1943-45) At the Yalta Conference in February 1945, Stalin was able to present his western allies, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill, with a fait accompli in Poland. ... In the 1970s and 1980s the whole system in Poland was deeper and deeper in the crisis and was beginning to crumble as was the whole Eastern bloc with the USSR as the fading superpower. ... Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Nihil novi is a common term for Nihil novi nisi commune consensu (latin nothing new without the consensus of all), a 1505 legal act of Poland, also known as nothing about us without us. The phrase nihil novi is also used as short for the phrase, Sub sole nihil novi... This article is about the lower chamber of Polish parliament. ... Events March 5 - Papal dispensation issued for the marriage of Henry VIII of England and Catherine of Aragon June 27 - Henry VIII of England repudiates his engagement to Catherine of Aragon, at his fathers command King Alexander_of_Poland signed Nihil_novi act - Poland became Nobles Democracy Poland prohibits peasants from leaving... A legislature is a governmental deliberative body with the power to adopt laws. ... A monarch is a type of ruler or head of state. ... Rzeczpospolita (pronounced: , zhech-poss-POH-lee-tah) is a Polish calque translation of the Latin expression res publica (public affair). It has been used in Poland since at least 16th century, originally to denote any democratic state. ... A state is an organized political community occupying a definite territory, having an organized government, and possessing internal and external sovereignty. ... Szlachta ( pronounced: [ʃlaxta]) was the noble class in Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania ( Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth). ... The Union of Lublin, painted by Jan Matejko The Union of Lublin (Belarusian: Лю́блінская ву́нія; Polish: Unia lubelska) - signed July 1, 1569 in Lublin, united the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into a single state, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth with official name: Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów (The... Events January 11 - First recorded lottery in England. ... Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... World map showing location of Europe A satellite composite image of Europe Europe is geologically and geographically a peninsula, forming the westernmost part of Eurasia. ... Politics is the process and method of making decisions for groups. ... The word culture comes from the Latin root colere (to inhabit, to cultivate, or to honor). ... (17th century - 18th century - 19th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 18th century refers to the century that lasted from 1701 through 1800. ... Anarchy (New Latin anarchia) is a term that has a number of different but related usages. ... The Partitions of Poland ( Polish Rozbiór or Rozbiory Polski) happened in the 18th century and ended the existence of a sovereign state of Poland (or more correctly the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth). ... 1795 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ...

Founding of The Elective Monarchy

"Union of Lublin" of 1569, oil on canvas by Jan Matejko, 1869, 298 x 512 cm, National Museum in Warsaw.

"Death of Sigismund II Augustus at Knyszyn" July 6, 1572, oil on canvas, 1886, National Museum in Warsaw.

The death of Sigismund II Augustus in 1572 was followed by a three-year interregnum period during which adjustments were made to the constitutional system. The lower nobility was now included in the selection process, and the power of the monarch was further circumscribed in favor of the expanded noble class. Each king had to sign the so called Henrician Articles, which were the basis of the political system of Poland, and pacta conventa which were various personal obligations of the chosen king. From that point, the king was effectively a partner with the noble class and constantly supervised by a group of senators. Once the Jagiellons disappeared from the scene, the fragile equilibrium of the Commonwealth government began to go awry. The constitutional reforms made the monarchy electoral in fact as well as name. As more and more power went to the noble electors, it also eroded from the government's center. Jan Matejko (1838-1893) The two-dimensional work of art depicted in this image is in the public domain in the United States and in those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100 years. ... Jan Matejko (1838-1893) The two-dimensional work of art depicted in this image is in the public domain in the United States and in those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100 years. ... The Union of Lublin, painted by Jan Matejko The Union of Lublin (Belarusian: Лю́блінская ву́нія; Polish: Unia lubelska) - signed July 1, 1569 in Lublin, united the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into a single state, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth with official name: Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów (The... Events January 11 - First recorded lottery in England. ... Categories: Stub | Polish painters | 1838 births | 1893 deaths ... Warsaw (Polish: Warszawa, see also other names, in full The Capital City of Warsaw, Polish: Miasto Stołeczne Warszawa) is the capital of Poland and its largest city. ... Death of Sigismund Augustus at Knyszyn by Matejko This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Death of Sigismund Augustus at Knyszyn by Matejko This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Reign From April 1, 1548 until July 6, 1572 Coronation On September 15, 1697 in the Wawel Cathedral, Kraków, Poland Royal House Jagiellon Parents Zygmunt I Stary Bona Sforza Consorts Elżbieta Habsburzanka Barbara Radziwiłł Katarzyna Austriaczka Barbara Giżycka Children with Barbara Giżycka Barbara Date of Birth August 1, 1520 Place... Knyszyn is a town in north-eastern Poland. ... Warsaw (Polish: Warszawa, see also other names, in full The Capital City of Warsaw, Polish: Miasto Stołeczne Warszawa) is the capital of Poland and its largest city. ... Reign From April 1, 1548 until July 6, 1572 Coronation On September 15, 1697 in the Wawel Cathedral, Kraków, Poland Royal House Jagiellon Parents Zygmunt I Stary Bona Sforza Consorts Elżbieta Habsburzanka Barbara Radziwiłł Katarzyna Austriaczka Barbara Giżycka Children with Barbara Giżycka Barbara Date of Birth August 1, 1520 Place... Events January 16 - The Duke of Norfolk is tried for treason for his part in the Ridolfi plot to restore Catholicism in England. ... An interregnum is a period between kings, or between popes of the Roman Catholic Church. ... Henrician Articles, also known as Henrykian Articles (Polish Artykuły henrykowskie), contained the most important ideals of governance in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in form of 21 Articles written and voted for by the szlachta in 1573 during the times of interregnum in the town of Kamien near Warsaw. ... External links From Polish online encyclopedia Categories: Poland-related stubs | Polish history ... A senate is a deliberative body, often the upper house or chamber of a legislature. ... The Jagiellons were a royal dynasty which reigned in some Central European countries between the 14th and 16th century. ...

"The Republic at Zenith of Power. Golden Liberty. Kings election in 1573." By Jan Mateko

In its periodic opportunities to fill the throne, the szlachta exhibited a preference for foreign candidates who would not found another strong dynasty. This policy produced monarchs who were either totally ineffective or in constant debilitating conflict with the nobility. Furthermore, aside from notable exceptions such as the able Transylvanian Stefan Batory (1576-1586), the kings of alien origin were inclined to subordinate the interests of the Commonwealth to those of their own country and ruling house. The Republic at Zenith of Power. ... The Republic at Zenith of Power. ... Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Events January - articles of Warsaw Confederation signed, sanctioning religious freedom in Poland. ... Szlachta ( pronounced: [ʃlaxta]) was the noble class in Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania ( Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth). ... A dynasty is a family or extended family which retains political power across generations, or more generally, any organization which extends dominance in its field even as its particular members change. ... Transylvania (Romanian: Transilvania or Ardeal, Hungarian: Erdély, German: Siebenbürgen, Serbian: Transilvanija, Turkish: Erdel, Slovak: Sedmohradsko or Transylvania, Polish: Siedmiogród) is a historic region that forms the western and the central parts of Romania. ... The first Stephen Báthory, István Báthory (1477-1534) was a Hungarian noble and loyal adherent of King John Zápolya of Hungary. ... Events May 5 - Peace of Beaulieu or Peace of Monsieur (after Monsieur, the Duc dAnjou, brother of the King, who negotiated it). ... Events November 19 - Henry Barrow, English Puritan and Separatist is imprisoned. ...

Henryk II Walezy (1572–1573)

Henry II Walezy was elected a king of the Commonwealth in 1572, but shortly after, at the death of his brother Charles IX, he fled Poland and returned to France to be crowned as Henry III of France. Henry III (French: Henri III; Polish: Henryk III Walezy; September 19, 1551 - August 2, 1589) was King of Poland (1573-1574) and subsequently King of France (1574-1589). ... Events January 16 - The Duke of Norfolk is tried for treason for his part in the Ridolfi plot to restore Catholicism in England. ... Events January - articles of Warsaw Confederation signed, sanctioning religious freedom in Poland. ... Charles IX ( June 27, 1550 – May 30, 1574) was born Charles-Maximilien, the son of King Henri II of France and Catherine de Medici. ...

Stefan Batory (1576-1586)

Poland defeated Russia's Ivan the Terrible and retrieved most of the lost provinces, including Livland. At the end of his reign, Poland ruled two main Baltic sea ports: Gdańsk controlling the Vistula river trade and Riga controlling Dvina trade. Both cities were among the largest in the country. István) see: István Báthory Reign From December 9, 1575 until December 12, 1586 Elected On December 9, 1575 in Wola, today suburb of Warsaw, Poland Coronation On May 1, 1576 in the Wawel Cathedral, Kraków, Poland Noble Family Bathory Parents Stephen Bathory Catherine Telegdi Consorts Anna Jagiellonka Children none Date... Events May 5 - Peace of Beaulieu or Peace of Monsieur (after Monsieur, the Duc dAnjou, brother of the King, who negotiated it). ... Events November 19 - Henry Barrow, English Puritan and Separatist is imprisoned. ... Ivan IV (August 25, 1530–March 18, 1584) was the first ruler of Russia to assume the title of tsar. ... This article is about the region in Europe. ... The Baltic Sea is located in Northern Europe, bounded by the Scandinavian Peninsula, the mainland of Eastern Europe and Central Europe, and the Danish islands. ... For alternative meanings of Gdańsk, see Gdansk (disambiguation) The title given to this article lacks diacritics because of certain technical limitations. ... Vistula river basin Vistula ( Polish Wisła, German Weichsel) is the longest river in Poland. ... Riga (in Latvian language orthography Rīga), the capital of Latvia, is situated on the Baltic Sea coast at the mouth of the Daugava River, at 56°58′ N 24°8′ E. Riga is the largest city in the Baltic States and serves as a major cultural, educational, political, financial, commercial... The Daugava or Western Dvina (Russian: За́падная Двина́, Belarusan: Дзьвіна́, Latvian: Daugava, German: Düna, Polish Dźwina) is a river rising in the Valdai Hills flowing through Russia and Belarus, to drain into the Gulf of Riga, an arm of the Baltic Sea at Riga, Latvia. ...

"Batory at Psków", oil on canvas, 1872, 322 x 512 cm, Royal Castle in Warsaw. Siege of the city.

During the Livonian War (1578-1582), between Ivan the Terrible of Russia and Stefan Batory of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the city was besieged by Polish forces. Poland failed to capture the city, but Batory, with his chancellor Jan Zamojski, led the Polish army in a brilliant decisive campaign and forced Russia to return other territories and gained Livonia and Polock. In 1582 the war ended with Commonwealth vicotry with peace treaty in Jam Zapolski. On the left side of the King - Jan Zamoyski. ... On the left side of the King - Jan Zamoyski. ... István) see: István Báthory Reign From December 9, 1575 until December 12, 1586 Elected On December 9, 1575 in Wola, today suburb of Warsaw, Poland Coronation On May 1, 1576 in the Wawel Cathedral, Kraków, Poland Noble Family Bathory Parents Stephen Bathory Catherine Telegdi Consorts Anna Jagiellonka Children none Date... Categories: Russia geography stubs | Cities in Russia ... Categories: Stub | Buildings in Poland | Castles in Poland | Warsaw ... The Reformation reached Livonia in the 1520s. ... Events January 31 - Battle of Gemblours - Spanish forces under Don John of Austria and Alexander Farnese defeat the Dutch. ... Events January 15 - Russia cedes Livonia and Estonia to Poland February 24 - Pope Gregory XIII implements the Gregorian Calendar. ... Ivan IV (August 25, 1530–March 18, 1584) was the first ruler of Russia to assume the title of tsar. ... István) see: István Báthory Reign From December 9, 1575 until December 12, 1586 Elected On December 9, 1575 in Wola, today suburb of Warsaw, Poland Coronation On May 1, 1576 in the Wawel Cathedral, Kraków, Poland Noble Family Bathory Parents Stephen Bathory Catherine Telegdi Consorts Anna Jagiellonka Children none Date... Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Chancellor (Latin: cancellarius), an official title used by most of the peoples whose civilization has arisen directly or indirectly out of the Roman empire. ... Noble Family Zamoyski Coat of Arms Jelita Parents Stanisław Zamoyski Anna Herburt Consorts Anna Ossolińska Krystyna Radziwiłł Gryzelda Batory Barbara Tarnowska Children with Barbara Tarnowska Tomasz Zamoyski Date of Birth March 19, 1542 Place of Birth Skokówka, Poland Date of Death June 3, 1605 Place of Death Zamość, Poland Jan... This article is about the region in Europe. ... Polatsk (Belarusian: По́лацак, По́лацк; Polish: Połock, also spelt as Polacak; Russian: По́лоцк, also transliterated as Polotsk, Polotzk, Polock) is the most historic city in Belarus, situated on the Dvina river. ... Peace treaty in Jam Zapolski was signed in January 1582 between Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth lead by king Stefan Batory and Russia lead by Tazar Ivan the Terrible. ...

Stefan Bathory planned a Christian alliance against the Islamic Ottomans. He proposed an anti-Ottoman alliance with Russia, which he considered a necessary step for his anti-Ottoman crusade. However, Russia was on the way to the Time of Troubles so he could not find a partner there. When Stefan Bathory died, there was a one year interregnum. Emperor Mathias's brother Maximilian III tried to claim title of King of Poland, but was defeated at Byczyna and Sigismund III Vasa followed Stefan Bathory's reign. The term Christian means belonging to Christ and is derived from the Greek noun Χριστός Khristós which means anointed one, which is itself a translation of the Hebrew word Moshiach (Hebrew: משיח, also written Messiah), (and in Arabic it is pronounced Maseeh مسيح). ... Islam (Arabic al-islām الإسلام,  listen) the submission to God is a monotheistic faith and the worlds second-largest religion. ... This article is about historical Crusades . ... The Time of Troubles (Russian: Смутное время, Smutnoye Vremya) was a period of Russian history comprising the end of 16th and beginning of 17th century. ... Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian II Maximilian II of the Habsburg dynasty was born in 1527 at Vienna and died in 1576 in Regensburg. ... Archduke Maximilian III of Austria, also known as Maximilian the Deutschmeister (born October 12, 1558 in Wiener Neustadt; died November 2, 1618 in Vienna) was the third son of Emperor Maximilian II. From 1585 onwards, he was the Grand Master of the Teutonic Order and administrator of Prussia. ... Reign in Poland From September 18, 1587 until April 19, 1632 Reign in Sweden From November 17, 1592 until July 24, 1599 Elected in Poland On September 18, 1587 in Wola, today suburb of Warsaw, Poland Coronation in Poland On December 27, 1587 in the Wawel Cathedral, Kraków, Poland Coronation...

House of Vasa

The Vasa Coat of Arms The House of Vasa was the Royal House of Sweden (1523-1654) and of Poland (1587-1668). ...

Zygmunt III Waza (1587-1632)

"Sermon of Skarga" (1536-1612), oil on canvas, 1862, 224 x 397 cm, Royal Castle in Warsaw.

The first few years of Sigismund's reign, until 1598 saw Poland and Sweden united in a personal union that made the Baltic sea an internal lake. However, the rebellion in Sweden started the chain of events that would involve Commonwealth in more than a century of warfare with Sweden. Reign in Poland From September 18, 1587 until April 19, 1632 Reign in Sweden From November 17, 1592 until July 24, 1599 Elected in Poland On September 18, 1587 in Wola, today suburb of Warsaw, Poland Coronation in Poland On December 27, 1587 in the Wawel Cathedral, Kraków, Poland Coronation... Events February 8 - Mary, Queen of Scots is beheaded at Fotheringhay Castle in England after she is implicated in a plot to murder her cousin, Queen Elizabeth I. July 22 - Colony of Roanoke: A group of English settlers arrive on Roanoke Island off of North Carolina to re-establish the... See also: 1632 (novel) Events February 22 - Galileos Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems is published July 23 - 300 colonists for New France depart Dieppe November 8 Wladyslaw IV Waza elected king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth after Zygmunt III Waza death November 16 - Battle of Lützen... Sermon of Skarga by Matejko This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Sermon of Skarga by Matejko This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Categories: 1536 | 1612 | Polish priests | Polish writers | People stubs ... Categories: Stub | Buildings in Poland | Castles in Poland | Warsaw ... Events January 7 - Boris Godunov seizes the throne of Russia following the death of his brother-in-law, Tsar Feodor I April 13 - Edict of Nantes - Henry IV of France grants French Huguenots equal rights with Catholics. ... The Baltic Sea is located in Northern Europe, bounded by the Scandinavian Peninsula, the mainland of Eastern Europe and Central Europe, and the Danish islands. ... A rebellion is, in the most general sense, a refusal to accept authority. ...

In the end, Sigismund III Waza failed to strengthen the Commonwealth nor to solve its internal problems; instead he concentrated on a futile attempt to regain his former Swedish throne.

Polish-Sweden-Muscovy Wars

Sigismund desire to reclaim the throne drove Sigismund into prolonged military adventures waged against his native Sweden under Charlex IX and later also Russia. In 1598 Sigismund tried to defeat Charles with a mixed army from Sweden and Poland but was defeated in the battle of Stångebro. The war continued, punctuated by many ceasefires and broken peace treaties. On occasion, these campaigns brought Poland to a nearly complete conquest of Russia and the Baltic coast during the Time of Troubles and False Dimitris, had it not been for the military burden imposed by the ongoing rivalry on multiple borders: the Turks, the Swedes and the Russians. The Time of Troubles (Russian: Смутное время, Smutnoye Vremya) was a period of Russian history comprising the end of 16th and beginning of 17th century. ... Conflict Dymitriads - Polish-Muscovite War of 1609-1618 Date 1605- 1618 Place Russia Result Dymitriads ( Polish Dymitriady) is the name for the series of wars ( 1605- 1618) between the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Muscovyn forces during the Russian civil war (known as the Time of Troubles (1606-13)). Commonwealth forces... The Polish-Swedish Wars were two wars fought between Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Sweden between 1600 and 1629. ... The Smolensk War was a conflict fought in the years 1632- 1634 between the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Muscovy. ... This article is about the history of Poland. ... Charles IX, or Karl IX (1550 – 1611), king of Sweden, was the youngest son of Gustav I of Sweden and Margareta Lejonhufvud. ... The Battle of Stångebro took place at Linköping, Sweden on September 25, 1598, and effectively ended the personal union between Sweden and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, that had only existed since 1592. ... The Time of Troubles (Russian: Смутное время, Smutnoye Vremya) was a period of Russian history comprising the end of 16th and beginning of 17th century. ... False Dmitry I (ruled 1605-1606) was one of three pretenders to the Russian throne who claimed to be the youngest son of Ivan the Terrible, tsarevich Dmitry Ivanovich, who had miraculously escaped the assasination attempt. ...

The southern wars

Commonwealth-Ottomans relations were never too warm, as the Commonwealth viewed itself as the 'bulwark of the Christendom' and together with Habsburgs and Republic of Venice was the thorn in the Ottoman plans of European conquest. Since the second half of the 16th century, Polish-Ottomans relations, never too friendly, were further worsened by the escalation of Cossacks-Tatars border warfare, which turned the entire border region between the Commonwealth and Ottoman Empire into a semi-pernament warzone. The Moldavian Magnate Wars refer to the period at the end of the 16th century and the beginning of the 17th century when the magnates of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth intervened in the affairs of Moldavia, clashing with the Habsburgs and the Ottoman Empire for domination of the territory. ... Habsburg (sometimes spelled Hapsburg, but never so in official use) was one of the major ruling houses of Europe. ... The Republic of Venice was a city-state in Venetia in Northeastern Italy, based around the city of Venice. ... This article needs cleanup. ... The term Tatar may refer to A member of the Tatars, Crimean Tatars Tatar language, Crimean Tatar language Native people of Crimea, Tatarstan See also: Turkic peoples, Turkic languages. ...

In the 1595, magnates of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth intervented in the affairs of Moldavia. This would start a series of conflicts that would soon spread to Transylvania, Wallachia and Hungary, when the Commonwealth forces clashed with the forces backed by Ottoman Empire and occasionally Habsburgs, all competing for the domination over that region. Events January 30 - William Shakespeares Romeo and Juliet is performed for the first time May 24 - Nomenclator of Leiden University Library appears, the first printed catalog of an institutional library. ... For a wealthy or powerful business baron, executive, or tycoon, see business magnate Magnate is a title of nobility commonly used in Sweden, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and some other medieval empires. ... Moldavia (Moldova in Romanian) was a Romanian principality, originally created in the Middle Ages, now divided between Romania, Moldovan Republic and Ukraine. ... Transylvania (Romanian: Transilvania or Ardeal, Hungarian: Erdély, German: Siebenbürgen, Serbian: Transilvanija, Turkish: Erdel, Slovak: Sedmohradsko or Transylvania, Polish: Siedmiogród) is a historic region that forms the western and the central parts of Romania. ... Map of Romania with Wallachia in yellow. ... The Ottoman Empire at the height of its power Imperial motto El Muzaffer Daima The Ever Victorious (as written in tugra) Official language Ottoman Turkish Capital İstanbul (Constantinople/Asitane/Konstantiniyye ) Sovereigns Sultans of the Osmanli Dynasty Population ca 40 million Area 6. ... Habsburg (sometimes spelled Hapsburg, but never so in official use) was one of the major ruling houses of Europe. ...

With the Commonwealth engaged on its northern and eastern borders with near constant conflicts against Sweden and Muscovy, its armies were spread thin. Finally, the southern wars culminated in the Polish defeat at the battle of Cecora in 1620. Eventually the Commonwealth was forced to renounce all claims to Moldavia, Transylvania, Wallachia and Hungary. Battle of Cecora Conflict Polish-Ottoman Wars Date 17 September-7 October 1620 Place near Cecora and Prut river, Moldova Result Polish defeat Battle of Cecora (also known as Battle of Tutora) was battle between Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Ottomans forces (Turks and Tatars) from 17 September 1620 to...

Religious and social tensions

The population of Poland-Lithuania was neither overwhelmingly Roman Catholic nor Polish. This circumstance resulted from the federation with Lithuania, where ethnic Poles were a distinct minority. In those days, to be Polish was much less an indication of ethnicity than of rank; it was a designation largely reserved for the landed noble class, which included members of Polish and non-Polish origin alike. Generally speaking, the ethnically non-Polish noble families of Lithuania adopted the Polish language and culture. As a result, in the eastern territories of the kingdom a Polish or polonized aristocracy dominated over a peasantry whose great majority was neither Polish nor Catholic. Moreover, the decades of peace brought huge colonisation efforts to Ukraine, which heightened tensions between peasants, Jews and nobles. The tensions were aggravated by the conflicts between Orthodox and Greek Catholic churches following the Union of Brest and by several Cossack uprisings. On the West and North, cities had big German minorities, often of reformed belief. The Roman Catholic Church, most often spoken of simply as the Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with over one billion members. ... Landed property or landed estates is a real estate term that usually refers to a property that generates income for the owner without himself having to do the actual work at the estate. ... Polish (polski, język polski) is the official language of Poland. ... Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ... Separate articles treat Eastern Orthodox Christianity and Orthodox Judaism. ... The term Eastern Rites may refer to the liturgical rites used by many ancient Christian Churches of Eastern Europe and the Middle East that, while being part of the Roman Catholic Church, are distinct from the Latin Rite or Western Church. ... The decision of the (Ruthenian) Church of Rus, the Metropolia of Kiev-Halych and all Rus, to break relations with the Patriarch of Constantinople and place themselves under the (patriarch) Pope of Rome in 1595-1596 is termed the Union of Brest (Belarusian: Берасьце́йская ву́нія). ... The Reply of the Zaporozhian Cossacks to Sultan Mehmed IV of Turkey. ... The Reformed churches are a group of Protestant denominations historically related by a similar Zwinglian or Calvinist system of doctrine but organizationally independent. ...

Władysław IV Waza (1632-1648)

Wladislaw tried to achieve many military goals, including conquest of Russia, Sweden and Turkey. His reign is that of many small victories, few of them bringing anything worthwile to the Commonwealth. For a time, he was elected a tsar, but never had any control over Russian territories. In the end, like his father, he failed to strenghten the Commonwealth or prevent the crippling events of The Deluge or Chmielnicki Rebellion, that devastated the Commonwealth in 1648. Reign in Poland From November 8, 1632 until May 20, 1648 Reign in Russia From 1610 until 1635 Elected in Poland On November 8, 1632 in Wola, today suburb of Warsaw, Poland Elected in Russia In 1610 Coronation On February 6, 1633 in the Wawel Cathedral, Kraków, Poland Royal House... See also: 1632 (novel) Events February 22 - Galileos Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems is published July 23 - 300 colonists for New France depart Dieppe November 8 Wladyslaw IV Waza elected king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth after Zygmunt III Waza death November 16 - Battle of Lützen... Events Peace treaty signed at Westphalia ends the Thirty Years War. ... Tsar (Bulgarian цар, Russian царь,  listen; often spelled Czar or Tzar and sometimes Csar or Zar in English), was the title used for the autocratic rulers of the First and Second Bulgarian Empires since 913, in Serbia in the middle of the 14th century, and in Russia from 1547 to... This article is about the history of Poland. ... Chmielnicki Uprising or Chmielnicki Rebellion is the name of a civil war in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the years 1648–1654. ... Events Peace treaty signed at Westphalia ends the Thirty Years War. ...

Jan Kazimierz Vasa (1648–1668)

The reign of the last of Vasas in the Commonwealth would be dominated by the culumination in the war with Sweden, groundwork for which was laid down by the two previous Vasa kings of the Commonwealth. Reign From November, 1648 until September 16, 1668 Elected In November 1648 in Wola, today suburb of Warsaw, Poland Coronation On January 19, 1649 in the Wawel Cathedral, Kraków, Poland Royal House Vasa Parents Zygmunt III Waza Anna Austriaczka Consorts Ludwika Maria Children with Ludwika Maria Maria Anna Teresa... Events Peace treaty signed at Westphalia ends the Thirty Years War. ... Events January - The Triple Alliance of 1668 is formed. ...

In 1660 Jan Kazimierz would be forced to renounce his claims to the Swedish throne and acknowledge Swedish sovereignty over Livonia and city of Riga. He abdicated on 16 September 1668 and returned to France where he joined the Jesuit order and became an ordinary monk. He died in 1672. Events Expulsion of the Carib indigenous people from Martinique by French occupying forces. ... This article is about the region in Europe. ... Riga (in Latvian language orthography Rīga), the capital of Latvia, is situated on the Baltic Sea coast at the mouth of the Daugava River, at 56°58′ N 24°8′ E. Riga is the largest city in the Baltic States and serves as a major cultural, educational, political, financial, commercial... September 16 is the 259th day of the year (260th in leap years). ... Events January - The Triple Alliance of 1668 is formed. ... The Society of Jesus (Latin: Societas Iesu), commonly known as the Jesuits, is a Roman Catholic religious order. ... A Roman Catholic monk A monk is a person who practices monasticism, adopting a strict religious and ascetic lifestyle, usually in community with others following the same path. ... Events England, France, Munster and Cologne invade the United Provinces, therefore this name is know as ´het rampjaar´ (the disaster year) in the Netherlands. ...

Chmielnicki Uprising, 1648-1654

"Bohdan Chmielnicki with Tuhaj-Bej at Lwów", oil on canvas, 1885, National Museum in Warsaw. Chmielnicki Uprising 1648-1654

This largest of all Cossacks rebellions, led by Bohdan Khmelnytsky, proved disastrous for the Commonwealth. In the end, Commonwealth not only lost parts of its territory to Russia, but was weakened at the moment of invasion by Sweden. Chmielnicki Uprising or Chmielnicki Rebellion is the name of a civil war in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the years 1648–1654. ... Events Peace treaty signed at Westphalia ends the Thirty Years War. ... Events April 5 - Signing of the Treaty of Westminster, ending the First Anglo-Dutch War. ... Download high resolution version (537x800, 167 KB)Bohdan Chmielnicki with Tuhaj Bej at Lwow painted by Jan Matejko This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Download high resolution version (537x800, 167 KB)Bohdan Chmielnicki with Tuhaj Bej at Lwow painted by Jan Matejko This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Bohdan Zynovii Mykhailovych Khmelnytskyi (Богдан Зиновій Михайлович Хмельницький in Polish as Bohdan Zenobi Chmielnicki; in Russian as Bogdan Khmelnitsky) ( 1595 – August 6, 1657) was a Ruthenian (arguably) noble, leader of the Zaporozhian Cossack Hetmanate, hetman of Ukraine, noted for his revolt against Poland (1648 – 1654) and the Treaty... Lviv coat of arms Motto: Semper fidelis Municipal government City council (Львівська міська рада) Mayor City chairman Lyubomyr Bunyak Area 171,01 km² Population    total 2000    density 808,900 4786/km² Founded city rights 13th century 1353 Area code + 0322 Latitude Longitude 49°51′ N 24°01′ E Twin towns... Warsaw (Polish: Warszawa, see also other names, in full The Capital City of Warsaw, Polish: Miasto Stołeczne Warszawa) is the capital of Poland and its largest city. ... Chmielnicki Uprising or Chmielnicki Rebellion is the name of a civil war in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the years 1648–1654. ... Bohdan Zynovii Mykhailovych Khmelnytskyi (Богдан Зиновій Михайлович Хмельницький in Polish as Bohdan Zenobi Chmielnicki; in Russian as Bogdan Khmelnitsky) ( 1595 – August 6, 1657) was a Ruthenian (arguably) noble, leader of the Zaporozhian Cossack Hetmanate, hetman of Ukraine, noted for his revolt against Poland (1648 – 1654) and the Treaty...

The Deluge, (1648-1667)

Although Poland-Lithuania escaped the ravages of the Thirty Years' War, which ended in 1648, the ensuing two decades subjected the country to one of its severest trials. This colorful but ruinous interval, the stuff of legend and the popular historical novels of Nobel laureate Henryk Sienkiewicz, became known as the potop, or deluge, for the magnitude and suddenness of its hardships. The emergency began with an uprising of Ukrainian Cossacks that culminated in a reassertion of an independent Ukraine centered in Kyiv, in spite of Warsaw's efforts to subdue it by force. After the Ukrainians concluded the Treaty of Pereyaslav with Russia, prolonged and increasing Russian intervention began in the Ukrainian and Belarusian territories. Taking advantage of Poland's preoccupation and weakness, Charles X of Sweden rapidly overran much of the remaining territory of the Commonwealth in the same year. Pushed to the brink of dissolution, Poland-Lithuania rallied to recover most of its losses from the Swedes. In exchange for breaking the alliance with Sweden, the ruler of Ducal Prussia was released from his vassalage and became a de facto independent sovereign, while much of the Polish Protestant nobility went over to the side of the Swedes. Swedish brutality, and especially the ineffectual siege of Jasna Gora monastery in Czestochowa in winter of 1655-1656, raised widespread revolts against Charles, whom a part of Polish nobles had recognized as their ruler in the meantime. Under hetman Stefan Czarniecki, the Poles and Lithuanians have driven the Swedes from their territory by 1657. This article is about the history of Poland. ... Events Peace treaty signed at Westphalia ends the Thirty Years War. ... Events January 20 - Poland cedes Kyiv, Smolensk, and eastern Ukraine to Russia in the Treaty of Andrusovo that put a final end to the Deluge, and Poland lost its status as a Central European power. ... The Commonwealth around 1619 Official languages Polish, Latin Established church Roman Catholic Capital Cracow (until 1596) Warsaw (from 1596) Largest City Gdańsk, later Warsaw Head of state King of Poland, Grand Duke of Lithuania Area about 1 million km² Population about 11 million Existed 1569 - 1795 The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth... The victory of Gustavus Adolphus at the Battle of Breitenfeld (1631) The Thirty Years War was a conflict fought between the years 1618 and 1648, principally in the Central European territory of the Holy Roman Empire, but also involving most of the major continental powers. ... Events Peace treaty signed at Westphalia ends the Thirty Years War. ... Photographs of Nobel Prize Medals. ... Henryk Sienkiewicz Henryk Adam Aleksander Pius Sienkiewicz (pronounce: [γεnrik ɕenkieviʧ]) (May 5, 1846 - November 15, 1916) was a Polish novelist, one of the outstanding writers of the second half of the 19th century. ... This article needs cleanup. ... Kiev (Київ, Kyiv, in Ukrainian; Киев, Kiev, in Russian) is the capital and largest city of Ukraine, located in the north central part of the country on the Dnieper river. ... Pereyaslav Rada The Treaty of Pereyaslav was concluded in 1654 in the Ukrainian city of Pereyaslav during the meeting known as Pereyaslavska Uhoda (Pereyaslav Treaty). ... Charles X or Karl X Gustav (1622-Sweden, son of John Casimir, Margrave of Pfalz-Zweibrücken, and Catherine, sister of Gustavus Adolphus, was born at the Castle of Nyköping on November 8, 1622. ... The Prussian Tribute, oil on canvas by Jan Matejko, 1882, 388 x 875 cm, National Museum in Kraków. ... See also The Black Madonna of Czestochowa External links http://www. ... Buddhist monastery near Tibet A monastery is the habitation of monks. ... Częstochowa (pronounce: [ʧε̃stɔ:xɔva]) is a city in south Poland on the Warta River with 248,894 inhabitants (2004). ... Events New Sweden (Delaware) attacked and captured by Dutch forces. ... Events Mehmed Köprülü becomes Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire. ... Noble Family Czarniecki Coat of Arms Łodzia Parents  ? Consorts  ? Children  ? Date of Birth 1599 Place of Birth Czarnce, Poland Date of Death July 18, 1665 Place of Death  ? Stefan Czarniecki, Stephen Czarniecki (1599-July 18, 1665) Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth general and nobleman (szlachcic). ... Events January 8 - Miles Sindercombe, would-be-assassin of Oliver Cromwell, and his group are captured in London February - Admiral Robert Blake defeats the Spanish West Indian Fleet in a battle over the seizure of Jamaica. ...

Further complicated by dissenting nobles and wars with the Ottoman Turks, the thirteen-year struggle over control of Ukraine ended in the Truce of Andrusovo in 1667. Although Russia had been defeated by a new Polish-Ukrainian alliance in 1662, it gained eastern Ukraine in the peace treaty. Treaty of Andrusovo, 1667 (Polish Rozejm w Andruszowie, Russian Андрусовское перемирие, Ukrainian Андрусівське перемиря), a truce for 13,5 years between Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which were at war since 1654 over the territories of modern day Ukraine and Belarus. ... Events January 20 - Poland cedes Kyiv, Smolensk, and eastern Ukraine to Russia in the Treaty of Andrusovo that put a final end to the Deluge, and Poland lost its status as a Central European power. ... Events March 18 – Short-timed experiment of the first public buses holding 8 passengers begins in Paris May 3/May 2 - Catherine of Braganza marries Charles II of England – as part of the dowry, Portugal cedes Bombay and Tangier to England May 9 - Samuel Pepys witnessed a Punch and Judy...

Despite the improbable survival of the Commonwealth in the face of the potop, one of the most dramatic instances of the Poles' knack for prevailing in adversity, the episode inflicted irremediable damage and contributed heavily to the ultimate demise of the state. When Jan II Kaziemierz abdicated in 1668, the population of the Commonwealth had been nearly halved by war and disease. War had destroyed the economic base of the cities and raised a religious fervor that ended Poland's policy of religious tolerance. Henceforth, the Commonwealth would be on the strategic defensive facing hostile neighbors. Never again would Poland compete with Russia as a military equal. Events January - The Triple Alliance of 1668 is formed. ...

Commonwealth after the Deluge

The Treaty of Oliwa in 1660 John II of Poland finally renounced his claims to the Swedish Crown, which ended the feud between Sweden and the Commonwealth, ending the sting of wars between those countries (War against Sigismund (1598-1599), Polish-Swedish War (1600-1629) and the Northern Wars (1655-1660)). Treaty of Oliwa. ... Reign From November, 1648 until September 16, 1668 Elected In November 1648 in Wola, today suburb of Warsaw, Poland Coronation On January 19, 1649 in the Wawel Cathedral, Kraków, Poland Royal House Vasa Parents Zygmunt III Waza Anna Austriaczka Consorts Ludwika Maria Children with Ludwika Maria Maria Anna Teresa... For usages of The Crown in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, see Crown of the Polish Kingdom. ... The Battle of Stångebro took place at Linköping, Sweden on September 25, 1598, and effectively ended the personal union between Sweden and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, that had only existed since 1592. ... The Polish-Swedish Wars were two wars fought between Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Sweden between 1600 and 1629. ... King Charles X of Sweden The Northern Wars (1655-1661) is a name sometimes used for the series of conflicts between Sweden and its adversaries Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (The Deluge, 1655-1660), Russia (1656-1661), Brandenburg-Prussia (1657-1660), the Holy Roman Empire (1657-60) and Denmark (1657-1658, 1658...

After Treaty of Andrusovo in 1667 and Eternal Peace Treaty of 1686, Commonwealth lost left-bank Ukraine to Russia. The Eternal Peace Treaty of 1686 (Polish Pokój wieczysty or Pokój Grzymułtowskiego, Russian Вечный мир) was a treaty between Russia and Poland, signed by Polish envoys: voivod of Poznań Krzysztof Grzymułtowski and chancellor of Lithuania Marcjan Ogiński and Russian knyaz Vasily Golitsyn on May 6, 1686 in Moscow. ... Left-bank Ukraine (Ukrainian: Лівобережна Україна Russian: Левобережная Украина, Polish: Lewobrzeżna Ukraina ): historic name of the part of Ukraine on the left bank of the Dnipro River, comprising the modern-day regions of Chernihiv, Poltava and Sumy and the eastern part of the Kyiv and Cherkasy regions, in Russian histories...

Polish culture and the Greek Catholic Church gradually advanced and by the 18th century, the population of Ducal Prussia was a mixture of Catholic and Protestants and used both German and Polish languages. The rest of Poland and most of Lithuania remained firmly Roman Catholic, while Ukraine and some parts of Lithuania (i.e., Belarus) were Greek Catholic. The society was split into a polonized upper stratum and peasants of other nationalities. Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ... The Greek Catholic Church is an Eastern Rite church sui juris in the Catholic Communion. ... (17th century - 18th century - 19th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 18th century refers to the century that lasted from 1701 through 1800. ... The Province of Prussia was a province of Poland from the 15th century until 1660, consisting of Royal Prussia and Ducal Prussia. ... The Roman Catholic Church, most often spoken of simply as the Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with over one billion members. ...

Decay of the Commonwealth

During the 18th century the Polish crown itself became subject to the manipulations of Russia, Sweden, Kingdom of Prussia, France and Austria. Poland's weakness was exacerbated by an unworkable constitution which allowed each noble or gentry representative in the Sejm to use his vetoing power to stop further parliamentary proceedings for the given session. This greatly weakened the central authority of Poland and paved the way for its destruction. (17th century - 18th century - 19th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 18th century refers to the century that lasted from 1701 through 1800. ... The Kingdom of Prussia existed from 1701 until 1918, and from 1871 was the leading kingdom of the German Empire, comprising in its last form almost two-thirds of the area of the Empire. ...

Most accounts of Polish history show the two centuries after the end of the Jagiellon dynasty as a time of decline leading to foreign domination. The Jagiellons were a royal dynasty which reigned in some Central European countries between the 14th and 16th century. ...

Before another hundred years have elapsed, Poland-Lithuania had virtually ceased to function as a coherent and genuinely independent state. The commonwealth's last martial triumph occurred in 1683 when King Jan Sobieski drove the Turks from the gates of Vienna with a heavy cavalry charge. Poland's important role in aiding the European alliance to roll back the Ottoman Empire was rewarded with some territory in Podole by the Treaty of Karlowicz (1699). Nonetheless, this isolated success did little to mask the internal weakness and paralysis of the Polish-Lithuanian political system. For the next quarter century, Poland was often a pawn in Russia's campaigns against other powers. Augustus II of Saxony, who succeeded Jan Sobieski, involved Poland in Peter the Great's war with Sweden, incurring another round of occupation and devastation by the Swedes between 1704 and 1710. Events June 6 - The Ashmolean Museum opens as the worlds first university museum. ... Reign From May 21, 1674, until June 17, 1696 Elected On May 21, 1674 in Wola, today suburb of Warsaw, Poland Coronation On February 2, 1676 in the Wawel Cathedral, Kraków, Poland Nobel Family Sobieski Coat of Arms Janina Parents Jakub Sobieski Zofia Teofillia Daniłowicz Consorts Marie Casimire Louise Children... Vienna (German: Wien [viːn]) is the capital of Austria, and also one of Austrias nine federal states (Bundesland Wien). ... The region of Podolia (Polish Podole, Ukrainian Podillya) lies in the west-central and south-west portions of present-day Ukraine. ... The Treaty of Karlowitz was signed in 1699 in Karlovci (German Karlowitz), concluding the Austro-Ottoman war of 1683-1697 in which the Ottoman side was defeated. ... Events January 26 - Treaty of Karlowitz signed March 30 - the tenth Sikh Master, Guru Gobind Singh created the Khalsa. ... Reign From 1697, until 1706 and from 1709, until February 1, 1733 Elected In 1697 in Wola, today suburb of Warsaw, Poland Coronation On September 15, 1697 in the Wawel Cathedral, Kraków, Poland Royal House Wettin Parents John George III Wettin Anne Sophie Consorts  ? Children August III Sas Maurice de... Events Building of the Students Monument in Aiud, Romania. ... Events April 10 - The worlds first copyright legislation became effective, Britains Statute of Anne Ongoing events Great Northern War (1700-1721) War of the Spanish Succession (1702-1713) Births January 4 - Giovanni Battista Pergolesi, Italian composer (d. ...

In the eighteenth century, the powers of the monarchy and the central administration became purely formal. Kings were denied permission to provide for the elementary requirements of defense and finance, and aristocratic clans made treaties directly with foreign sovereigns. Attempts at reform were stymied by the determination of the szlachta to preserve their "golden freedoms" as well as the liberum veto. Because of the chaos sown by the veto provision, under Augustus III (1733-63) only one of thirteen Sejm sessions ran to an orderly adjournment. (17th century - 18th century - 19th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 18th century refers to the century that lasted from 1701 through 1800. ... Liberum veto (Latin: free veto) was a parliamentary device in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth that allowed any deputy to a Sejm to force an immediate end to the current session and nullify all legislation already passed at it. ... Reign From 1734 until October 5, 1763 Elected In 1734 in Wola, today suburb of Warsaw, Poland Coronation On January 17, 1734 in the Wawel Cathedral, Kraków, Poland Royal House Wettin Parents August II Mocny ? Consorts Marie Josepha Children Frederick Christian Date of Birth October 7, 1696 Place of...

Unlike Spain and Sweden, great powers that were allowed to settle peacefully into secondary status at the periphery of Europe at the end of their time of glory, Poland endured its decline at the strategic crossroads of the continent. Lacking central leadership and impotent in foreign relations, Poland-Lithuania became a chattel of the ambitious kingdoms that surrounded it, an immense but feeble buffer state. During the reign of Peter the Great (1682-1725), the commonwealth fell under the dominance of Russia, and by the middle of the eighteenth century Poland-Lithuania had been made a virtual protectorate of its eastern neighbor, retaining only the theoretical right to self-rule. In the context of international relations and diplomacy, power (sometimes clarified as international power, national power, or state power) is the ability of one state to influence or control other states. ... A buffer state is a country lying between two rival or potentially hostile greater Powers that by its sheer existence is thought to prevent conflict between them. ... Peter I Emperor and Autocrat of All Russia Peter I (Pyotr Alekseyvich) (9 June 1672–8 February 1725 [30 May 1672–28 January 1725 O.S.1]) ruled Russia from 7 May (27 April O.S.) 1682 until his death. ... Events March 11 – Chelsea hospital for soldiers is founded in England May 6 - Louis XIV of France moves his court to Versailles. ... Events February 8 - Catherine I became empress of Russia February 20 - The first reported case of white men scalping Native Americans takes place in New Hampshire colony. ...

The Polish succession war was fought from 1733-1735. The War of the Polish Succession (1733-1738) was a European war and a Polish civil war, with considerable interference from other countries, to determine the succession to Augustus II, King of Poland, as well as an attempt by the Bourbon powers to check the power of Austria in western... Events February 12 - British colonist James Oglethorpe founds Savannah, Georgia. ... Events 16 April - The London premiere of Alcina by George Frideric Handel, his first the first Italian opera for the Royal Opera House at Covent Garden. ...

Michael Korybut Wisniowiecki (King 1669–1673)

Election of Michal Korybut Wisniowiecki on Wola fields in 1669.

Following the abdication of King Jan Kazimierz Vasa and the end of The Deluge, the Polish nobility (szlachta) elected Michael as king, believing he would further the interests of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. He was the first monarch of Polish origin since the last of Jagiellonian Dynasty, Sigismund II Augustus, died in 1572. Michal was a son of a successful but controversial military commander Jeremi Michał Wiśniowiecki, known for his actions during uring the Chmielnicki Uprising led by Bohdan Chmielnicki. The title given to this article is incorrect due to technical limitations. ... Events Samuel Pepys stopped writing his diary. ... Events The English Test Act was passed. ... Election of Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki on Wola fields in 1669. ... Election of Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki on Wola fields in 1669. ... The title given to this article is incorrect due to technical limitations. ... Sowiński defending Wola during the November Uprising Wola is a district of western Warsaw, Poland, formerly the village of Wielka Wola, that was incorporated into Warsaw in 1916. ... Events Samuel Pepys stopped writing his diary. ... Reign From November, 1648 until September 16, 1668 Elected In November 1648 in Wola, today suburb of Warsaw, Poland Coronation On January 19, 1649 in the Wawel Cathedral, Kraków, Poland Royal House Vasa Parents Zygmunt III Waza Anna Austriaczka Consorts Ludwika Maria Children with Ludwika Maria Maria Anna Teresa... This article is about the history of Poland. ... Szlachta ( pronounced: [ʃlaxta]) was the noble class in Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania ( Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth). ... Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... The Jagiellons were a royal dynasty which reigned in some Central European countries between the 14th and 16th century. ... Reign From April 1, 1548 until July 6, 1572 Coronation On September 15, 1697 in the Wawel Cathedral, Kraków, Poland Royal House Jagiellon Parents Zygmunt I Stary Bona Sforza Consorts Elżbieta Habsburzanka Barbara Radziwiłł Katarzyna Austriaczka Barbara Giżycka Children with Barbara Giżycka Barbara Date of Birth August 1, 1520 Place... Events January 16 - The Duke of Norfolk is tried for treason for his part in the Ridolfi plot to restore Catholicism in England. ... The title given to this article is incorrect due to technical limitations. ... Chmielnicki Uprising or Chmielnicki Rebellion is the name of a civil war in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the years 1648–1654. ... Bohdan Zynovii Mykhailovych Khmelnytskyi (Богдан Зиновій Михайлович Хмельницький in Polish as Bohdan Zenobi Chmielnicki; in Russian as Bogdan Khmelnitsky) ( 1595 – August 6, 1657) was a Ruthenian (arguably) noble, leader of the Zaporozhian Cossack Hetmanate, hetman of Ukraine, noted for his revolt against Poland (1648 – 1654) and the Treaty...

His reign was less than successful, and the nobility was not satisfied with the House of Vasa's dynastic policies. Despite his fathers military fame Michael lost a war against the Ottoman Empire, with Turks occupying Podolia. He was unable to cope with his responsibilities and with the different quarreling factions within Poland. The Vasa Coat of Arms The House of Vasa was the Royal House of Sweden (1523-1654) and of Poland (1587-1668). ... The Ottoman Empire at the height of its power Imperial motto El Muzaffer Daima The Ever Victorious (as written in tugra) Official language Ottoman Turkish Capital İstanbul (Constantinople/Asitane/Konstantiniyye ) Sovereigns Sultans of the Osmanli Dynasty Population ca 40 million Area 6. ... The region of Podolia (Polish Podole, Ukrainian Podillya) lies in the west-central and south-west portions of present-day Ukraine. ...

John III Sobieski (King 1674–1696)

"Sobieski Sending Message of Victory to the Pope, after the Battle of Vienna" 12 September 1683, oil on canvas, 1880, 58 x 100 cm, National Musemum in Kraków.

John III Sobieski most famous achievement was to deal crushing defeat to the Ottoman Empire in 1683 at the Battle of Vienna, which marked the final turning point in a 250-year struggle between the forces of Christian Europe and the Islamic Ottoman Empire. Over the 16 years following the battle (the so-called Great Turkish war), the Turks would be permanently driven south of the Danube River, never to threaten central Europe again. Reign From May 21, 1674, until June 17, 1696 Elected On May 21, 1674 in Wola, today suburb of Warsaw, Poland Coronation On February 2, 1676 in the Wawel Cathedral, Kraków, Poland Nobel Family Sobieski Coat of Arms Janina Parents Jakub Sobieski Zofia Teofillia Daniłowicz Consorts Marie Casimire Louise Children... Events February 19 - England and the Netherlands sign the Treaty of Westminster. ... The year 1696 had the earliest equinoxes and solstices for 400 years in the Gregorian calendar, because this year is a leap year and the Gregorian calendar would have behaved like the Julian calendar since March 1500 had it have been in use that long. ... Sobieski Sending Message of Victory to the Pope, after the Battle of Vienna by Matejko This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Sobieski Sending Message of Victory to the Pope, after the Battle of Vienna by Matejko This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Reign From May 21, 1674, until June 17, 1696 Elected On May 21, 1674 in Wola, today suburb of Warsaw, Poland Coronation On February 2, 1676 in the Wawel Cathedral, Kraków, Poland Nobel Family Sobieski Coat of Arms Janina Parents Jakub Sobieski Zofia Teofillia Daniłowicz Consorts Marie Casimire Louise Children... Battle of Vienna Conflict Great Turkish War of 1683-1697 Date September 12, 1683 Place Vienna, Austria Result Decisive Christian victory The Battle of Vienna in 1683 (as distinct from the Siege of Vienna in 1529), marked the final turning point in a 250-year struggle between the forces of... Motto: none Voivodship Lesser Poland Municipal government Rada miasta Kraków Mayor Jacek Majchrowski Area 326,8 km² Population  - city  - urban  - density 757,500 (2004 est. ... The Ottoman Empire at the height of its power Imperial motto El Muzaffer Daima The Ever Victorious (as written in tugra) Official language Ottoman Turkish Capital İstanbul (Constantinople/Asitane/Konstantiniyye ) Sovereigns Sultans of the Osmanli Dynasty Population ca 40 million Area 6. ... Events June 6 - The Ashmolean Museum opens as the worlds first university museum. ... Battle of Vienna Conflict Great Turkish War of 1683-1697 Date September 12, 1683 Place Vienna, Austria Result Decisive Christian victory The Battle of Vienna in 1683 (as distinct from the Siege of Vienna in 1529), marked the final turning point in a 250-year struggle between the forces of... The term Christian means belonging to Christ and is derived from the Greek noun Χριστός Khristós which means anointed one, which is itself a translation of the Hebrew word Moshiach (Hebrew: משיח, also written Messiah), (and in Arabic it is pronounced Maseeh مسيح). ... World map showing location of Europe A satellite composite image of Europe Europe is geologically and geographically a peninsula, forming the westernmost part of Eurasia. ... Islam ( Arabic al-islām الإسلام,  listen?) the submission to God is a monotheistic faith and the worlds second-largest religion. ... The Great Turkish War (1667-1683} was a group of conflicts between the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire. ...

to be expanded

Augustus II the Strong (Wettin) (King 1697–1706, 1709–1733)

Augustus II the Strong, also known as Frederick Augustus I, Prince-Elector of Saxony, was an over-ambitious ruler. Augustus hoped to make the Polish throne hereditary within his family, and to use his resources as Elector of Saxony to impose some order on the chaotic Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. However, he was soon distracted from his internal reform projects by the possibility of external conquest. He involed the Commonwealth in the disastrous Great Northern War. His attempts of internal reforms and strenghtening the royal power came to naught, but his mistakes allowed Russian Empire to strenghten its influence over the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Reign From 1697, until 1706 and from 1709, until February 1, 1733 Elected In 1697 in Wola, today suburb of Warsaw, Poland Coronation On September 15, 1697 in the Wawel Cathedral, Kraków, Poland Royal House Wettin Parents John George III Wettin Anne Sophie Consorts  ? Children August III Sas Maurice de... Events September 20 - The Treaty of Ryswick December 2 – St Pauls Cathedral opened in London Peter the Great travels in Europe officially incognito as artilleryman Pjotr Mikhailov Use of palanquins increases in Europe Christopher Polhem starts Swedens first technical school. ... Events May 23 - Battle of Ramillies November 5 - The Dublin Gazette publishes its first edition. ... Events January 12 - Two-month freezing period begins in France - The coast of the Atlantic and Seine River freeze, crops fail and at least 24. ... Events February 12 - British colonist James Oglethorpe founds Savannah, Georgia. ... The prince-electors or electoral princes of the Holy Roman Empire — German: Kurfürst (singular) Kurfürsten (plural) — were the members of the electoral college of the Holy Roman Empire, having the function of electing the Emperors of Germany. ... With an area of 18,413 km² and a population of 4. ... Not to be confused with the Northern Wars (1655–1661) The Swedish Victory at Narva, 1700 by Gustaf Cederström, painted 1910 Battle of Poltava fragment of mosaic, by Mikhail Lomonosov, 1717 The Great Northern War was the war fought between a coalition of Russia, Denmark-Norway and Saxony-Poland (from... Imperial Russia is the term used to cover the period of Russian history from the expansion of Russia under Peter the Great, through the expansion of the Russian Empire from the Baltic to the Pacific Ocean, to the deposal of Nicholas II of Russia, the last tsar, at the start... Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ...

Stanislaw Leszczynski (King 1706–1709, 1733–1736)

to be written Reign From 1704 until 1709 and from 1733 until 1736 Elected In 1704 and 1733 in Wola, today suburb of Warsaw, Poland Coronation On October 4, 1705 in the St. ... Events May 23 - Battle of Ramillies November 5 - The Dublin Gazette publishes its first edition. ... Events January 12 - Two-month freezing period begins in France - The coast of the Atlantic and Seine River freeze, crops fail and at least 24. ... Events February 12 - British colonist James Oglethorpe founds Savannah, Georgia. ... Events January 26 - Stanislaus I of Poland abdicates his throne. ...

August III Wettin (King 1733–1763)

Also Elector of Saxony (as Frederick Augustus II), August II, after his father's death inherited Saxony and was elected king of Poland with support of Russian and Austrian troops. August II was disinterested in the affairs of his Polish dominion, which he viewed mostly as a source of funds and resources for strenghtening his power in Saxony. During his 30 year-reign, he spent less than 3 years in Poland. He delegated most of his powers and responsibilities to count Heinrich Bruhl. 30 years of August II disinterested reign festered the political anarchy and further weakened the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, while neighbouring Prussia, Austria and Russia finalised plans for the partitions of Poland. Reign From 1734 until October 5, 1763 Elected In 1734 in Wola, today suburb of Warsaw, Poland Coronation On January 17, 1734 in the Wawel Cathedral, Kraków, Poland Royal House Wettin Parents August II Mocny ? Consorts Marie Josepha Children Frederick Christian Date of Birth October 7, 1696 Place of... Events February 12 - British colonist James Oglethorpe founds Savannah, Georgia. ... 1763 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... Poland was ruled by dukes (c. ... Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... The coat of arms of the Kingdom of Prussia, 1701-1918 The word Prussia (German: Preußen or Preussen, Polish: Prusy, Lithuanian: Prūsai, Latin: Borussia) has had various (often contradictory) meanings: The land of the Baltic Prussians (in what is now parts of southern Lithuania, the Kaliningrad exclave of Russia and... The Partitions of Poland ( Polish Rozbiór or Rozbiory Polski) happened in the 18th century and ended the existence of a sovereign state of Poland (or more correctly the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth). ...

The Three Partitions, (1764-1795)

During the reign of Empress Catherine the Great (1762-1796), Russia intensified its manipulation in Polish affairs. The Kingdom of Prussia and Austria, the other powers surrounding the republic, also took advantage of internal religious and political bickering to divide up the country in three partition stages. After two partitions, the third one in 1795 eventually wiped Poland-Lithuania from the map of Europe. The Partitions of Poland ( Polish Rozbiór or Rozbiory Polski) happened in the 18th century and ended the existence of a sovereign state of Poland (or more correctly the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth). ... 1764 was a leap year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... 1795 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... Catherine II (Екатерина II Алексеевна: Yekaterína II Alekséyevna, April 21, 1729 - November 6, 1796), born Sophie Augusta Fredericka, known as Catherine the Great, reigned as empress of Russia from June 28, 1762, to her death on November 6, 1796. ... 1762 was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... 1796 was a leap year starting on Friday. ... The Kingdom of Prussia existed from 1701 until 1918, and from 1871 was the leading kingdom of the German Empire, comprising in its last form almost two-thirds of the area of the Empire. ... 1795 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ...

Stanislaw August Poniatowski (King 1764–1795)

For other persons named Stanisław Poniatowski, see Stanisław Poniatowski. ... 1764 was a leap year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... 1795 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ...

First Partition

Election of Stanisław August Poniatowski, painted by Bernardo Bellotto.

In 1764 Catherine dictated the election of her former favorite, Stanislaw August Poniatowski, as king of Poland-Lithuania. Confounding expectations that he would be an obedient servant of his mistress, Stanislaw August encouraged the modernization of his realm's ramshackle political system and achieved a temporary moratorium on use of the individual veto in the Sejm (1764-1766). This turnabout threatened to renew the strength of the monarchy and brought displeasure in the foreign capitals that preferred an inert, pliable Poland. Catherine, being among the most displeased by Poniatowski's independence, encouraged religious dissension in Poland-Lithuania's substantial Eastern Orthodox population, which earlier in the eighteenth century had lost the rights enjoyed during the Jagiellon Dynasty. Under heavy Russian pressure, the Sejm restored Orthodox equality in 1767. This action provoked a Catholic uprising by the Confederation of Bar, a league of Polish nobles that fought until 1772 to revoke Catherine's mandate. This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Capriccio of the Capital Bernado Bellotto (1720/21 - 1780) was a painter. ... 1764 was a leap year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... For other persons named Stanisław Poniatowski, see Stanisław Poniatowski. ... 1764 was a leap year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... 1766 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... The Jagiellons were a royal dynasty which reigned in some Central European countries between the 14th and 16th century. ... 1767 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... The Confederation of Bar (1768–1776), a grouping of Polish szlachta, formed at the fortress of Bar in Podolia in 1768 to defend the internal and external independence of Poland against the aggressions of the Russian government as represented by her representative at Warsaw, Prince Nikolai Repnin. ... 1772 was a leap year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ...

The defeat of the Confederation of Bar again left Poland exposed to the ambitions of its neighbors. Although Catherine initially opposed partition, Frederick the Great of Prussia profited from Austria's threatening military position to the southwest by pressing a long-standing proposal to carve territory from the commonwealth. Catherine, persuaded that Russia did not have the resources to continue its unilateral domination of Poland, agreed. In 1772 Russia, Prussia, and Austria forced terms of partition upon the helpless commonwealth under the pretext of restoring order in the anarchic conditions of the country. Frederick the Great Frederick II of Prussia (Friedrich der Große, Frederick the Great, January 24, 1712 – August 17, 1786) was the Hohenzollern king of Prussia 1740–86. ... 1772 was a leap year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ...

National Revival

The first partition in 1772 did not directly threaten the stability of Poland-Lithuania. Poland still retained extensive territory that included the Polish heartlands. In fact, the shock of the annexations made clear the dangers of decay in government institutions, creating a body of opinion favorable to reform along the lines of the European Enlightenment. King Stanislaw August supported the progressive elements in the government and promoted the ideas of foreign political figures such as Edmund Burke and George Washington. At the same time, Polish intellectuals discussed Enlightenment philosophers such as Montesquieu and Rousseau. During this period, the concept of democratic institutions for all classes was accepted in Polish society. Education reform included establishment of the first ministry of education in Europe. Taxation and the army underwent thorough reform, and government again was centralized in the Permanent Council. Landholders emancipated large numbers of peasants, although there was no official government decree. Polish cities, in decline for many decades, were revived by the influence of the Industrial Revolution, especially in mining and textiles. 1772 was a leap year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... The Age of Enlightenment (or The Enlightenment for short) was an intellectual movement in 18th-century Europe. ... Edmund Burke Edmund Burke (January 12, 1729 – July 9, 1797) was an Anglo-Irish statesman, author, and philosopher, who served for many years in the British House of Commons as a member of the Whig Party. ... Order: 1st President Vice President: John Adams Term of office: April 30, 1789 – March 3, 1797 Preceded by: None Succeeded by: John Adams Date of birth: February 22, 1732 Place of birth: Westmoreland, Virginia Date of death: December 14, 1799 Place of death: Mount Vernon, Virginia First Lady: Martha Washington... Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu - Wikipedia /**/ @import /skins/monobook/IE50Fixes. ... Jean-Jacques Rousseau Jean Jacques Rousseau (June 28, 1712 - July 2, 1778) was a Swiss-French philosopher, writer, political theorist, and self-taught composer of The Age of Enlightenment Biography of Rousseau The tomb of Rousseau in the crypt of the Panthéon, Paris Rousseau was born in Geneva, Switzerland... The Industrial Revolution is the name given to the massive social, economic and technological change in 18th century and 19th century Great Britain. ...

Stanislaw August's process of renovation reached its climax on May 3, 1791, when, after three years of intense debate, the "Four Years' Sejm" produced Europe's first modern codified constitution. Conceived in the liberal spirit of the contemporaneous document in the United States, the constitution recast Poland-Lithuania as a hereditary monarchy and abolished many of the eccentricities and antiquated features of the old system. The new constitution abolished the individual veto in parliament; provided a separation of powers among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government; and established "people's sovereignty" (for the noble and bourgeois classes). Although never fully implemented, the Constitution of May 3 gained an honored position in the Polish political heritage; tradition marks the anniversary of its passage as the country's most important civic holiday. May 3 is the 123rd day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (124th in leap years). ... 1791 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... Sejm Czteroletni (Four-Year Sejm, also known as Sejm Wielki, the Great Sejm) was a Sejm of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth held in Warsaw, inaugurated in 1788. ... May 3rd Constitution (painting by Jan Matejko, 1891). ...

Destruction of Poland-Lithuania

"Rejtan - The Fall of Poland", oil on canvas, 1866, 282 x 487 cm, Royal Castle in Warsaw. In September 1773 Rejtan tried to prevent the legalization of the first partition of Poland. The dramatic events in the Polish Sejm are depicted on the painting

Passage of the constitution alarmed nobles who would lose considerable stature under the new order. In autocratic states such as Russia, the democratic ideals of the constitution also threatened the existing order, and the prospect of Polish recovery threatened to end domination of Polish affairs by its neighbors. In 1792 domestic and foreign reactionaries combined to end the democratization process. Polish conservative factions formed the Confederation of Targowica and appealed for Russian assistance in restoring the status quo. Catherine gladly used this opportunity; enlisting Prussian support, she invaded Poland under the pretext of defending Poland's ancient liberties. The irresolute Stanislaw August capitulated, defecting to the Targowica faction. Arguing that Poland had fallen prey to the radical Jacobinism then at high tide in France, Russia and Prussia abrogated the Constitution of May 3, carried out a second partition of Poland in 1793, and placed the remainder of the country under occupation by Russian troops. Rejtan - The Fall of Poland painted by Jan Matejko This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Rejtan - The Fall of Poland painted by Jan Matejko This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Tadeusz Rejtan (also in the Old Polish spelling: Tadeusz Reytan) (1742-1780) was a Polish nobleman, a member of confederation of Bar, Member of Sejm for the Nowogród constituency. ... Categories: Stub | Buildings in Poland | Castles in Poland | Warsaw ... 1773 was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... The Partitions of Poland (Polish Rozbiór or Rozbiory Polski) happened in the 18th century and ended the existence of a sovereign state of Poland (or more correctly the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth). ... This article is about the lower chamber of Polish parliament. ... 1792 was a leap year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... Categories: Stub | Polish confederations ... This conflict took place in 1792 between Poland and her ally the Kingdom of Prussia, on one side, and the Russian Empire on the other. ... In the context of the French Revolution, a Jacobin originally meant a member of the Jacobin Club (1789-1794). ... The Partitions of Poland (Polish Rozbiór or Rozbiory Polski) happened in the 18th century and ended the existence of a sovereign state of Poland (or more correctly the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth). ... 1793 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ...

The second partition was far more injurious than the first. Russia received a vast area of eastern Poland, extending southward from its gains in the first partition nearly to the Black Sea. To the west, Prussia received an area known as South Prussia, nearly twice the size of its first-partition gains along the Baltic, as well as the port of Gdańsk. Thus, Poland's neighbors reduced the commonwealth to a rump state and plainly signaled their designs to abolish it altogether at their convenience. Satellite view of the Black Sea, taken by NASA MODIS Cities of the Black Sea The Black Sea (known as the Euxine Sea in the antiquity) is an inland sea between southeastern Europe and Asia Minor. ...

"Battle of Racławice", oil on canvas, 1888, National Museum in Kraków. 4th April 1794, Kosciuszko Uprising

In a gesture of defiance, a general Polish revolt broke out in 1794 under the leadership of Tadeusz Kosciuszko (Kosciuszko Uprising), a military officer who had rendered notable service in the American Revolution. Kosciuszko's ragtag insurgent armies won some initial successes, but they eventually fell before the superior forces of Russian General Alexander Suvorov. In the wake of the insurrection of 1794, Russia, Prussia, and Austria carried out the third and final partition of Poland-Lithuania in 1795, erasing the Commonwealth of Two Nations from the map and pledging never to let it return. Battle of Raclawice by Jan Matejko This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Battle of Raclawice by Jan Matejko This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Battle of Racławice Conflict Kościuszko Uprising Date April 4, 1794 Place Racławice, Lesser Poland Result Polish victory The Battle of Racławice was one of the first battles of the Polish Kościuszko Uprising against Russia. ... Motto: none Voivodship Lesser Poland Municipal government Rada miasta Kraków Mayor Jacek Majchrowski Area 326,8 km² Population  - city  - urban  - density 757,500 (2004 est. ... April 4 is the 94th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (95th in leap years). ... 1794 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... The Kościuszko Uprising took place in Poland in 1794. ... 1794 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... The title given to this article is incorrect due to technical limitations. ... The Kościuszko Uprising took place in Poland in 1794. ... Before the Revolution: The 13 colonies are in red, the pink area was claimed by Great Britain after the French and Indian War, and the orange region was claimed by Spain. ... Monument to Suvorov as youthful Mars, the Roman god of war (Italy (November 24, 1729 - May 18, 1800), was a Russian Generalissimo, reckoned one of a few great generals in history who never lost a battle. ... 1794 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... 1795 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ...

Much of Europe condemned the dismemberment as an international crime without historical parallel. Amid the distractions of the French Revolution and its attendant wars, however, no state actively opposed the annexations. In the long term, the dissolution of Poland-Lithuania upset the traditional European balance of power, dramatically magnifying the influence of Russia and paving the way for the Germany that would emerge in the nineteenth century with Prussia at its core. For the Poles, the third partition began a period of continuous foreign rule that would endure well over a century. The period of the French Revolution in the history of France covers the years between 1789 and 1799, in which democrats and republicans overthrew the absolute monarchy and the Roman Catholic Church was forced to undergo radical restructuring. ...

See also

• Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
• List of Polish rulers
• List of szlachta

Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Poland was ruled by dukes (c. ... The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (or The Republic of the Two Nations, Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów in Polish; Belarusian: Рэч Паспалі́тая) was a federal monarchy-republic formed by the Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania, between 1569 and 1795. ...

Reference

• This article incorporates public domain text from the Library of Congress Country Studies. - Poland (http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/pltoc.html).