Artist's rendition of the Norwegian constitutional assembly in 1814

1814 was a pivotal year in Norwegian history. It started with Norway as a part of the Danish kingdom subject to a naval blockade, saw a constitutional convention in May that was frustrated only months later, and ended up with Norway as part of a personal union with Sweden. Although nationalist aspirations were not to be fully realized until the events of 1905, 1814 was the crisis and turning point in events that would lead to a fully independent Norway. Image File history File linksMetadata No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File linksMetadata No higher resolution available. ... Year 1814 (MDCCCXIV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar). ... // [edit] Etymology Modern etymologists believe the countrys name means the northward route (the way north), which in Old Norse would be nor veg or *norð vegr. ... A blockade is an effort usually (but not always, see below) at sea, to prevent supplies from reaching the enemy. ... It has been suggested that Dynastic union be merged into this article or section. ... Postcard with photo of Prince Carl of Denmark, candidate for king. ... For other uses, see 1905 (disambiguation). ...

The year contains the story of two ambitious future kings in Scandinavia who both may have hoped to unite Sweden, Denmark, and Norway under their throne. The Norwegian people and their leaders were caught in the middle of this rivalry, attempting through the crisis to create a measure of self-determination.

To save Denmark, Frederick VI gives up Norway

Frederick VI of Denmark, last king of Denmark-Norway.

Denmark-Norway had become entangled on the French side in the Napoleonic War through its participation in the Gunboat War. Having lost its fleet, it was virtually defenseless as the tides turned against France. Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... The Kingdom of Denmark-Norway, consisting of Denmark and Norway, including Norways possessions Iceland, Greenland and the Faroe Islands, is a term used for the two united kingdoms after their amalgamation as one state in 1536. ... The Napoleonic Wars lasted from 1804 until 1815. ... Battle between the frigate HMS Tartar and Norwegian gunboats near Bergen in 1808 The Gunboat War (1807-1814) was the naval conflict between Denmark-Norway against the British navy during the Napoleonic Wars. ...

On January 7, about to be overrun by Swedish, Russian, and German troops under the command of the elected crown prince of Sweden, Jean Baptiste Jules (Carl Johan) Bernadotte, king Frederick VI of Denmark agreed to cede Norway to the king of Sweden in order to avoid an occupation of Jutland. These terms were formalized and signed at the Treaty of Kiel on January 14, in which Denmark negotiated to maintain sovereignty over the Norwegian possessions Greenland, the Faroe Islands, and Iceland. Secret correspondence from the British government in the preceding days had put pressure on the negotiating parties to reach an agreement to avoid a full-scale invasion of Denmark. Bernadotte sent a letter to the governments of Prussia, Austria, and the United Kingdom thanking them for their support, acknowledging the role of Russia in negotiating the peace, and envisaging greater stability in the Nordic region. is the 7th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... King Charles XIV of Sweden, Charles III of Norway, or domestically Karl XIV Johan and Carl III Johan respectively, Jean Baptiste Jules Bernadotte (January 26, 1763 – March 8, 1844) was born at Pau, France, the son of Henri Bernadotte (1711–1780), procurator at Pau, and Jeanne St. ... King Frederick VI of Denmark and Norway (January 28, 1768 – December 3, 1839), reigned as King of Denmark from 1808 to 1839, and as king of Norway from 1808 to 1814. ... Jutland Peninsula Jutland (Danish: Jylland; German: Jütland; Frisian Jutlân; Low German Jötlann) is the western, continental part of Denmark as well as one of the three historical Lands of Denmark, dividing the North Sea from the Kattegat and the Baltic Sea. ... The Treaty of Kiel, was a settlement between Sweden and Denmark-Norway on January 14, 1814, whereby the Danish king, a loser in the Napoleonic wars, ceded Norway to the king of Sweden, in return for the Swedish holdings in Pomerania. ... is the 14th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... For other uses, see Prussia (disambiguation). ...

On January 18, the Danish king issued a letter to the Norwegian people, releasing them from their fealty to him. is the 18th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ...

The Danish hereditary prince has other plans

Christian Frederik, hereditary prince of Denmark and Norway. King of Norway May-October 1814. King of Denmark (Christian VIII) 1839-48

Already in Norway, the viceroy of Norway, Hereditary Prince Christian Frederik was aware of the growing dissatisfaction with the Danish union. Several influential Norwegians favoured a union with Sweden, while others hoped for independence. When it was rumoured that the king contemplated to cede parts of Norway in order to avoid an invasion of Denmark, Christian Frederik resolved to preserve the integrity of the country, and if possible the union with Denmark, by taking the lead in a Norwegian insurrection. The king was informed of these plans in a secret letter of December 1813. Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... A viceroy is a royal official who governs a country or province in the name of and as representative of the monarch. ... Christian VIII Christian VIII (September 18, 1786–January 20, 1848), king of Denmark 1839-48 and of Norway 1814, the eldest son of the Hereditary Prince Frederick of Denmark and Norway and Sophia Frederica of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, was born in 1786 at Christiansborg Palace in Copenhagen. ...

On January 24, Christian Frederik received a letter from his cousin, the king of Denmark, ordering him to surrender the border fortresses and return to Denmark. However, he kept the contents of the letter to himself, ordering his troops to hold the fortresses. He also ordered currency with the Norwegian seal to be issued, and these "prince dollars" became the first paper money issued in Norway, though the prince refused to set up a Norwegian central bank. In time, the monetary expansion led to inflation and uncertainty in the financial markets. is the 24th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ...

Christian Frederik decided to claim the throne of Norway as rightful heir, and to set up an independent government with himself at the head. On January 30, he consulted several prominent Norwegian advisors, arguing that king Frederick had no legal right to relinquish his inheritance, asserting that he was the rightful king of Norway, and that Norway had a right to self-determination. His impromptu council agreed with him, setting the stage for an independence movement. is the 30th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ...

On February 2, the Norwegian public learned that their country was ceded to the king of Sweden. There was growing enthusiasm for Christian Frederik's ideas for an independent Norway. is the 33rd day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ...

On February 8, Bernadotte responded by threatening to send an army to occupy Norway, promising a constitutional convention, and threatening a continued grain embargo against Norway if Sweden's claims under the treaty of Kiel were not met. But for the time being, he was occupied with the concluding battles on the Continent, giving the Norwegians time to take develop their plans. is the 39th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ...

The independence movement solidifies and is threatened by war

On February 10, Christian Frederik invited prominent Norwegians to a meeting to be held at his friend Carsten Anker's estate in Eidsvoll to discuss the situation. He informed them of his intent to resist Swedish hegemony and claim the Norwegian crown as his inheritance. But at the emotional session in Eidsvoll on February 16, his advisors convinced him that Norway's claim to independence should rather be based on the principle of self-determination, and that he should act as a regent for the time being. Arriving in Christiania (Oslo) on February 19, Christian Frederik proclaimed himself regent of Norway. He ordered all congregations to meet on February 25 to swear loyalty to the cause of Norwegian independence and to elect delegates to a constitutional assembly to commence at Eidsvoll on April 10. is the 41st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Statue of Carsten Anker by Eidsvollsbygningen at Eidsvoll. ... is the 47th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... This article is about the capital of Norway. ... [[Media:Italic text]]{| style=float:right; |- | |- | |} is the 50th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 56th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ...

On February 20, the Swedish government sent a mission to Christian Frederik, warning him that Norway's independence movement was a violation of the treaty of Kiel and put Norway at war with the victorious parties in the Napoleonic War. The consequences would be famine and bankruptcy. Christian Frederik sent letters through his personal network to governments throughout Europe, assuring them that he was not leading a Danish conspiracy to reverse the terms of the treaty of Kiel, but rather his efforts reflected the Norwegian will for self-determination. He also sought a secret accommodation with Napoleon. is the 51st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... For other uses, see Napoleon (disambiguation). ...

The mission from the Swedish government arrived in Christiania on February 24 and met with Christian Frederik. Christian Frederik refused to accept a proclamation from the Swedish king but insisted instead on reading his letter to the Norwegian people, proclaiming himself regent. The Swedish delegation characterized his decisions as reckless and illegal, asking for leave to return to Sweden. The day after, church bells in Christiania rang for a full hour, and the city's citizens convened to swear fealty to Christian Frederik. On February 26, he initiated a long correspondence with the Swedish government. is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 57th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ...

Carsten Anker was sent to London to negotiate recognition by the British government. Swedish authorities were canvassing border areas with pamphlets subverting the independence movement. By early March, Christian Frederik had also organized a cabinet and five government departments, though he retained all decision-making authority himself. This article is about the capital of England and the United Kingdom. ...

Christian Frederik meets increasing opposition from within and abroad

Count Johan Caspar Herman Wedel-Jarlsberg, who warned Christian Frederik

Count Wedel-Jarlsberg, the most prominent member of the Norwegian nobility, arrived in Norway on March 3 and confronted the regent, accusing him of playing a dangerous game. Christian Frederik responded by accusing Wedel-Jarlsberg of colluding with the Swedes. Returns from elections for delegates to the constitutional assembly also showed there were widespread misgivings about the independence movement. By the end of March, the opinion was openly expressed that Christian Frederik's ambition was to bring Norway back under Danish sovereignty. Image File history File links Metadata No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links Metadata No higher resolution available. ... Johan Caspar Herman Wedel-Jarlsberg Johan Caspar Herman Wedel-Jarlsberg (1779 - 1840) was a Norwegian count and politician. ... is the 62nd day of the year (63rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

Before Carsten Anker arrived in England, the British foreign secretary Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh reimposed the naval blockade of Norway and assured the Swedish king that the British would not accept any Norwegian claims of sovereignty. A conciliatory letter sent by Christian Frederik to the Swedish king was returned unopened. On March 9, the Swedish mission to Copenhagen demanded that Christian Frederik be disinherited from succession to the Danish throne, and that European powers should go to war with Denmark unless she disassociated herself from the Norwegian independence movement. On March 17, Niels Rosenkrantz, the Danish foreign minister, responded to the Swedish demands by asserting that the Danish government in no way supported Norwegian independence, but that they could not vacate border posts they did not hold. The demand for disinheriting Christian Frederik was not addressed. Lord Castlereagh Foreign Secretary 1812–1822 Robert Stewart, 2nd Marquess of Londonderry, KG, GCH, PC (18 June 1769 in Dublin – 12 August 1822 at Loring Hall, Kent), known until 1821 by his courtesy title of Viscount Castlereagh, was an Anglo-Irish politician born in Dublin who represented the United Kingdom... is the 68th day of the year (69th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... For other uses, see Copenhagen (disambiguation). ... is the 76th day of the year (77th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

In several letters to Hans Henrik von Essen, the commander of the Swedish military forces at Norway's borders, Bernadotte referred to Christian Frederik as a rebel who had probably been misled by the Danish nobility. He ordered his forces to treat all Danish officials who did not return home as outlaws, and all users of the "prince dollars" to be considered counterfeiters. Swedish troops amassed along the border to Norway, and there were daily rumors of an invasion. Count Hans Henrik von Essen (1755 - 1824) was a Swedish soldier and statesman. ...

In spite of his open opposition to Christian Frederik, Wedel-Jarlsberg was elected as a delegate to the constitutional convention on March 14. There were clear signs that the convention, only weeks away, would be contentious. is the 73rd day of the year (74th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

Carsten Anker arrived in London on March 24, where he met with an undersecretary of foreign affairs. The undersecretary rejected Anker's appeal for self-determination, and Anker found all other doors closed to him in London. On March 29, Christian Frederik sent Carsten Anker's brother Peder to London as an unofficial emissary. On April 3, Carsten Anker was imprisoned for three days in debtors' prison on account of an old debt, probably at the behest of the Swedish ambassador to London. is the 83rd day of the year (84th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 88th day of the year (89th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 93rd day of the year (94th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

On March 31, Christian Frederik arrested officers of the naval vessels stationed in Norway as they were preparing to follow orders to bring the ships to Denmark. The ships were confiscated as ships of the Norwegian navy. is the 90th day of the year (91st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

On April 1, Frederik VI sent a letter to Christian Frederik, asking him to give up his efforts and return to Denmark. The possibility of disinheriting the crown prince was mentioned in the letter. Christian Frederik rejected the overture, in the same letter invoking Norway's right to self-determination and the possibility of keeping Norway under the Danish throne. A few days later, Christian Frederik warned off a meeting with the Danish foreign minister Niels Rosenkrantz, pointing out that such a meeting would fuel speculation that the prince was motivated by Danish designs on Norway. is the 91st day of the year (92nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

The constitutional convention

Carsten Anker's manor, where the convention was held

Although the European powers refused to acknowledge the Norwegian independence movement, there were signs by early April that they were not inclined to support Sweden in an all-out confrontation on the matter. Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 554 pixelsFull resolution (1426 × 987 pixels, file size: 1,012 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 554 pixelsFull resolution (1426 × 987 pixels, file size: 1,012 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ...

As time approaches for the constitutional convention, there was growing support for opposition to the treaty of Kiel, especially from Bergen. County Hordaland District Midhordland Municipality NO-1201 Administrative centre Bergen Mayor (2004) Herman Friele (H) Official language form Neutral Area  - Total  - Land  - Percentage Ranked 215 465 km² 445 km² 0. ...

On April 10, the constitutional convention convened for the first time, at church services in Eidsvoll. The sermon caused some stir by flattering Christian Frederik in particular and the monarchy in general. The delegates' were accredited that afternoon, after Severin Løvenskiold had refused to give fealty to the independence movement. is the 100th day of the year (101st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Severin Løvenskiold, jr (b. ...

Georg Sverdrup, who chaired the constitutional convention

Seated on uncomfortable benches, the convention elected its officers in the presence of Christian Frederik on April 11. The debates started on April 12, when Nicolai Wergeland and Georg Sverdrup argued over the mandate of the assembly and the basis for the regent's legitimacy. Party lines took form, with the "Independence party," variously known as the "Danish party," "the Prince's party," or "the urgent" on one side of the aisle; and the "Union Party," also known as the "western party," "Swedish party," or "the hesitant" on the other. Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... is the 101st day of the year (102nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 102nd day of the year (103rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Georg Sverdrup (born Jørgen Sverdrup, April 25, 1770-1850) was a Norwegian philologist, responsible for building the first Norwegian university library. ...

As it turned out, there was a clear consensus among all delegates that independence would be the ideal solution, but there was disagreement what solution was workable given real-world constraints.

• The Independence party had the majority and argued that the mandate of the convention was limited to formalizing Norway's independence based on the popular oath of fealty from earlier that year. With Christian Frederik as the regent, the relationship with Denmark would be negotiated within the context of Norwegian independence.
• The Union party, a minority of the delegates, believed that Norway would achieve a more independent status within a loose union with Sweden than as part of the Danish monarchy, and that the assembly should continue its work even after the constitution was complete.

A constitutional committee presented its proposals on April 16, provoking a lively debate. The Independence party won the day with a majority of 78-33 to establish Norway as an independent monarchy. There was also lively debate on the issue of military conscription, in which the upper classes argued for exemption. In the following days, mutual suspicion and distrust came to the surface within the convention. In particular, delegates disagreed on whether to give the sentiments of the European powers consideration, and some facts may have been withheld from the convention. is the 106th day of the year (107th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

By April 20, the principle of the people's right to self-determination articulated by Christian Magnus Falsen and Gunder Adler had been established as foundational for the framing of the constitution. Continued work and debate was characterized by acrimony and recrimination, but the constitutional committee made steady progress. is the 110th day of the year (111th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Christian Magnus Falsen (1782–1830) was a Norwegian constitutional father, statesman, jurist, and historian; son of Enevold de Falsen (1755–1808), a dramatist and author of a famous war song Til vaaben. ...

Framing the constitution

Johan Gunder Adler, whose knowledge of language gave the French and American constitutions influence over the Norwegian

Christian Magnus Falsen, at 32 credited as being the constitution's father

On May 1, the first draft of the constitution was signed by the drafting committee. In addition to the principle of the Norwegian people's right to self-determination, the constitution's key precepts included the assurance of individual freedom, the right to property, and equality. Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Christian Magnus Falsen (1782–1830) was a Norwegian constitutional father, statesman, jurist, and historian; son of Enevold de Falsen (1755–1808), a dramatist and author of a famous war song Til vaaben. ... is the 121st day of the year (122nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

Following a contentious debate on May 4, the assembly decided that Norway would profess itself to the Lutheran-Evangelical faith, that its monarch must always have professed himself to this faith (thereby precluding the Catholic-born Bernadotte from being a king), and that Jews and Jesuits would be barred from entering the kingdom. is the 124th day of the year (125th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... The Lutheran movement is a group of denominations of Protestant Christianity by the original definition. ... The Society of Jesus (Latin: Societas Iesu), commonly known as the Jesuits, is a Roman Catholic religious order. ...

On May 5, the Independence party lost another battle when the assembly voted 98 to 11 to allow the kingdom's monarch to reign over another country with the assent of two thirds of the legislative assembly's vote. is the 125th day of the year (126th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

On May 7, the assembly outlawed the creation of new nobility in Norway, allowing the disposition of existing hereditary rights to be decided by a future legislative body. On May 8, proposed laws concerning naturalization and suffrage were debated. On the next day, it was decided that foreign citizens would be eligible after ten years of residency, and that the right to vote would be extended to men who were either farmers possessing their own land, civil servants, or urban property owners. With this, about half of all Norwegian men earned the right to vote, a radical proposition at the time. is the 127th day of the year (128th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 128th day of the year (129th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

On May 8, the assembly decided on a bicameral legislative body to be known as the Storting, with the expectation that one would be an upper house and the other a lower house. They also vested the right to establish and collect taxes in the legislative body. The assembly also passed the so-called "farmer's paragraph" stipulating that two-thirds of the Storting had to be elected from rural districs, and one-third from urban areas. (This paragraph remained in force until 1952). is the 128th day of the year (129th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... In government, bicameralism is the practice of having two legislative or parliamentary chambers. ... The Storting (Stortinget, literally The Big Thing) is the Norwegian Parliament, and is located in the capital city Oslo. ... Year 1952 (MCMLII) was a leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ...

On May 11, the assembly overwhelmingly passed universal conscription, over the objections of the financial and administrative elite, who threatened mass emigration if their sons were forced into military service. is the 131st day of the year (132nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

On May 13, after two days of debate, the assembly passed a law in which the assembly guaranteed the issue of a Norwegian currency. The Union party opposed this, claiming that there simply wasn't an economic basis for an independent currency. The Independence party, carrying the day, responded that an independent currency was necessary to ensure the existence of an independent state, regardless of the financial considerations. Nevertheless, on the next day, the assembly decided to postpone the establishment of a central bank until a legislative body was in session. Christian Frederik was dismayed by this decision. is the 133rd day of the year (134th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

Although the final edit of the constitution was signed on May 16, the unanimous election of Christian Frederik on May 17 is considered Constitution Day in Norway. The election was unanimous, but several of the delegates had asked that it be postponed until the political situation had stabilized. is the 136th day of the year (137th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 137th day of the year (138th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... The Norwegian Constitution Day is the National Day of Norway and is an official national holiday each year. ...

On May 20, the assembly adjourned, joining hands and proclaiming that they would remain "in agreement and faithful until Dovre falls!" is the 140th day of the year (141st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Dovrefjell is a mountain range in central Norway that forms a natural barrier between the southern regions of Norway and the area around Trondheim. ...

The Swedish Crownprince Charles John (Bernadotte), who staunchly opposed Norwegian independence only to offer generous terms of union

Image File history File links Metadata No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links Metadata No higher resolution available. ...

Seeking domestic and international legitimacy

On May 22, the newly elected king made a triumphant entrance into Christiania, exactly one year after he first arrived as viceroy to Norway. The cannons at Akershus Fortress sounded off the royal salute, and a celebratory service was held in the cathedral. There was continuing concern about the international climate, and on May 24 the government decided to send two of the delegates from the constitutional assembly to join Carsten Anker in England to plead Norway's case. is the 142nd day of the year (143rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Akershus Fortress (Akershus Festning) is the old castle built to protect Oslo, the capital of Norway. ... is the 144th day of the year (145th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

On May 25 the first council of state convened, establishing the nation's supreme court. is the 145th day of the year (146th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

On May 31, general major Johannes Klingenberg Sejersted proposed to take a stand against invading Swedish forces at the river Glomma, but some maintanined that the Swedes should be stopped at the border. is the 151st day of the year (152nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Glomma, pronounced and written Glåma in northern regions of the river, is the longest river in Norway, 598 kilometers long. ...

On June 5, the British emissary John Philip Morier arrived in Christiania on what appeared to be an unofficial visit. He accepted the hospitality of one of Christian Frederik's ministers and agreed to meet with the king himself informally, stressing that nothing he did should be construed as a recognition of Norwegian independence. It was rumoured that Morier wanted Bernadotte deposed and exiled to the Danish island of Bornholm. is the 156th day of the year (157th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Bornholm is a Danish island in the Baltic Sea. ...

Christian Frederik asked Great Britain to mediate between Norway and Sweden, but Morier never deviated from the British rejection of an independent Norway. He offered to bring the Norwegian emissaries Niels Aall and Wilhelm Christie to England on his ship, but did not follow through on his promise. He demanded that Norway subject itself to Swedish supremacy, and also that his government's position be printed in all Norwegian newspapers. On June 10, the Norwegian army was mobilized and arms and ammunitions distributed. is the 161st day of the year (162nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

On June 13, Christian Frederik also ordered a census in preparation for parliamentary elections. is the 164th day of the year (165th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

On June 16, Carsten Anker sent a letter to Christian Frederik in which he made references to discussions he had recently had with a high-ranking Prussian diplomat. He learned that Prussia and Austria were waning in their support of Sweden's claims to Norway, that Tsar Alexander I of Russia (a distant cousin of Christian Frederik's) favored a Swedish-Norwegian union but not with Bernadotte as the king, and that Great Britain was looking for a solution to the problem that would keep Norway out of Russia's influence. is the 167th day of the year (168th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... For other uses, see Prussia (disambiguation). ... Aleksandr I Pavlovich (Russian: Александр I Павлович) (December 23, 1777 – December 1, 1825?), was Emperor of Russia from 23 March 1801-1 December 1825 and Ruler of Poland from 1815–1825, as well as the first Grand Duke of Finland. ...

Prelude to war

On June 26, emissaries from Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Great Britain arrived in Vänersborg in Sweden to convince Christian Frederik to comply with the provisions of the treaty of Kiel. There they conferred with von Essen, who told them that 65,000 Swedish troops were ready to invade Norway. On June 30 the emissaries arrived in Christiania, where they rudely turned down Christian Frederik's hospitality. Meeting with the Norwegian council of state the following day, the Russian emissary Orlow put the choice to those present: Norway could subject itself to the Swedish crown or face war with the rest of Europe. When Christian Frederik argued that the Norwegian people had a right to determine its own destiny, the Austrian emissary August Ernst Steigentesch made the famous comment: is the 177th day of the year (178th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Vänersborg Vänersborg is a Municipality in Västra Götaland County, in western Sweden. ... is the 181st day of the year (182nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

The people? What do they have to say against the will of its rulers? That would be to put the world on its head.

In the course of the negotiations, Christian Frederik, offered to relinquish the throne and return to Denmark, provided the Norwegians have a say in their future through an extraordinary session in the Storting. But he refused to surrender the Norwegian border forts to Swedish troops. On 15 July the four-power delegation rejected Christian Frederik's proposal that Norway's constitution form the basis for negotiations about a union with Sweden, but promised to put the proposal to the Swedish king for consideration. The negotiations were a partial success in that the delegation left convinced that Christian Frederik was sincere and had the backing of a popular movement. is the 196th day of the year (197th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

On July 20, Bernadotte sent a letter to his "cousin" Christian Frederik accusing him of intrigues and foolhardy adventurism. To add to the problems, the three Norwegians who had made their way to London were arrested, charged with carrying false passports and papers. They were deported immediately. is the 201st day of the year (202nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

On July 22, Bernadotte met with the delegation that had been in Norway. They encouraged him to consider Christian Frederik's proposed terms for a union with Sweden, but the crown prince was outraged. He reiterated his ultimatum that Christian Frederik either relinquish all rights to the throne and abandon the border posts, or face war. On July 27, a Swedish naval fleet took over Hvaler, effectively putting Sweden at war with Norway. The day after, Christian Frederik rejected the Swedish ultimatum, saying that such a surrender would constitute treason against the Norwegian people. On July 29, Swedish forces moved to invade Norway. is the 203rd day of the year (204th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 208th day of the year (209th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... County Østfold Landscape Municipality NO-0111 Administrative centre Skjærhallen Mayor (2003) Paul Henriksen (Ap) Official language form BokmÃ¥l Area  - Total  - Land  - Percentage Ranked 393 90 km² 89 km² 0. ... is the 210th day of the year (211th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

A short war with two winners

Swedish forces met with little resistance as they advanced northward into Norway, bypassing the fortress of Fredriksten. The first hostilities were short and ended with decisive victories for Sweden. By August 4, the fortified city of Fredrikstad surrendered. Christian Frederik ordered a retreat to the river Glomma. However, the Swedish assaults from the east were effectively resisted near Kongsvinger. Fredriksten fortress, Halden, Norway - seen from the citys harbor Fredriksten is a fortress in the city of Halden in Norway. ... is the 216th day of the year (217th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... County Østfold District Municipality NO-0106 Administrative centre Fredrikstad Mayor (2006) Ole Haabeth (Ap) Official language form BokmÃ¥l Area  - Total  - Land  - Percentage Ranked 283 288 km² 283 km² 0. ... Glomma, pronounced and written Glåma in northern regions of the river, is the longest river in Norway, 598 kilometers long. ... County Hedmark District GlÃ¥mdal Municipality NO-0402 Administrative centre Kongsvinger Mayor (2003) Arve Bones (Ap) Official language form BokmÃ¥l Area  - Total  - Land  - Percentage Ranked 102 1,036 km² 953 km² 0. ...

On August 3 Christian Frederik announced his political will in a cabinet meeting in Moss. On August 7 a delegation from Bernadotte arrived at the Norwegian military headquarters in Spydeberg with a cease-fire offer that would join Norway in a union with Sweden and respect the Norwegian constitution. The day after, Christian Frederik expressed himself in favor of the terms, allowing Swedish troops to remain in positions east of Glomma. Hostilities broke out at Glomma, resulting in casualties, but the Norwegian forces were ordered to retreat. Peace negotiations with Swedish envoys began in the town of Moss on August 10. On August 14, the negotiations concluded. The Convention of Moss resulted in a general cease-fire based on terms that effectively were terms of peace. is the 215th day of the year (216th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... http://www. ... is the 219th day of the year (220th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... County Østfold Landscape Municipality NO-0123 Administrative centre Spydeberg Mayor (2003) Stein HÃ¥land (Sp) Official language form BokmÃ¥l Area  - Total  - Land  - Percentage Ranked 362 142 km² 133 km² 0. ... For other uses, see Moss (disambiguation). ... is the 222nd day of the year (223rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 226th day of the year (227th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... The Moss Ironworks main office - where the Convention of Moss was negotiated and signed The Convention of Moss was a cease fire agreement, signed August 14, 1814, between the Swedish King and the Norwegian Storting. ...

Christian Frederik succeeded in excluding from the text any indication that Norway had recognized the Treaty of Kiel, and Sweden accepted that it was not to be considered a premise of the future union between the two states. Understanding the advantage of avoiding a costly war, and of letting Norway enter into a union voluntarily instead of trying to defeat them, something that, historically, the swedes had never managed to do, Bernadotte offered favourable peace terms. He promised to recognize the Norwegian Constitution, with only those amendments that were necessary to open up for a union of the countries. Christian Frederik agreed to call an extraordinary session of the Storting in September or October. He would then have to transfer his powers to the elected representatives of the people, who would negotiate the terms of the union with Sweden, and finally relinquish all claims to the Norwegian throne and leave the country.

An uneasy, but durable cease-fire

The news hit the Norwegian public hard, and reactions included anger at the "cowardice" and "treason" of the military commanders, despair over the prospects of Norwegian independence, and confusion about the country's options. Christian Frederik confirmed his willingness to abdicate the throne for "reasons of health," leaving his authority with the state council as agreed in a secret protocol at Moss. In a letter dated August 28, Christian Frederik ordered the council to accept orders from the "highest authority," clearly referring to the Swedish king. Two days later, the Swedish king proclaimed himself the ruler of both Sweden and Norway. is the 240th day of the year (241st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

On September 3, the British announced that the naval blockade of Norway was lifted. Postal service between Norway and Sweden was resumed. By September 8, prominent Norwegians were taking note of the generous terms offered by Bernadotte. The Swedish general in the occupied border regions of Norway, Magnus Fredrik Ferdinand Björnstjerna, threatened to resume hostilities if the Norwegians would not abide by the armistice agreement and willingly accept the union with Sweden. Christian Frederik was reputed to have fallen into a deep depression and was variously blamed for the battleground defeats. is the 246th day of the year (247th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 251st day of the year (252nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

In late September, a dispute arose between Swedish authorities and the Norwegian council of state over the distribution of grain among the poor in Christiania. The grain was intended as a gift from the Swedish king to the Norwegians, but it became a matter of principle for the Norwegian council to avoid the appearance that Norway had a new king until the transition was formalized. Björnstjerna sent several missives threatening to resume hostilities.

On 26 September, the Norwegian general in the "northern" region of Norway, Carl Jacob Waldemar von Schmettow, vowed in Norwegian newspapers to forcibly resist any further Swedish troop movements into Norway. is the 269th day of the year (270th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

Easing into a new arrangement

In early October, Norwegians again refused to accept a shipment of corn from Bernadotte, and Norwegian merchants instead took up loans to purchase food and other necessities from Denmark. However, by early October, there was emerging support for a union with Sweden. On October 7, an extraordinary session of the Norwegian parliament convened. Delegates from areas occupied by Sweden in Østfold were admitted only after submitting assurances that they had no loyalty to the Swedish authorities. On October 10, Christian Frederik formally abdicated according to the conditions agreed on at Moss and embarked for Denmark. Executive powers were provisionally assigned to the Storting, until the necessary amendments to the Constitution were enacted. is the 280th day of the year (281st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... The Storting main building The Storting, or Stortinget, (the Great Assembly), is the parliament of Norway, and is located in Oslo. ... Østfold is a county in southeastern Norway, bordering Akershus and southwestern Sweden (Västra Götaland County and Värmland), while Vestfold is on the other side of the bay. ... is the 283rd day of the year (284th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

On October 20, with one day to spare before the cease-fire expired, the Norwegian parliament voted 72 to 5 to join Sweden in a personal union, but a motion to elect Charles XIII king of Norway failed to pass. The issue was tabled pending the necessary amendments to the Norwegian constitution. In the following days, the parliament passed several resolutions to assert as much sovereignty as possible within the union. On November 1, they voted 52 to 25 that Norway would not appoint its own consuls, a decision that would have serious consequences in 1905. On November 4, the Storting adopted the constitutional amendments that were required to allow for the union, and unanimously elected Charles XIII king of Norway, rather than acknowledging him as such. is the 293rd day of the year (294th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Charles XIII (Swe: Karl XIII) (October 7, 1748 - February 5, 1818), was King of Sweden from 1809 and King of Norway (where he was known as Carl II) from 1814 until his death. ... is the 305th day of the year (306th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 308th day of the year (309th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

External links

• The Eidsvoll building website (Norwegian)
• National Norwegial bibliographical library database related to 1814
• Runeberg article on Magnus Fredrik Ferdinand Björnstjerna
• 1813-15 Norway Paper Money