NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Nuclear energy policy

Nuclear energy policy is national and international policy concerning some or all aspects of nuclear energy, such as mining for nuclear fuel, generating electricity by nuclear power, enriching and storing spent nuclear fuel and nuclear fuel reprocessing. Look up policy in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Nuclear reaction. ... The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view. ... Nuclear fuel is any material that can be consumed to derive nuclear energy, by analogy to chemical fuel that is burned to derive energy. ... Electricity generation is the first process in the delivery of electricity to consumers. ... A nuclear power station. ... The nuclear fuel cycle, also called nuclear fuel chain, is the progression of nuclear fuel through a series of differing stages. ... Used nuclear fuel (often called spent nuclear fuel) is nuclear fuel that has been irradiated in a nuclear reactor (usually at a nuclear power plant) to the point that it is no longer useful in sustaining a nuclear reaction. ... Nuclear reprocessing separates any usable nuclear fuels (e. ...

Nuclear energy policies often include the regulation of energy use and standards relating to the nuclear fuel cycle. Other measures include efficiency standards, safety regulations, emission standards, fiscal policies, and legislation on energy trading, transport of nuclear waste and contaminated materials, and their storage. Governments might subsidize nuclear energy and arrange international treaties and trade agreements about the import and export of nuclear technology, electricity, nuclear waste, and uranium. The nuclear fuel cycle, also called nuclear fuel chain, is the progression of nuclear fuel through a series of differing stages. ... Emission standards are requirements that set specific limits to the amount of pollutants that can be released into the environment. ... Fiscal policy is the economic term which describes the actions of a government in setting the level of public expenditure and how that expenditure is funded. ... Legislation (or statutory law) is law which has been promulgated (or enacted) by a legislature or other governing body. ... Political Punk band from Victorville, Ca WWW.MYSPACE.COM/NUCLEARWASTEX ... The Lachine Canal, in Montreal, is badly polluted Pollution is the release of harmful environmental contaminants, or the substances so released. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Lightning strikes during a night-time thunderstorm. ... Political Punk band from Victorville, Ca WWW.MYSPACE.COM/NUCLEARWASTEX ... General Name, Symbol, Number uranium, U, 92 Chemical series actinides Group, Period, Block n/a, 7, f Appearance silvery gray metallic; corrodes to a spalling black oxide coat in air Atomic mass 238. ...

Since nuclear energy and nuclear weapons technologies are closely related, military aspirations can act as a factor in energy policy decisions. The fear of nuclear proliferation influences some international nuclear energy policies. The mushroom cloud of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, Japan, 1945, rose some 18 kilometers (11 mi) above the hypocenter. ... World map with nuclear weapons development status represented by color. ...

The global picture

Installed nuclear capacity rose relatively quickly since the 1950s. But since the late 1980s capacity has risen much more slowly, reaching 366 GW in 2005, primarily due to Chinese expansion of nuclear power. Between around 1970 and 1990, more than 50 GW of capacity was under construction (peaking at over 150 GW in the late 70s and early 80s). Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1357x628, 51 KB) Summary A map showing countries which have or had commercial nuclear power stations. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1357x628, 51 KB) Summary A map showing countries which have or had commercial nuclear power stations. ...

The growth slowed in the 1980s because of environmentalist opposition, high interest rates, and energy conservation prompted by the oil shock in 1973, the energy crisis in 1979 and the accidents at Three Mile Island and Chernobyl. In 1983 an unexpected fall in fossil fuel prices stopped most new construction of nuclear power plants. Electricity liberalization in the United States and Europe during the 1980s and 1990s increased the financial risk of investing in nuclear power. More than two-thirds of all nuclear plants ordered after January 1970 were eventually cancelled.^[1]. Growth can mean increase in spatial number or complexity for concrete entities in time or increase in some other dimension for abstract or hard-to-measure entities. ... Bold textHello ... An interest rate is the price a borrower pays for the use of money he does not own, and the return a lender receives for deferring his consumption, by lending to the borrower. ... For the physical concepts, see conservation of energy and energy efficiency. ... (Redirected from 1973 energy crisis) United States, drivers of vehicles with odd numbered license plates were allowed to purchase gasoline only on odd-numbered days of the month, while drivers with even-numbers were limited to even-numbered days. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station consists of two nuclear reactors, each with its own containment building and cooling towers. ... The nuclear power plant at Chernobyl prior to the completion of the sarcophagus. ... A nuclear power station. ... Electricity liberalization refers to the liberalization of electricity markets. ... A nuclear power station. ...

But nuclear power plants generate far fewer greenhouse gases per unit of electricity generated than power stations running on fossil fuels. Some governments have therfore returned to nuclear power as part of their strategies on tackling global warming and climate change. Coal rail cars in Ashtabula, Ohio Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons, primarily coal, fuel oil or natural gas, formed from the remains of dead plants and animals. ... Global mean surface temperatures 1856 to 2005 Mean surface temperature anomalies during the period 1995 to 2004 with respect to the average temperatures from 1940 to 1980 Global warming is the observed increase in the average temperature of the Earths atmosphere and oceans in recent decades. ... Variations in CO2, temperature and dust from the Vostok ice core over the last 400,000 years Climate change refers to the variation in the Earths global climate or in regional climates over time. ...

In 1999 the countries that relied most on nuclear energy were France (with 75 % of its electricity generated by nuclear power stations), Lithuania (73 %), Belgium (58 %), Bulgaria, Slovakia and Sweden (47 %), Ukraine (44 %) and South Korea (43 %). The largest producer of nuclear capacity was the USA with 28 % of worldwide capacity, followed by France (18 %) and Japan (12 %) ^[2]. In 2000, there were 438 commercial nuclear generating units throughout the world, with a total capacity of about 351 gigawatts.

According to IAEA, nuclear power is projected to increase to 17% share of the world's electricity production by 2020. They predict 60 new plants will be installed over the next 15 years.^[3]^[4] IAEA The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), established as an autonomous organization on July 29, 1957, seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy and to inhibit its use for military purposes. ...

Policy options

After a period of decline in the use of nuclear technology following the 1979 Three Mile Island accident and the 1986 incident at Chernobyl, there has more lately been renewed interest in nuclear energy. Some policymakers have returned to the 'nuclear option' because they see it as potentially able to address dwindling global oil reserves and global warming with greenhouse gas emissions than fossil fuel. Energy policy is the manner a given entity (often governmental) has decided to address issues of energy production, distribution and consumption. ... A nuclear power station. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1868x1232, 132 KB) Brasilia, Brazil , March, 15, 2005 â€” Greenpeace baloon in Brasilia and Lula Nuclear. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1868x1232, 132 KB) Brasilia, Brazil , March, 15, 2005 â€” Greenpeace baloon in Brasilia and Lula Nuclear. ... This page refers to the year 1979. ... Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station consists of two nuclear reactors, each with its own containment building and cooling towers. ... 1986 (MCMLXXXVI) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... The nuclear power plant at Chernobyl prior to the completion of the sarcophagus. ... The Hubbert peak theory, also known as peak oil, is an influential theory concerning the long-term rate of conventional oil (and other fossil fuel) extraction and depletion. ... Global mean surface temperatures 1856 to 2005 Mean surface temperature anomalies during the period 1995 to 2004 with respect to the average temperatures from 1940 to 1980 Global warming is the observed increase in the average temperature of the Earths atmosphere and oceans in recent decades. ... Top: Increasing atmospheric CO2 levels as measured in the atmosphere and ice cores. ... Coal rail cars in Ashtabula, Ohio Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons, primarily coal, fuel oil or natural gas, formed from the remains of dead plants and animals. ...

For some coutries, nuclear power affords energy independence. In the words of the French, "We have no coal, we have no oil, we have no gas, we have no choice." Nuclear power has been relatively unaffected by embargoes, and uranium is mined in reliable countries, including Australia and Canada^[5]^[6]. Nuclear power also has a high energy return on energy investment. Using life cycle analysis, it takes 4 to 5 months of energy production from the nuclear plant to fully pay back the initial energy investment^[7]. Coal Coal (IPA: ) is a fossil fuel extracted from the ground by underground mining or open-pit mining (surface mining). ... Pumpjack pumping an oil well near Sarnia, Ontario Ignacy Åukasiewicz - inventor of the refining of kerosene from crude oil. ... Natural gas is a gaseous fossil fuel consisting primarily of methane. ... This article is about the economic term. ... We dont have an article called Eroi Start this article Search for Eroi in. ...

But policymakers must also balance their decisions so that the concerns surrounding nuclear power are addressed. These include the problem of storing radioactive waste for indefinite periods, the potential for possibly severe radioactive contamination by accident or sabotage, and the possibility that its use could in some countries lead to the proliferation of nuclear weapons. Proponents, including some national governments, claim that these risks are small and can be lessened with new technology. They note that France and all of the industrialised economies of Asia ^[8] use nuclear power as a key part of their economic strategy, that the safety record is already good when compared to other energy forms, that it releases much less pollution than coal power, and that nuclear power is a sustainable energy source. Many environmental groups claim nuclear power is an uneconomic, unsound and potentially dangerous energy source, especially compared to renewable energy, and dispute whether the costs and risks can be reduced through new technology. Others claim that nuclear power is a renewable source of energy itself. An illustration showing the various sources of nuclear waste Radioactive waste is waste type containing radioactive chemical elements that does not have a practical purpose. ... The radiation warning symbol (trefoil). ... World map with nuclear weapons development status represented by color. ... The mushroom cloud of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, Japan, 1945, rose some 18 km (11 mi) above the epicenter. ... World map showing the location of Asia. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... This is a list of environmental organizations, organizations that preserve, analyze or monitor the environment in different ways. ... Renewable energy is energy which can be replenished at the same rate it is used. ...

Policies by country

Africa

South Africa is the only country in Africa with nuclear power plants and it currently has an expansion policy based upon the Pebble Bed Modular Reactor (PBMR), with plans to export to China^{[citation needed]}. Several groups, including Earthlife Africa and Koeberg Alert, oppose these measures. A world map showing the continent of Africa. ... The pebble bed reactor (PBR) or pebble bed modular reactor (PBMR) is an advanced nuclear reactor design. ... Earthlife Africa is a South African environmental organization founded in August 1988, in Johannesburg. ... Koeberg Alert formed in 1983 and started out as a local campaign against South Africas nuclear programme, in particular the construction of Koeberg Nuclear Power Station. ...

Asia

China has 10 reactors operating, 5 reactors under construction,^[10] and is planning or proposing an additional 25^[11] ^[12].

India has 16 reactors operating, 8 reactors under construction, and is planning an additional 24^[13] ^[14] ^[15].

South Korea has 18 operational nuclear power reactors, with two more under construction and scheduled to go online by 2004. List of nuclear reactors is a comprehensive annotated list of all the nuclear reactors of the world, sorted by country. ...

North Korea had two PWRs at Kumho under construction until construction was suspended in November 2003. On September 19, 2005 North Korea pledged to stop building nuclear weapons and agreed to international inspections in return for energy aid. The agreement hinted that this aid might in future include one or more light water reactors^[16]. Pressurized water reactors (PWRs) are generation II nuclear power reactors that use water under high pressure as coolant and neutron moderator. ... September 19 is the 262nd day of the year (263rd in leap years). ... 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

In July 2000, the Turkish government decided not to build the controversial nuclear plant in Akkuyu.

Oceania

New Zealand enacted the New Zealand Nuclear Free Zone, Disarmament, and Arms Control Act of 1987 which prohibits the stationing of nuclear weapons on the territory of New Zealand and the entry into New Zealand waters of nuclear armed or propelled ships. This Act of Parliament, however, does not prevent the construction of nuclear power plants. Nuclear marine propulsion is propulsion of a Merchant ship powered by a nuclear reactor. ...

In the Philippines, in 2004, President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo outlined her energy policy. It included plans to convert the Bataan Nuclear Power Plant, one of their two reactors, into a gas powered facility.^[17] The young Gloria Macapagal (far right) and her family; when this picture was taken, her father Diosdado was the President of the Philippines. ... Energy policy is the manner a given entity (often governmental) has decided to address issues of energy production, distribution and consumption. ... Bataan Nuclear Power Plant is a nuclear power plant completed but never fuelled on Bataan Peninsula, 100 kilometres (60 miles) north of Manila, in the Philippines. ...

Australia has up to 40% of the world's uranium deposits and is the world's second largest producer of uranium after Canada. Australia's extensive, low-cost coal and natural gas reserves have historically been used as strong arguments for avoiding nuclear power. But more recently a number of prominent politicians have begun to advocate for its serious consideration as a means to affordably reduce greenhouse emissions and allow for large-scale de-salination plants. Image File history File links Wikinews-logo. ... Wikinews is a free-content news source and a project of the Wikimedia Foundation. ... General Name, Symbol, Number uranium, U, 92 Chemical series actinides Group, Period, Block n/a, 7, f Appearance silvery gray metallic; corrodes to a spalling black oxide coat in air Atomic mass 238. ... Coal Coal (IPA: ) is a fossil fuel extracted from the ground by underground mining or open-pit mining (surface mining). ... Natural gas is a gaseous fossil fuel consisting primarily of methane. ... Soil Salinity is a major environmental issue in Australia, chiefly affecting agricultural lands in many areas of W.A. (Western Australia) Much of central Australia was at one time a shallow inland sea. ...

In 2005, the Australian government threatened to use its constitutional powers to take control of the approval process for new mines from the anti-nuclear Northern Territory government. They are also negotiating with China to weaken safeguard terms so as to allow uranium exports there^{[citation needed]}. States controlled by the Australian Labor Party are blocking the development of new mines in their jurisdictions under the ALP's "No New Mines policy." The Uranium Mining, Processing and Nuclear Energy Review (UMPNER), an inquiry run by the department of the Prime Minister in Cabinet, is expected to pave the way for nuclear power in Australia^[18]. The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view. ... The anti-nuclear movement holds that nuclear power is inherently dangerous and thus ought to be replaced with safe and affordable renewable energy. ... Emblems: Sturts Desert Rose (floral) Motto: None Slogan or Nickname: The Territory, The NT, The Top End Other Australian states and territories Capital Darwin Government Const. ... The Australian Labor Party (ALP) is Australias oldest political party. ...

Europe

In Spain a moratorium was enacted by the socialist government in 1983^[19]^[20] and plans for a phase-out are being discussed anew.^[21] In law, a moratorium (from Latin morari, to delay) is a legal authorization postponing for a specified time the payment of debts or obligations. ...

In Ireland, a nuclear power plant was first proposed in 1968. It was to be built during the 1970s at Carnsore Point in County Wexford. The plan envisioned four plants to be built at the site, but was dropped after strong opposition from environmental groups, and Ireland has remained without nuclear power since. Despite opposing nuclear power and nuclear fuel reprocessing at Sellafield, Ireland is due to open an interconnector to the mainland UK to buy electricity, which is, in some part, the product of nuclear power. Carnsore Point in County Wexford, Ireland is famous for being the proposed location of the Nuclear Energy Board power plant which was to be built in the 1970s. ... County Wexford (Contae Loch Garman in Irish) is a maritime county in the southeast of Ireland, in the province of Leinster. ... The Sellafield facility on the Cumbrian coast, United Kingdom Sellafield is the name of a nuclear site, close to the village and railway station of Seascale, operated by the British Nuclear Group, but owned since 1 April 2005 by the Nuclear Decommissioning Authority. ...

The Slovenian nuclear plant in Krško (co-owned with Croatia) is scheduled to be closed by 2023, and there are no plans to build further nuclear plants. But the debate on whether and when to close the Krško plant intensified after the 2005/06 winter energy crisis. In May 2006 a Slovenian newspaper claimed the government had held internal discussions on adding a new 1000MW block into Krško after 2020. Area: 344. ... Wikinews has news related to: Russia cuts off gas supplies to Ukraine The dispute between Russian state-owned gas supplier Gazprom and Ukraine over natural gas prices started in March of 2005 (over the price of natural gas and prices for the transition of Gazproms gas to Europe). ...

In 1999 Belgium's Government, then a coalition which included the Green party Groen!, passed legislation which stipulated that no new reactors would be built and that Belgium's seven reactors would close after a further 40 years of operation^[22]. When the law was being passed, there was speculation it would be overturned again as soon as an administration without Groen! was in power^[23]. And indeed in September 2005, two years after Groen! had left government, the administration decided to extend the phase-out period for another 20 years, to 2025. A report published in 2005 by the National Planning Bureau noted that in many parts of Belgium nuclear power makes up more then 50% of the electricity generated. It would therefore be difficult for Belgium to adhere to the emissions targets of the Kyoto Protocols without nuclear power^[24]. The executive branch of the Belgian federal government consists of ministers and secretaries of state (junior ministers or smaller departments) drawn from the political parties which form the government coalition. ... This article is about the green parties around the world. ... Green! (Groen!) is the Flemish green party in Belgium. ... List of nuclear reactors is a comprehensive annotated list of all the nuclear reactors of the world, sorted by country. ... Earth as seen by Apollo 17 The Kyoto Protocol is an amendment to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), an international treaty on global warming. ...

Finland's program has four nuclear reactors, which provides 27% of the country's electricity. Two VVER-440 pressurized water reactors built by Soviet Atomenergoeksport and commissioned in 1977 and 1980, locate in Loviisa. They are operated by Fortum Oyj. Two boiling water reactors built by Swedish Asea-Atom (nowadays ABB) and commissioned n 1978 and 1980, locate in Olkiluoto plant in Eurajoki, near Rauma. They are owned and operated by Teollisuuden Voima, a subsidiary of Pohjolan Voima Oy. In 2002, the cabinet's decision to allow the construction of fifth reactor (third in Olkiluoto) was accepted in the parliament. Economic, energy security and environmental grounds were given as reasons for the decision. The reactor will be the new European Pressurized Reactor, which is scheduled to go on line in 2009. As of 2006, the Finland has four nuclear reactors. ... List of nuclear reactors is a comprehensive annotated list of all the nuclear reactors of the world, sorted by country. ... Core of a small nuclear reactor used for research. ... WWER-10ff (also VVER-1000 as a direct translitteration from Russian Ð’Ð’ÐÐ -1000). ... Pressurized water reactors (PWRs) are generation II nuclear power reactors that use water under high pressure as coolant and neutron moderator. ... Province Southern Finland Region Eastern Uusimaa Sub-region Loviisa City manager Olavi Kaleva Official languages Finnish, Swedish Area - total - land ranked 437th 44. ... Fortum (before 1998 IVO and Neste) is a Finnish public listed energy company which operates in Nordic countries and in Baltic countries and in Poland. ... The introduction to this article provides insufficient context for those unfamiliar with the subject matter. ... ABB, formerly Asea Brown Boveri, is a multinational corporation headquartered in ZÃ¼rich, Switzerland, operating mainly in the power and automation business areas. ... Eurajoki (EuraÃ¥minne in Swedish) is a municipality of Finland. ... Rauma, or Raumo in Swedish, is a town of ca. ... Pohjolan Voima Oy (PVO) is the seconf biggest Finnish energy company, which owns hydropower and thermal power plants (including biofuel-fired power plants). ... For album titles with the same name, see 2002 (album). ... European Pressurized Reactor (EPR) is a new fission nuclear reactor design, based on the pressurized water reactor or PWR. It has been designed and developed mainly by the Commissariat Ã lÃ‰nergie Atomique in France and the Karlsruhe Research Center in Germany. ...

After the oil crisis of the early 1970s, the French government decided in 1974 to move towards self-sufficiency in electricity production, primarily through the construction of nuclear power stations. France today produces around 75% of its electricity through nuclear power^[25]. Because France produces an overall electricity surplus, it exports nuclear-produced energy. Some of this goes to countries which are ostensibly against the use of nuclear energy, such as Germany^{[citation needed]}. The Board of Electricité de France (EDF) has approved construction of a 1630 MWe EPR at Flamanville, Normandy. Construction is expected to begin in late 2007, with completion in 2012^[26]. In France, as of 2002, EDF - the countrys main electricity generation and distribution company - produces about 78% of its electricity with 58 nuclear power plants (making it the leading world country by its amount of nuclear power plants). ... Ã‰lectricitÃ© de France (EDF) is the main electricity generation and distribution company in France. ... European Pressurized Reactor (EPR) is a new fission nuclear reactor design, based on the pressurized water reactor or PWR. It has been designed and developed mainly by the Commissariat Ã lÃ‰nergie Atomique in France and the Karlsruhe Research Center in Germany. ...

In 2000, the German government, consisting of a coalition including the Green party Alliance -90 officially announced its intention to phase out the use of nuclear energy. Jürgen Trittin, the Minister of Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety, reached an agreement with energy companies on the gradual shut down of the country's nineteen nuclear power plants and a cessation of civil usage of nuclear power by 2020. Legislation was enacted in the Nuclear Exit Law. The power plants in Stade and Obrigheim were turned off on November 14, 2003, and May 11, 2005, respectively. Dismantling of the plants is scheduled to begin in 2007^[27]. But the Nuclear Exit Law did not ban enrichment stations - one in Gronau has received permission to extend operations. There have been concerns over the safety of the phase-out, particularly in terms of the transport of nuclear waste^[28] ^[29]. In 2005 Angela Merkel won the German federal election with the CDU party. She has subsequently announced to re-negotiate with energy companies the time limit for a shut down of nuclear power stations ^[30]. But as part of her pact with the SDP, with whom the CDU form a coalition, the phase-out policy has for now been retained ^[31] ^[32]. BÃ¼ndnis 90/Die GrÃ¼nen (literally: Alliance 90/The Greens), the German Green Party, is a political party in Germany whose regional predecessors were founded in the late 1970s as part of the new social movements. ... Green politician JÃ¼rgen Trittin is Federal Minister for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety in Germany. ... List of nuclear reactors is a comprehensive annotated list of all the nuclear reactors of the world, sorted by country. ... View of the old hanse-harbor of Stade in 1987. ... November 14 is the 318th day of the year (319th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 47 days remaining until the end of the year. ... 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... May 11 is the 131st day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (132nd in leap years). ... 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... (IPA //) (born in Hamburg, Germany on July 17, 1954) is the current Chancellor of Germany. ... German federal elections took place on September 18, 2005 to elect the members of the 16th German Bundestag, the federal parliament of Germany. ...

Following the partial meltdown of the Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station in the United States in 1979, the Swedish Government decided, after a referendum, that no further nuclear power plants should be built and that a nuclear power phase-out should be completed by 2010. But in 1998, when electricity from hydropower accounted for 48 % of the country's production of electricity^[33] the government decided to build no further hydropower plants in order to protect its national water resources. This is likely to set back the planned phase-out of Sweden's nuclear reactors, perhaps until 2045^{[citation needed]}. Indeed the current Swedish government is proposing to end the nuclear phase-out, while still maintaining a moratorium on new construction at least until 2010. In August 2006 three of Sweden's ten nuclear reactors were shut down due to safety concerns following an incident at Forsmark Nuclear Power Plant, in which two out of four emergency power generators failed causing power shortage. Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station, located on Three Mile Island. ... Until the 1960s Swedens energy policy focused on hydroelectricity, which was supplemented by nuclear power since 1965. ... Water resources are sources of water that are useful or potentially useful to humans. ... List of nuclear reactors is a comprehensive annotated list of all the nuclear reactors of the world, sorted by country. ... Forsmark Nuclear Power Plant is a nuclear power plant in Sweden, and also the site of the Swedish Final repository for radioactive operational waste. ...

There have been several referenda on nuclear energy in Switzerland. In 1990, the people passed a motion to halt the construction of nuclear power plants (for a moratorium period of ten years) but rejected a motion to initiate a phase-out. In 2003 a motion calling for an extension to this moratorium (for another ten years) and another asking again on the question of a phase-out, were both rejected^[34]. Around 40 % of Switzerland's electricity is generated by nuclear power^[35] Ballots of the Argentine plebiscite of 1984 on the border treaty with Chile A referendum (plural: referendums or referenda) or plebiscite (from Latin plebiscita, originally a decree of the Concilium Plebis) is a direct vote in which an entire electorate is asked to either accept or reject a particular proposal. ... In law, a moratorium (from Latin morari, to delay) is a legal authorization postponing for a specified time the payment of debts or obligations. ...

Italy held a referendum the year after the 1986 Chernobyl accident, deciding to shut down Italy's four nuclear power plants. The last was closed in 1990 ^[36]. A moratorium on the construction of new plants, originally in effect from 1987 until 1993, has since been extended indefinitely.^[37]. But Premier Silvio Berlusconi reopened the nuclear power debate in 2005, noting Italy imports around 85% of its total energy, above the European average.^[38]. In October 2005 the Environment Minister Altero Matteoli announced interest in switching the country's main source of energy to nuclear power within 10-15 years^{[citation needed]}. As of 2006, Italy was an importer of nuclear-generated electricity, and its largest electricity utility Enel SPA was investing both in reactors in France and Slovakia to provide this electricity in the future, and also in the development of the EPR technology. The nuclear power plant at Chernobyl prior to the completion of the sarcophagus. ... (born September 29, 1936) is an Italian politician, entrepreneur, and media proprietor. ... Altero Matteoli is the Italian Environment Minister as of October 2005. ... A nuclear power station. ... 2006 is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Enel is an Italian energy provider and the third largest energy provider in the world. ... European Pressurized Reactor (EPR) is a new fission nuclear reactor design, based on the pressurized water reactor or PWR. It has been designed and developed mainly by the Commissariat Ã lÃ‰nergie Atomique in France and the Karlsruhe Research Center in Germany. ...

In 1994, the Dutch parliament voted to phase out nuclear power after a discussion of nuclear waste management. In 1997 the power station at Dodewaard was shut down and the government decided it was planning to end Borssele's operating license in 2003. But in 2003, with a new government in power, the shut down was postponed to 2013 ^[39]. In 2006 the government decided that Borssele will remain open until 2033, if it can comply with the highest safety standards. The owners, Essent and Delta will invest 500 million euro in sustainable energy, together with the government - money which the government claims otherwise should have been paid to the plants owners as compensation. The Estates-General (Staten-Generaal) is the parliament of the Netherlands. ... Neder-Betuwe (until 2003 called Kesteren) is a municipality in the eastern Netherlands. ... Borsele is a municipality in the southwestern Netherlands on Zuid_Beveland. ... The second cabinet of Jan Peter Balkenende of the Netherlands formed on May 27, 2003. ... Essent NV, based in Arnhem, Netherlands, is a non-listed, limited liability energy company. ... Delta is the letter Î” or Î´ in the Greek alphabet, also used as a mathematical and enumeration symbol, often to indicate the change of a quantity. ...

A nuclear power station was built during the 1970s at Zwentendorf, Austria, but its start-up was prevented by a popular vote in 1978. On July 9, 1997, the Austrian Parliament voted unanimously to maintain the country's anti-nuclear policy.^[40] Zwentendorf an der Donau is a small market municipality in Lower Austria, with 3,280 inhabitants, in the Tullnerfeld on the southern bank of the Danube. ... July 9 is the 190th day of the year (191st in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 175 days remaining. ... 1997 (MCMXCVII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... The Austrian parliament consists of two chambers, the Nationalrat (national council) and the Bundesrat (federal council). ...

The future of nuclear power in the United Kingdom is currently under review. The country has a number of reactors which are currently reaching the end of their working life, and it is currently undecided how they will be replaced. The UK is also currently failing to reach its targets for reduction on CO₂ emissions, a situation which may be worsened if new nuclear power stations are not built. The UK also uses a large proportion of gas fired power stations, which produce relatively low CO₂ emissions, but there have been recent difficulties in obtaining adequate gas supplies. The UK government has just appointed a new pro-nuclear energy minister. As of 2006, the United Kingdom has 23 nuclear reactors generating one-fifth of its electricity (19. ...

North America

In 2004, there were 104 (69 pressurized water reactors, 35 boiling water reactors) commercial nuclear generating units licensed to operate in the United States, producing approximately 20 % of the country's energy needs. In absolute terms, the United States is the world's largest supplier of commercial nuclear power. Future development of nuclear power in the U.S. was enabled by the Energy Policy Act of 2005 ^[41] and is co-ordinated by the Nuclear Power 2010 Program ^[42]. On September 22, 2005 it was announced that two sites had been selected to receive new power reactors. President Dwight D. Eisenhower opened the Shippingport power plant atomic power station on May 26, 1958 as part of his Atoms for Peace program. ... It has been suggested that Energy Policy Act of 2005 Vote be merged into this article or section. ... The Nuclear Power 2010 Program was unveiled by the U.S. Secretary of the Department of Energy on February 14, 2002 as one means towards addressing the expected need for new power plants. ... September 22 is the 265th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (266th in leap years). ...

South America

In Brazil, nuclear energy, produced by two reactors at Angra, accounts for about 4% of the country's electricity ^[43]. Brazil plans to build seven more reactors by 2025.^[44]. List of nuclear reactors is a comprehensive annotated list of all the nuclear reactors of the world, sorted by country. ... Angra Nuclear Power Plant is Brazils sole nuclear power plant. ...

In Argentina, about 6% of the electricity comes from 2 operational reactors: The Embalse Río Tercero plant, a CANDU6 reactor, and the Atucha 1 plant, a PHWR German design. In 2001, the plant was modified to burn Slightly Enriched Uranium, making it the first PHWR reactor to burn that fuel worldwide. Atucha originally was planned to be a complex with various reactors. Atucha 2 (similar to Aucha 1 but more powerful) is actually more than half-built, however it never entered into operation. Argentina also has some other research reactors, and exports nuclear technology.

Contents

The global picture

Policy options

Policies by country

Africa

Asia

Oceania

Europe

North America

South America

See also

References

External links

Programs

Television

Contents

The global picture GA_googleFillSlot("encyclopedia_square");

Policy options

Policies by country

Africa

Asia

Oceania

Europe

North America

South America

See also

References

External links

Programs

Television

The global picture