The Kingdom of Sicily (in green) in 1154, representing the extent of Norman conquest in Italy.

The Norman conquest of southern Italy took place over a period of several decades spanning most of the eleventh century. Immigrant Norman brigands acclimatised themselves to the Mezzogiorno as mercenaries in the service of various Lombard and Byzantine factions. Eventually establishing fiefdoms and states of their own, they succeeded in unifying themselves and raising their status to one of de facto independence within fifty years of their arrival, which can be definitely dated to no later than 1017. The eventual extent of their conquests comprised the Kingdom of Sicily and included not only the island of Sicily, but also the entire southern third of the Italian peninsula (save Benevento, which they did briefly hold on two occasions) and the archipelago of Malta. Norman conquests in red. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... The Lombards (Latin Langobardi, whence comes the alternative name Longobards found in older English texts), were a Germanic people originally from Northern Europe that entered the late Roman Empire. ... Byzantine Empire at its greatest extent c. ... The following is a list of monarchs of Naples and Sicily: See also: List of Counts of Apulia and Calabria Hauteville Counts of Sicily, 1071-1130 Roger I 1071-1101 Simon 1101-1105 Roger II 1105-1130 Hauteville Kings of Sicily, 1130-1198 Roger II 1130-1154 William I 1154... Sicily (Sicilia in Italian and Sicilian) is an autonomous region of Italy and the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, with an area of 25,708 km² (9,926 sq. ... Benevento is a town and comune of Campania, Italy, capital of the province of Benevento, 50 km northeast of Naples. ...

Unlike the Norman conquest of England, which took place over the course of a few years after one decisive battle, the conquest of the south was the product of decades and many battles, few decisive. Many independent players were involved and conquered territories of their own, which were only later unified into one state. Compared to the conquest of England, it was unplanned and unorganised, but just as permanent. Bayeux Tapestry depicting events leading to the Battle of Hastings The Norman conquest of England was the invasion of the Kingdom of England by William the Conqueror (Duke of Normandy), in 1066 at the Battle of Hastings and the subsequent Norman control of England. ...

Arrival of the Normans

Map of Italy on the eve of the arrival of the Normans.

The earliest purported date for the arrival of Norman knights in southern Italy is 999. In that year, according to several sources, Norman pilgrims (of which there were presumably many before and after that date) returning from the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem by way of Apulia stopped at Salerno, where they were enjoying the hospitality of Prince Guaimar III when the city and its environs were attacked by Saracens from Africa demanding the late payment of an annual tribute. While Guaimar began to collect the tribute, the Normans upbraided the Lombards for their lack of bravery and immediately assaulted their besiegers. The Saracens fled, much booty was taken, and a thankful Guaimar pleaded with the Normans to stay. They refused, but promised to bring his rich gifts to their compatriots in Normandy and to tell them of the offer of reward in return for military service in Salerno. Some sources even have Guaimar sending emissaries to Normandy to bring back knights. This account of the arrival of the Normans is sometimes called the "Salerno (or Salernitan) tradition."^[1] Image File history File links Italy_1000_AD.svg‎ Political map of Italy in 1000 AD (CE). ... Image File history File links Italy_1000_AD.svg‎ Political map of Italy in 1000 AD (CE). ... The Church of the Holy Sepulchre, called Church of the Resurrection (Anastasis) by Eastern Christians, is a Christian church now within the walled Old City of Jerusalem. ... For other uses, see Jerusalem (disambiguation). ... Salerno is a town in Campania, south-western Italy, the capital of the province of the same name. ... Guaimar III (also Waimar, Gaimar, Guaimaro, or Guaimario and sometimes numbered Guaimar IV) (c. ... For the rugby club Saracens see Saracens (rugby club) The term Saracen comes from Greek sarakenoi. ...

The Salerno tradition was first recorded by Amatus of Montecassino in his Ystoire de li Normant between 1071 and 1086. Much information concerning it was borrowed from Amatus by Peter the Deacon for his continuation of the Chronicon Monasterii Casinensis of Leo of Ostia, written in the early twelfth century. Beginning with Baronius' Annales Ecclesiastici in the seventeenth century, the Salernitan story became the accepted history.^[2] Its factual accuracy was questioned periodically in the following centuries, but it has been accepted with modification by most scholars since.^[3] Amatus of Montecassino (Amatus Casinensis), a Benedictine monk at the Abbey of Montecassino is one of three Italo-Norman chroniclers, the others being William of Apulia and Goffredo Malaterra. ... Peter the Deacon (French: ) was the librarian of the abbey of Montecassino and continuator of the Chronicon Monasterii Casinensis, usually called the Montecassino Chronicle in English. ... Leo Marsicanus (meaning of the Marsi) was of noble birth and became a monk in Monte Cassino around 1061. ... Caesar Baronius (October 31, 1538— June 30, 1607), Italian cardinal and ecclesiastical historian, was born at Sora, and was educated at Veroli and Naples. ... Annales Ecclesiastici bore the full title Annales ecclesiastici a Christi nato ad annum 1198 [ecclesiastical annals from the nativity to 1198] and consisted of twelve folio volumes. ...

Another historical account concerning the arrival of the first Normans in Italy appears in primary chronicles without reference to any prior Norman presence. This story has been called the "Gargano tradition."^[4] Norman pilgrims to the shrine of Michael the Archangel at Monte Gargano met the Lombard Melus of Bari there and were convinced to join him in an attack on the Byzantine government of Apulia. This occurred in 1016. Guido Renis archangel Michael (in the Capuchin church of Sta. ... Gargano landscape. ... Melus (also Milus or Meles) (d. ...

As with the Salerno tradition, there are two primary sources for the Gargano story: the Gesta Roberti Wiscardi of William of Apulia, dated 1088–1110, and the Chronica monasterii S. Bartholomaei de Carpineto of a monk named Alexander, written about a century later and based on William's work.^[5] Some scholars have combined the Salerno and Gargano tales, Lord Norwich even suggesting that the meeting between Melus and the Normans had been arranged prior by Guaimar.^[6] Melus had been in Salerno just prior to his being at Monte Gargano. William of Apulia was a Norman chronicler, writing in the 1090s. ... John Julius Cooper, 2nd Viscount Norwich CVO (born 15 September 1929) is an English historian, travel writer and television personality known as John Julius Norwich. ...

Another story involves the voluntary exile of a group of brothers of the Drengot family. One of the brothers, Osmund according to Orderic Vitalis and Gilbert according to Amatus and Peter the Deacon, murdered one William Repostel (Repostellus) in the presence of the Duke of Normandy, usually cited as Robert I. Repostel allegedly bragged about dishonouring the daughter of his murderer and was consequently killed. Threatened with death himself, the Drengot brother fled the country with his siblings to Rome, where one of the brothers had an audience with the Pope, before moving on to join Melus of Bari. Amatus dates the story to after 1027 and does not involve a pope. According to him, Gilbert's brothers were Osmund, Ranulf, Asclettin, and Ludolf (Rudolf according to Peter). Osmond Drengot (c. ... Orderic Vitalis (1075 – c. ... Gilbert Buatère (c. ... Bold textInsert non-formatted text here This statue of Rollo the Viking (founder of the fiefdom of Normandy) stands in Falaise, Calvados, birthplace of his descendant William I the Conqueror (the Duke of Normandy who became King of England). ... Robert I, called The Magnificent (French, le Magnifique) for his love of finery, and also called The Devil was the son of Duke Richard II of Normandy and Judith, daughter of Conan I, Duke of Brittany. ... Nickname: Motto: SPQR: Senatus Populusque Romanus Location of the city of Rome (yellow) within the Province of Rome (red) and region of Lazio (grey) Coordinates: Region Lazio Province Province of Rome Founded 21 April 753 BC Government  - Mayor Walter Veltroni Area  - City 1,285 km²  (580 sq mi)  - Urban 5... The Pope, (or Pope of Rome) (from Latin: papa, Papa, father; from Greek: papas / = priest originating from πατήρ = father )[1], is the Bishop of Rome, the spiritual leader of the Roman Catholic Church and the absolute monarch of Vatican City. ... Rainulf Drengot (also Ranulph, Ranulf, or Rannulf) was a Norman adventurer and the first count of Aversa (1030–1045). ... Asclettin was the first count of Acerenza, one of the twelve leaders of the Norman mercenaries of Guaimar IV of Salerno who conquered much of Apulia between 1038 and 1042. ... Rudolph Drengot[1] was one of the Drengot family of Norman adventureres who came to Southern Italy with his brothers, Gilbert, Asclettin, Osmond, and Ranulf. ...

The murder of Repostel is dated by all the chronicles to the reign of Robert I and thus after 1027, though som scholars believe Robert to be a scribal error for Richard, indicating Richard II of Normandy, who was duke in 1017.^[7] The earlier date is necessary if the emigration of the first Normans is to have any connection with the Drengots and the murder of William Repostel. In the Histories of Ralph Glaber, one "Rodulfus" leaves Normandy after displeasing Count Richard (ie Richard II).^[8] Sources diverge as to just who among the brothers was leader on the trip to the south. Orderic and William of Jumièges in his Gesta Normannorum Ducum name Osmund. Glaber names Rudolph. Leo, Amatus, and Adhemar of Chabannes name Gilbert. According to most south Italian sources, the leader of the Norman contingent at the Battle of Cannae in 1018 was Gilbert.^[9] If Rudolf is identified with the Rudolf of Amatus' history as a Drengot brother, then perhaps Rudolf was the leader at Cannae.^[10] Known as Richard The Good, (French, Le Bon). He was the son and heir of Richard I the Fearless and the Duchess Gunnor. ... Rodulfus Glaber or Ralph Glaber (985–1047) was a monk and chronicler of the years around 1000 and is one of the chief sources for the history of France in that period. ... William of Jumièges was a contemporary of the events of 1066, and one of our earliest writers on the subject of the Norman Conquest. ... Gesta Normannorum Ducum (Deeds of the Norman Dukes) is a written work originally created by the monk William of Jumièges just before 1060. ... Ad mar de Chabannes (989 - 1034) was an 11th-century monk, a historian, who wrote the first annals that had been compiled in Aquitaine since late antiquity, as well as a musical composer and a successful literary forger. ... The Second Battle of Cannae took place in 1018 between the Byzantines under the catepan of Italy Basil Boiannes and the Lombards under Melus of Bari. ...

In yet another, modern, hypothesis concerning the Norman advent in the Mezzogiorno concerns the chronicles of Glaber, Adhemar, and Leo (not Peter's continuation). All three chronicles indicate that Normans (either forty or a multitude circa 250), under "Rodulfus" (Rudolf), fleeing the rage of Richard II, came to Pope Benedict VIII of Rome, who sent them on to Salerno or Capua to seek employment of their military capacities against the Greeks, at whom Benedict was then angered for their invasion of Beneventan territory (then under papal suzerainty).^[11] There they met the Beneventan primates (leading men): Landulf V of Benevento, Pandulf IV of Capua, possibly the aforementiond Guaimar III of Salerno, and Melus of Bari. On the basis of Leo's chronicle, Rudolf is supposed to have been the same person as Ralph of Tosni.^[12] Benedict VIII, né Theophylactus (born in Rome, died April 9, 1024), pope (1012-1024), of the noble family of the counts of Tusculum (son of Gregory, Count of Tusculum, and Maria, and brother of John XIX), descended from Theophylact, Count of Tusculum like his predecessor Benedict VI, was opposed by... Salerno is a town in Campania, south-western Italy, the capital of the province of the same name. ... Capua is a city in the province of Caserta, (Campania, Italy) situated 25 km (16 mi) north of Napoli, on the northeastern edge of the Campanian plain. ... Pandulf IV (also spelled Randulf, Bandulf, Pandulph, Pandolf, Paldolf, or Pandolfo) was the prince of Capua on three separate occasions. ...

If the first confirmed Norman military actions in the south involved mercenaries in the employ of Melus in battle against the Greeks in May 1017, then the Normans probably left Normandy between January and April.^[13]

Lombard revolt, 1017–1022

The imprisonment of Pandulf of Capua following the campaign of the Emperor Henry II in 1022.

On 9 May 1009, an insurrection erupted in Bari against the Catapanate of Italy, the regional Byzantine authority which was based at Bari. Led by one Melus, a local Lombard of high standing, it quickly spread to other cities. Late that year or early the next (1010), the catapan, John Curcuas, was killed in battle. In March 1010, his successor, Basil Mesardonites, disembarked with reinforcements and immediately besieged the rebels in the city. The Greek citizens of the city negotiated with Basil and forced the Lombard leaders, Melus and his brother-in-law Dattus, to flee. Basil entered the city on 11 June 1011 and reestablished Byzantine authority. He did not follow his victory up with any severe reactions. He simply sent the family of Melus, including his son Argyrus, to Constantinople. Basil died in 1016 after years of peace in southern Italy. May 9 is the 129th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (130th in leap years). ... Events February 14: First known mention of Lithuania, in the annals of the monastery of Quedlinburg. ... Location within Italy Bari is the capital of the province of Bari and of the Apulia (or Puglia) region, on the Adriatic sea, in Italy. ... In 890 the Byzantines defeated the Saracens in southern Italy. ... Melus (also Milus or Meles) (d. ... June 11 is the 162nd day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (163rd in leap years), with 203 days remaining. ... Events Emperor Sanjo ascends to the throne of Japan. ... Argyrus was son the Lombard hero Milus. ... Map of Constantinople. ...

Leo Tornikios Kontoleon arrived as Basil's successor in May that year. On Basil's death, Melus had revolted again, but this time he employed a newly-arrived a band of Normans, which had either been sent him by Pope Benedict or which he had met, with or withour Guaimar's assistance, at Monte Gargano. Leo sent Leo Passianos with an army against the Lombard-Norman assemblage. Passianos and Melus met on the Fortore at Arenula. The battle was either indecisive (William of Apulia) or a victory for Melus (Leo of Ostia). Tornikios then took command himself and led them into a second encounter near Civita. This second battle was a victory for Melus, though Lupus Protospatharius and the anonymous chronicler of Baro record a defeat. A third battle, a decisive victory for Melus, occurred at Vaccaricia. The entire region from the Fortore to Trani had fallen to Melus and in September, Tornikios was relieved of his duties in favour of Basil Boiannes, who arrived in December. Civita is a Norwegian conservative think-tank. ... Trani is a seaport of Apulia, southern Italy, on the Adriatic Sea, in the province of Bari, and 40 km by railway west northwest of that town. ... Basil III, called Boiannes in Greek and Bugiano in Italian, was the Byzantine catepan of Italy (1018-1028) and one of the greatest Byzantine generals of his time. ...

At Boiannes' request, a detachment of the elite Varangian Guard was sent to Italy to combat the Normans. The two forces met on the river Ofanto near Cannae, the site of Hannibal's victory over the Romans in 216 BC. The result was a decisive Greek victory. Boioannes protected his gains by immediately building a great fortress at the Apennine pass guarding the entrance to the Apulian plain. In 1019, Troia, as it was called, was garrisoned by Boioannes' own contingent of Norman troops, a sign of the true mercenary tendencies of the Normans. The Varangians or Variags were Vikings who travelled eastwards from Sweden and Norway. ... The Ofanto is a river in southern Italy. ... Cannae (mod. ... Hannibal, the son of Hamilcar Barca, (247 BC – ca. ... Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 260s BC 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC - 210s BC - 200s BC 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC Years: 221 BC 220 BC 219 BC 218 BC 217 BC - 216 BC - 215 BC 214 BC... This is about the terrestrial mountain range. ... Troia (Greek: , transliterated as Aika or Aikai or Ece; Latin: Aecae or Æcæ; also formerly Troja) is a town and commune in the province of Foggia, Puglia (southern Italy). ...

Frightened by the shift in momentum in the south, Pope Benedict, who, as noted above, may have given the initially impetus to Norman involvement in the war, went north in 1020 to Bamberg to confer with the Holy Roman Emperor, then Henry II. The Emperor took no immediate action, but events of the next year convinced him to intervene. Boioannes had allied with Pandulf of Capua and marched on Dattus, who was then garrisoning a tower in territory of the Duchy of Gaeta with papal troops. He was captured, and, on 15 June 1021, was tied up in a sack with a monkey, a rooster, and a snake and thrown into the sea. In 1022, a large imperial army marched south to attack Troia. While Troia did not fall, all the Lombard princes were brought over to the Holy Roman side and Pandulf was carted off to a German prison. The period of the Lombard revolt, however, was closed. Bamberg is a town in Bavaria, Germany. ... The Holy Roman Emperor was, with some variation, the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, the predecessor of modern Germany, during its existence from the 10th century until its collapse in 1806. ... Henry II with his wife Cunigunde of Luxemburg Saint Henry II (972 – 13 July 1024), called the Holy or the Saint, was the fifth and last Holy Roman Emperor of the Saxon or Ottonian dynasty. ... Gaeta (ancient Latin name Caieta) is a city in Province of Latina, in Lazio, Italy. ... June 15 is the 166th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (167th in leap years), with 199 days remaining. ... // Events Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, sixth Fatimid Caliph of Egypt disappears on a trip to al-Muqattam hills. ...

Mercenary service, 1022–1046

In 1024, Norman mercenaries (perhaps under Ranulf Drengot) were in the pay of Guaimar III when he and Pandulf IV besieged Pandulf V in Capua. In 1026, after and 18-month siege, Capua surrendered and Pandulf IV was reinstated. In the following years, Ranulf would attach himself to Pandulf, but in 1029, he abandoned the prince and joined Sergius IV of Naples, whom Pandulf had expelled from Naples in 1027, probably with Ranulf's assistance. Sergius IV (d. ... “Napoli” redirects here. ...

In 1029, Ranulf and Sergius recaptured Naples. Early in 1030, Sergius gave Rainulf the County of Aversa as a fief, the first Norman principality in the region. Sergius also gave his sister in marriage to the new count. In 1034, however, Sergius' sister died and Ranulf returned to Pandulf. According to Amatus:

For the Normans never desired any of the Lombards to win a decisive victory, in case this should be to their disadvantage. But now supporting the one and then aiding the other, they prevented anyone being completely ruined.

Norman reinforcements and local miscreants, who found a welcome in Ranulf's encampment with no questions asked, swelled the numbers at Ranulf's command. There, Norman language and Norman customs welded a disparate group into the semblance of a nation, as Amatus also observed. Old Norman was one of many langue doïl dialects. ...

In 1037, the Normans were further entrenched when the Emperor Conrad II deposed Pandulf and recognised Ranulf as "Count of Aversa" holding directly from the emperor. In 1038, Ranulf invaded Capua and expanded his polity into one of the largest in southern Italy. Conrad II (circa 990 - June 4, 1039) was the son of count Henry of Speyer. ...

Between 1038 and 1040, another band of Normans were sent along with a Lombard contingent by Guaimar IV of Salerno to fight in Sicily for the Byzantines against the Saracens. The first members of the Hauteville family won renown in Sicily fighting under George Maniaches. William of Hauteville won his nickname "Iron Arm" at the siege of Syracuse. Guaimar IV (also Waimar, Gaimar, Guaimaro, or Guaimario) (c. ... The family of the Hauteville (French: Maison de Hauteville, Italian: Casa dAltavilla) was a petty baronial Norman family from the Cotentin which rose to prominence in Europe, Asia, and Africa through its conquests in the Mediterranean, especially Southern Italy and Sicily. ... Door of the Abbey of S. Maria di Maniace. ... William, called Iron Arm; also called Guillaume Bras-de-fer in French and Guglielmo Braccio-di-ferro in Italian; was a Norman adventurer, the eldest of 12 sons of Tancred of Hauteville, who, along with his two younger brothers Drogo and Humphrey, journeyed to the Mezzogiorno in the first half... Clinton Square in Downtown Syracuse Syracuse is an American city in Central New York. ...

After the assassination of the Catapan Nicephorus Doukeianos, the Normans planned to elect a leader from amongst their own, but were instead bribed by Atenulf, Prince of Benevento, to elect him their leader. On 3 September 1041, the Normans, nominally under the Lombard leadership of Arduin and Atenulf, defeated the new Byzantine catepan, Exaugustus Boioannes and took him captive. The catapan was taken captive to Benevento, significant of the remaining Lombard influence over the conquests. Also about that time, Guaimar IV of Salerno began to draw the Normans under his banner with various promises. In February 1042, probably feeling abandoned, and perhaps bribed by the Greeks, Atenulf negotiated the ransom of Exaugustus and then fled with the ransom money to Greek territory. He was replaced by Argyrus, who won some early victories but then too was bribed to defect to the Greeks. September 3 is the 246th day of the year (247th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Events December 10 - Empress Zoe of Byzantium elevates her adoptive son to the throne of the Eastern Roman Empire as Michael V. Revolt at Worcester against the naval taxes of Harthacanute. ... Benevento is a town and comune of Campania, Italy, capital of the province of Benevento, 50 km northeast of Naples. ... Argyrus was son the Lombard hero Milus. ...

In September 1042, the Normans finally elected a leader from among their own. The revolt, originally Lombard, had become Norman in character and leadership. William Iron Arm was elected with the title of "count." He and the other leaders petitioned Guaimar for recognition of their conquests. They received the lands around Melfi as a fief and proclaimed Guaimar "Duke of Apulia and Calabria." At Melfi in 1043, Guaimar divided the region (except for Melfi itself, which was to be ruled on a republican model) into twelve baronies for the benefit of the Norman leaders: William himself received Ascoli, Asclettin received Acerenza, Tristan received Montepeloso, Hugh Tubœuf received Monopoli, Peter received Trani, Drogo of Hauteville received Venosa, and Ranulf Drengot, now independent, received Monte Gargano. William in turn was married to Guida, daughter of Guy, Duke of Sorrento, and niece of Guaimar. The alliance between the Normans and Guaimar was strong. Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ... List of Counts of Apulia and Calabria in Southern Italy from the 11th century to the 12th century: Counts 1043-1059, Dukes 1059-1127 William I Iron Arm 1042-1046 Drogo 1046-1051 Humphrey 1051-1057 Robert Guiscard 1057-1085 Roger 1085-1111 William II 1111-1127 Categories: Lists of... Ascoli Piceno is a town in the Marche region, Italy, capital to the same_named province. ... Asclettin was the first count of Acerenza, one of the twelve leaders of the Norman mercenaries of Guaimar IV of Salerno who conquered much of Apulia between 1038 and 1042. ... Acerenza is a town and comune in the province of Potenza, in the Southern Italian region of Basilicata. ... Tristan (before 1020) was the first lord of Montepeloso from 1042. ... Hugh TubÅ“uf or Tudebusis (French: , Italian: ) was a Norman adventurer who went to Southern Italy around 1030 in search of glory and riches. ... Monopoli is a town in Italy, in the province of Bari, region of Apulia. ... Peter (born before 1020) was the first Norman lord of Trani, a town on the Adriatic near Barletta. ... Trani is a seaport of Apulia, southern Italy, on the Adriatic Sea, in the province of Bari, and 40 km by railway west northwest of that town. ... Drogo of Hauteville, called Drogon de Hauteville in French and Drogone DAltavilla in Italian, succeeded his brother, with whom he arrived in southern Italy c. ... Venosa is a town in the Potenza in the Basilicata region in southern Italy, with a population of around 12,500. ... Gargano landscape. ...

During his reign, William and Guaimar began the conquest of Calabria in 1044 and built the great castle of Stridula, probably near Squillace. William was less successful in Apulia, where, in 1045, he was defeated near Taranto by Argyrus, though his brother, Drogo, conquered Bovino. With William's death, however, the period of Norman mercenary service would come completely to and end and witness the rise of two great Norman principalities, both owing nominal allegiance to the Holy Roman Empire: the County of Aversa, later the Principality of Capua, and the County of Apulia, later the Duchy of Apulia. View in Calabria. ... Coat of arms of Comune di Squillace Squillace (Latin: Scyllaceum or Scalacium) is an ancient seaside town in the southern Italian region of Calabria facing the Golfo di Squillace. ... Taranto is a coastal city in Apulia, southern Italy. ... 80. ... The Principality of Capua was a Lombard state in Southern Italy, usually de facto independent, but under the varying suzerainty of Western and Eastern Roman Empires. ... This is a list of Counts and Dukes of Apulia and Calabria in Southern Italy from the 11th century to the 12th century. ...

County of Melfi, 1046–1059

Conquest of Sicily, 1061–1091

Greek war, 1059–1085

See also

• History of Islam in southern Italy

The Islamic conquest and domination of Sicily (as well as parts of southern Italy) is a process whose origin must be traced back in the general expansion of Islam from the 7th century onwards (see Muslim conquests for more details). ...

Notes

Sources

• Joranson, Einar. "The Inception of the Career of the Normans in Italy — Legend and History." Speculum, Vol. 23, No. 3. (Jul., 1948), pp 353-396.
• Chalandon, Ferdinand. Histoire de la domination normande en Italie et en Sicilie. Paris: 1907.
• Norwich, John Julius. The Normans in the South 1016-1130. London: Longman, 1967.
• Gay, Jules. L'Italie méridionale et l'empire Byzantin: Livre II. Burt Franklin: New York, 1904.
• Gravett, Christopher, and Nicolle, David. The Normans: Warrior Knights and their Castles. Osprey Publishing: Oxford, 2006.
• Gwatkin, H. M., Whitney, J. P. (ed) et al. The Cambridge Medieval History: Volume III. Cambridge University Press, 1926.
• Houben, Hubert (translated by Graham A. Loud and Diane Milburn). Roger II of Sicily: Ruler between East and West. Cambridge University Press, 2002.
• Norwich, John Julius. The Kingdom in the Sun 1130-1194. London: Longman, 1970.
• Matthew, Donald. The Norman Kingdom of Sicily. Cambridge University Press, 1992.