The Süddeutsche Zeitung announces "The Verdict in Nuremberg." Depicted are (left, from top): Goering, Hess, Ribbentrop, Keitel, Kaltenbrunner, Rosenberg, Frank, Frick; (second column) Funk, Streicher, Schacht; (third column) Doenitz, Raeder, Schirach; (right, from top) Sauckel, Jodl, Papen, Seyss-Inquart, Speer, Neurath, Fritzsche, Bormann. Image from Topography of Terror Museum, Berlin.

The Nuremberg Trials were a series of trials most notable for the prosecution of prominent members of the political, military and economic leadership of Nazi Germany. The trials were held in the city of Nuremberg, Germany, from 1945 to 1949, at the Nuremberg Palace of Justice. The first and best known of these trials was the Trial of the Major War Criminals before the International Military Tribunal (IMT), which tried 24 of the most important captured leaders of Nazi Germany. It was held from November 14, 1945, to October 1, 1946. The second set of trials of lesser war criminals was conducted under Control Council Law No. 10 at the U.S. Nuremberg Military Tribunals (NMT); among them included the Doctors' Trial and the Judges' Trial. This article primarily deals with the IMT; see the separate article on the NMT for details on those trials. The Nuremberg Trials was a Soviet-made documentary film about the trials of the Nazi leadership. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1200x1600, 403 KB) Summary Photo by User:Adam Carr Licensing I, the creator of this work, hereby release it into the public domain. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1200x1600, 403 KB) Summary Photo by User:Adam Carr Licensing I, the creator of this work, hereby release it into the public domain. ... The Süddeutsche Zeitung is one of the largest German newspapers. ... Nazi Germany, or the Third Reich, commonly refers to Germany in the years 1933–1945, when it was under the firm control of the totalitarian and fascist ideology of the Nazi Party, with the Führer Adolf Hitler as dictator. ... Nürnberg redirects here. ... Nuremberg Palace of Justice is a building complex in Nuremberg, Bavaria, Germany which is most famous for being the location of the famous Nuremberg Trials that were held after the Second World War for the henchmen of Adolf Hitler, between 1945 and 1949 for those who were still presumed to... is the 318th day of the year (319th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 274th day of the year (275th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... For other uses of terms redirecting here, see US (disambiguation), USA (disambiguation), and United States (disambiguation) Motto In God We Trust(since 1956) (From Many, One; Latin, traditional) Anthem The Star-Spangled Banner Capital Washington, D.C. Largest city New York City National language English (de facto)1 Demonym American... Chief prosecutor Telford Taylor opens the prosecution case in the Krupp Trial The Subsequent Nuremberg Trials (or, more formally, the Trials of War Criminals before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals (NMT)) were a series of twelve U.S. military trials for war crimes against surviving members of the military, political, and... Karl Brandt at the Doctors Trial The Doctors Trial (officially United States of America v. ... A witness testifies in the Judges Trial The Judges Trial (or the Justice Trial, or, officially, The United States of Galloway vs. ...

Origin

Press released on January 2, 2006, from the British War Cabinet in London have shown that as early as December 1944, the Cabinet had discussed their policy for the punishment of the leading Nazis if captured. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill had then advocated a policy of summary execution with the use of an Act of Attainder to circumvent legal obstacles, and was only dissuaded from this by pressure from the U.S. later in the war. In late 1943, during the Tripartite Dinner Meeting at the Tehran Conference, the Soviet leader, Joseph Stalin, proposed executing 50,000–100,000 German staff officers. Not realizing that Stalin was serious, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt joked that perhaps 49,000 would do. Churchill denounced the idea of "the cold blooded execution of soldiers who fought for their country." However, he also stated that war criminals must pay for their crimes and that in accordance with the Moscow Document which he himself had written, they should be tried at the places where the crimes were committed. Churchill was vigorously opposed to executions "for political purposes."^[1][2] is the 2nd day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... A War Cabinet is committee formed by a government in time of war. ... The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is, in practice, the political leader of the United Kingdom. ... Churchill redirects here. ... A bill of attainder (or act of attainder) was an act of legislature declaring a person or group of persons guilty of some crime, and punishing them, without benefit of a trial. ... Left to right: General Secretary of the Communist Party Joseph Stalin, President Franklin D. Roosevelt of the United States, and Prime Minister Winston Churchill of the United Kingdom . ... Josef Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili (Georgian: , Ioseb Besarionis Dze Jughashvili; Russian: , Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili) (December 18 [O.S. December 6] 1878[1] – March 5, 1953), better known by his adopted name, Joseph Stalin (alternatively transliterated Josef Stalin), was General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Unions Central Committee from... FDR redirects here. ... The Moscow Declaration declared that the annexation (Anschluss) of Austria by Germany was illegal. ...

U.S. Treasury Secretary, Henry Morgenthau, Jr., suggested a plan for the total denazification of Germany; this was known as the Morgenthau Plan. The plan advocated the forced de-industrialization of Germany, along with forced labour and other draconian measures similar to those that the Nazis themselves had planned for Eastern Europe. Both Churchill and Roosevelt supported this plan, and went as far as attempting its authorization at the Second Quebec Conference in September 1944. However, the Soviet Union announced its preference for a judicial process. Later, details were leaked to the public, generating widespread protest. Roosevelt, seeing strong public disapproval, abandoned the plan, but did not proceed to adopt support for another position on the matter. The demise of the Morgenthau Plan created the need for an alternative method of dealing with the Nazi leadership. The plan for the "Trial of European War Criminals" was drafted by Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson and the War Department. Roosevelt died in April 1945. The new president, Harry S. Truman, gave strong approval for a judicial process. The United States Secretary of the Treasury is the head of the United States Department of the Treasury, concerned with finance and monetary matters, and, until 2003, some issues of national security and defense. ... Henry Morgenthau, Jr. ... Denazification (German: Entnazifizierung) was an Allied initiative to rid German and Austrian society, culture, press, economy, judiciary and politics of any remnants of the Nazi regime. ... The Morgenthau Plan showing the planned partitioning of Germany into a North State, a South State, and an International zone. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... The Second Quebec Conference (codenamed OCTAGON) was a high level military conference held during World War II between the British and United States governments. ... The Secretary of War was a member of the United States Presidents Cabinet, beginning with George Washingtons administration. ... Henry L. Stimson Henry Lewis Stimson (September 21, 1867 – October 20, 1950) was an American statesman, who served as Secretary of War, Governor-General of the Philippines, and Secretary of State at various times. ... Line drawing of the Department of Wars seal. ... For other persons named Harry Truman, see Harry Truman (disambiguation). ...

After a series of negotiations between the U.S., Britain, the Soviet Union, and France, details of the trial were worked out. The trials were set to commence on November 20, 1945, in the city of Nuremberg. is the 324th day of the year (325th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

Creation of the courts

At the meetings in Tehran (1943), Yalta (1945) and Potsdam (1945), the three major wartime powers, the United States, Soviet Union and the United Kingdom, agreed on the format of punishment for those responsible for war-crimes during World War II. France was also awarded a place on the tribunal. Left to right: General Secretary of the Communist Party Joseph Stalin, President Franklin D. Roosevelt of the United States, and Prime Minister Winston Churchill of the United Kingdom . ... The Big Three at the Yalta Conference, Winston Churchill, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Joseph Stalin. ... Harry S. Truman and Joseph Stalin meeting at the Potsdam Conference on July 18, 1945. ... Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tōjō Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000...

The legal basis for the trial was established by the London Charter, issued on August 8, 1945, which restricted the trial to "punishment of the major war criminals of the European Axis countries". Some 200 German war crimes defendants were tried at Nuremberg, and 1,600 others were tried under the traditional channels of military justice. The legal basis for the jurisdiction of the court was that defined by the Instrument of Surrender of Germany, political authority for Germany had been transferred to the Allied Control Council, which having sovereign power over Germany could choose to punish violations of international law and the laws of war. Because the court was limited to violations of the laws of war, it did not have jurisdiction over crimes that took place before the outbreak of war on September 1, 1939. The London Charter of the International Military Tribunal (usually referred to simply as the London Charter) was the decree that set down the laws and procedures by which the Nuremberg trials were to be conducted. ... is the 220th day of the year (221st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1945 (MCMXLV) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar). ... The German Instrument of Surrender, 1945 refers to the legal instrument of World War II in which the High Command of Nazi Germany surrendered simultaneously to the Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force and to the Soviet High command. ... Kammergericht, Headquarters of the Allied Control Council The Allied Control Council or Allied Control Authority, known in German as the Alliierter Kontrollrat, also referred to as the Four Powers, was a military occupation governing body of the Allied Occupation Zones in Germany after the end of World War II in... is the 244th day of the year (245th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1939 (MCMXXXIX) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ...

The restriction of trial and punishment by the international tribunal to personnel of the Axis countries has led to accusations of victor's justice and that Allied war crimes could not be tried. It is, however, usual that the armed forces of a civilised country^[3] issue their forces with detailed guidance on what is and is not permitted under their military code. These are drafted to include any international treaty obligations and the customary laws of war. For example, at the trial of Otto Skorzeny, his defence was in part based on the Field Manual published by the War Department of the United States Army, on 1 October 1940, and the American Soldiers' Handbook^[4] . If a member of the armed forces breaks their own military code then they can expect to face a court martial. When members of the Allied armed forces broke their military codes, they could be and were tried, as, for example, at the Biscari Massacre trials. The unconditional surrender of the Axis powers was unusual and led directly to the formation of the international tribunals. Usually, international wars end conditionally and the treatment of suspected war criminals makes up part of the peace treaty. In most cases those who are not prisoners of war are tried under their own judicial system if they are suspected of committing war crimes – as happened the end of the concurrent Continuation War. In restricting the international tribunal to trying suspected Axis war crimes, the Allies were acting within normal international law. The label victors justice (in German, Siegerjustiz) is applied by advocates to a situation in which they believe that a victorious nation is applying different rules to judge what is right or wrong for their own forces and for those of the (former) enemy. ... Otto Skorzeny (June 12, 1908 – July 6, 1975[1]) was a Standartenführer[2] in the German Waffen-SS during World War II. After fighting on the Eastern Front, he is known as the commando leader who rescued Italian dictator Benito Mussolini from imprisonment after his overthrow. ... is the 274th day of the year (275th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1940 (MCMXL) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... The Biscari massacre was a war crime committed by U.S. troops during World War II, where unarmed German and Italian prisoners of war were supposedly killed at Biscari in 1943. ... Unconditional surrender refers to a surrender without conditions, except for those provided by international law. ... Combatants  Finland Germany Italy1  Soviet Union  United Kingdom2 Commanders C.G.E. Mannerheim Kirill Meretskov Leonid Govorov Strength 530,000 Finns[1] 220,000 Germans 900,000–1,500,000[2] Casualties 58,715 dead or missing 158,000 wounded 1,500 civilian dead[3] 200,000 dead or missing...

Location

The Soviet Union had wanted the trials to take place in Berlin, but Nuremberg was chosen as the site for the trials for specific reasons: This article is about the capital of Germany. ... Nürnberg redirects here. ...

• It was located in the American zone (at this time, Germany was divided into four zones).
• The Palace of Justice was spacious and largely undamaged (one of the few that had remained largely intact through extensive Allied bombing of Germany). A large prison was also part of the complex.
• Because Nuremberg had been appointed "City of the party rallies", there was symbolic value in making it the place of the Nazi party's demise.

It was also agreed that France would become the permanent seat of the IMT and that the first trial (several were planned) would take place in Nuremberg. The C-Pennant Occupation zones in Germany (1945) Capital Berlin (de jure) Political structure Military occupation Governors (1945)  - UK zone F.M. Montgomery  - French zone Gen. ... Reichsparteitage (literally imperial party congresses) were annual rallies of the National Socialist German Workers Party during many of the years of Nazi rule in Germany. ...

The Nuremberg judges, left to right: John Parker, Francis Biddle, Alexander Volchkov, Iona Nikitchenko, Geoffrey Lawrence, Norman Birkett

Download high resolution version (1082x762, 46 KB)Judges from the Nuremberg trial. ... Download high resolution version (1082x762, 46 KB)Judges from the Nuremberg trial. ... Categories: Stub | Nuremberg Trials | 1885 births | 1958 deaths ... The Nuremberg judges, left to right: John Parker, Francis Biddle, Alexander Volchkov, Iona Nikitchenko, Geoffrey Lawrence, Norman Birkett Francis Beverley Biddle (May 9, 1886 – October 4, 1968) was an American lawyer and judge who is most famous as the primary American judge during the Nuremberg trials after World War II... The Nuremberg judges, left to right: John Parker, Francis Biddle, Alexander Volchkov, Iola Nikitchenko, Geoffrey Lawrence, Norman Birkett Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Fedorovich Volchkov (Russian: Алекса́ндр Фёдорович Волчко́в) was a judge during the Nuremberg trials after World War II. He was the alternate Soviet judge during the proceedings. ... The Nuremberg judges, left to right: John Parker, Francis Biddle, Alexander Volchkov, Iona Nikitchenko, Geoffrey Lawrence, Norman Birkett Major-General Iona Timofeevich Nikitchenko (Russian: Иона Тимофеевич Никитченко) (1895 - April 22, 1967) was a judge of the Soviet Union. ... The Nuremberg judges, left to right: John Parker, Francis Biddle, Alexander Volchkov, Iola Nikitchenko, Geoffrey Lawrence, Norman Birkett Geoffrey Lawrence, 3rd Baron Trevethin and 1st Baron Oaksey (October 2, 1880 - August 28, 1971) was the main British Judge during the Nuremberg trials after World War II, and President of the... (William) Norman Birkett, 1st Baron Birkett (September 6, 1883 - February 10, 1962) was a noted British Barrister and judge who served as the alternate British Judge during the Nuremberg trials after World War II. Norman Birkett KC MP in 1930 Norman Birkett was a native of Ulverston near Barrow-in...

Participants

Each of the four countries provided one judge and an alternate, as well as the prosecutors. The judges were:

• Rt. Hon. Col. Sir Geoffrey Lawrence (British main and president)
• Sir Norman Birkett (British alternate)
• Francis Biddle (US main)
• John Parker (US alternate)
• Professor Henri Donnedieu de Vabres (French main)
• Robert Falco (French alternate)
• Major-General Iona Nikitchenko (Soviet main)
• Lieutenant-Colonel Alexander Volchkov (Soviet alternate)

The chief prosecutors were Robert H. Jackson for the United States, Sir Hartley Shawcross for the UK, Lieutenant-General R. A. Rudenko for the Soviet Union, and François de Menthon and Auguste Champetier de Ribes for France. Assisting Jackson was the lawyer Telford Taylor and assisting Shawcross were Major Sir David Maxwell-Fyfe and Sir John Wheeler-Bennett. Mervyn Griffith-Jones, later to become famous as the chief prosecutor in the Lady Chatterley's Lover obscenity trial, was also on the Shawcross's team. Shawcross also recruited a young barrister, Anthony Marreco, who was the son of a friend of his, to help the British team with the heavy workload. Robert Falco was an experienced judge who had tried many in court in France. The Right Honourable (abbreviated The Rt Hon. ... For other uses, see Colonel (disambiguation). ... Look up sir in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... The Nuremberg judges, left to right: John Parker, Francis Biddle, Alexander Volchkov, Iola Nikitchenko, Geoffrey Lawrence, Norman Birkett Geoffrey Lawrence, 3rd Baron Trevethin and 1st Baron Oaksey (October 2, 1880 - August 28, 1971) was the main British Judge during the Nuremberg trials after World War II, and President of the... Look up sir in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... (William) Norman Birkett, 1st Baron Birkett (September 6, 1883 - February 10, 1962) was a noted British Barrister and judge who served as the alternate British Judge during the Nuremberg trials after World War II. Norman Birkett KC MP in 1930 Norman Birkett was a native of Ulverston near Barrow-in... The Nuremberg judges, left to right: John Parker, Francis Biddle, Alexander Volchkov, Iona Nikitchenko, Geoffrey Lawrence, Norman Birkett Francis Beverley Biddle (May 9, 1886 – October 4, 1968) was an American lawyer and judge who is most famous as the primary American judge during the Nuremberg trials after World War II... Categories: Stub | Nuremberg Trials | 1885 births | 1958 deaths ... The meaning of the word professor (Latin: [1]) varies. ... Donnedieu on the left, with Falco beside him, and Parker on the right edge Henri Donnedieu de Vabres (July 8, 1880 - 1952) was a French jurist who took part to during the Nuremberg trials after World War II. He was the primary French judge during the proceedings, with Robert Falco... Categories: Stub | Nuremberg Trials ... Major General or Major-General is a military rank used in many countries. ... The Nuremberg judges, left to right: John Parker, Francis Biddle, Alexander Volchkov, Iona Nikitchenko, Geoffrey Lawrence, Norman Birkett Major-General Iona Timofeevich Nikitchenko (Russian: Иона Тимофеевич Никитченко) (1895 - April 22, 1967) was a judge of the Soviet Union. ... Lieutenant Colonel (Lieutenant-Colonel in English from the French grades spelling) is a rank of commissioned officer in the armies and most marine corps and air forces of the world, typically ranking above a Major and below a Colonel. ... The Nuremberg judges, left to right: John Parker, Francis Biddle, Alexander Volchkov, Iola Nikitchenko, Geoffrey Lawrence, Norman Birkett Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Fedorovich Volchkov (Russian: Алекса́ндр Фёдорович Волчко́в) was a judge during the Nuremberg trials after World War II. He was the alternate Soviet judge during the proceedings. ... Robert Houghwout Jackson (February 13, 1892–October 9, 1954) was United States Attorney General (1940–1941) and an Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court (1941–1954). ... Look up sir in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Hartley Shawcross, Attorney-General of England and Wales 1945-51 The Right Honourable Hartley William Shawcross, Baron Shawcross, PC, GBE KC (February 4, 1902–July 10, 2003), was a British barrister and politician and the lead British prosecutor at the Nuremberg War Crimes tribunal. ... Lieutenant General is a military rank used in many countries. ... General Roman Andreevich Rudenko (Russian: Роман Андреевич Руденко) was the Soviet Chief Prosecutor at the main trial of the major war criminals at the Nuremberg Trials. ... Telford Taylor Telford Taylor (February 24, 1908 - May 23, 1998) was a U.S. lawyer best known for his role in the Counsel for the Prosecution at the Nuremberg Trials after World War II, his opposition against Senator McCarthy in the 1950s, and his outspoken criticism of the U.S... Major is a military rank the use of which varies according to country. ... David Patrick Maxwell Fyfe, 1st Earl of Kilmuir GCVO, PC, KC, (29 May 1900 – 27 January 1967) was a British politician and jurist who became Lord Chancellor of Great Britain. ... Sir John Wheeler Wheeler-Bennett, GCVO, MCG, OBE, FRSL, FBA, (October 13, 1902-December 9, 1975) was a conservative British historian of German and diplomatic history. ... John Mervyn Guthrie Griffith-Jones, CBE MC QC (1 July 1909 - 13 July 1979)[1] was a British Judge and former barrister. ... This article is about the novel. ... Anthony (Tony) Freire Marreco (9 August 1915 – 4 June 2006) was a British barrister. ...

The main trial

Göring and Hess during trials

The International Military Tribunal was opened on October 18, 1945, in the Supreme Court Building in Berlin. The first session was presided over by the Soviet judge, Nikitchenko. The prosecution entered indictments against 24 major war criminals and six criminal organizations - the leadership of the Nazi party, the Schutzstaffel (SS) and Sicherheitsdienst (SD), the Gestapo, the Sturmabteilung (SA) and the High Command of the German armed forces (OKW). Image File history File links Goring&Hess. ... Image File history File links Goring&Hess. ... is the 291st day of the year (292nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1945 (MCMXLV) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar). ... This article is about the capital of Germany. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Organized crime. ... Nazism in history Nazi ideology Nazism and race Outside Germany Related subjects Lists Politics Portal         Nazism or National Socialism (German: Nationalsozialismus), refers primarily to the ideology and practices of the Nazi Party (National Socialist German Workers Party, German: Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei or NSDAP) under Adolf Hitler. ... SS redirects here. ... Sicherheitsdienst (SD) sleeve insignia. ... The   (contraction of Geheime Staatspolizei: “secret state police”) was the official secret police of Nazi Germany. ... The seal of SA The  , abbreviated SA, (German for Storm division or Storm section, usually translated as stormtroop(er)s), functioned as a paramilitary organization of the NSDAP — the German Nazi party. ... Oberkommando der Wehrmacht OKW most notably stands for Oberkommando der Wehrmacht - the high Command of the Third Reich armed forces. ...

The indictments were for:

1. Participation in a common plan or conspiracy for the accomplishment of crime against peace
2. Planning, initiating and waging wars of aggression and other crimes against peace
3. War crimes
4. Crimes against humanity

The 24 accused were: In the criminal law, a conspiracy is an agreement between natural persons to break the law at some time in the future, and, in some cases, with at least one overt act in furtherance of that agreement. ... A crime against peace, in international law, consists of starting or waging a war against the territorial integrity, political independence or sovereignty of a state, or in violation of international treaties, agreements or (legally binding) assurances. ... In international law, a war of aggression is generally considered to be any war for which the purpose is not to repel an invasion, or respond to an attack on the territory of a sovereign nation. ... In the context of war, a war crime is a punishable offense under International Law, for violations of the laws of war by any person or persons, military or civilian. ... This article is in need of attention. ...

"I" indicted      "G" indicted and found guilty      "O" Not Charged In the common law legal system, an indictment (IPA: ) is a formal accusation of having committed a criminal offense. ...

Name	Count				Sentence	Notes
	1	2	3	4
Martin Bormann	I	O	G	G	Death	Successor to Hess as Nazi Party Secretary. Sentenced to death in absentia, remains found in 1972.[5]
Karl Dönitz	G	G	I	O	10 years	Leader of the Kriegsmarine from 1943, succeeded Raeder. Initiator of the U-boat campaign. Became President of Germany following Hitler's death.[6] In evidence presented at the trial of Karl Dönitz on his orders to the U-boat fleet to breach the London Rules, Admiral Chester Nimitz stated that unrestricted submarine warfare was carried on in the Pacific Ocean by the United States from the first day that nation entered the war. Dönitz was found guilty of breaching the 1936 Second London Naval Treaty, but his sentence was not assessed on the ground of his breaches of the international law of submarine warfare (IQ = 138).[7]
Hans Frank	I	O	G	G	Death	Reich Law Leader 1933-1945 and Governor-General of the General Government in occupied Poland 1939-1945. Expressed repentance (IQ = 130)[8]
Wilhelm Frick	I	G	G	G	Death	Hitler's Minister of the Interior 1933-1943 and Reich Protector of Bohemia-Moravia 1943-1945. Authored the Nuremberg Race Laws (IQ = 124).[9]
Hans Fritzsche	I	I	I	O	Acquitted	Popular radio commentator, and head of the news division of the Nazi Propaganda Ministry. Tried in place of Joseph Goebbels (IQ = 130).[10]
Walther Funk	I	G	G	G	Life Imprisonment	Hitler's Minister of Economics. Succeeded Schacht as head of the Reichsbank. Released due to ill health on May 16, 1957 (IQ = 124).[11]
Hermann Göring	G	G	G	G	Death	Reichsmarschall, Commander of the Luftwaffe 1935-1945, Chief of the 4-Year Plan 1936-1945, and several departments of the SS. Committed suicide the night before his execution (IQ = 138).[12]
Rudolf Hess	G	G	I	I	Life Imprisonment	Hitler's deputy, flew to Scotland in 1941 in attempt to broker peace with Great Britain. After trial, committed to Spandau Prison; died in 1987 (IQ = 120).[13]
Alfred Jodl	G	G	G	G	Death	Wehrmacht Generaloberst, Keitel's subordinate and Chief of the O.K.W.'s Operations Division 1938-1945. Subsequently exonerated by German court in 1953 (IQ = 127).[14]
Ernst Kaltenbrunner	I	O	G	G	Death	Highest surviving SS-leader. Chief of RSHA 1943-45, the central Nazi intelligence organ. Also commanded many of the Einsatzgruppen and several concentration camps (IQ = 113).[15]
Wilhelm Keitel	G	G	G	G	Death	Head of Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW) 1938-1945 (IQ = 129).[16]
Gustav Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach	I	I	I		----	Major Nazi industrialist. C.E.O of Krupp A.G 1912-45. Medically unfit for trial. The prosecutors attempted to substitute his son Alfried (who ran Krupp for his father during most of the war) in the indictment, but the judges rejected this as being too close to trial. Alfried was tried in a separate Nuremberg trial for his use of slave labor, thus escaping the worst notoriety and possibly death.
Robert Ley	I	I	I	I	----	Head of DAF, The German Labour Front. Suicide on October 25, 1945, before the trial began
Baron Konstantin von Neurath	G	G	G	G	15 years	Minister of Foreign Affairs 1932-1938, succeeded by Ribbentrop. Later, Protector of Bohemia and Moravia 1939-43. Resigned in 1943 due to dispute with Hitler. Released (ill health) November 6, 1954 (IQ = 125).[17]
Franz von Papen	I	I	O	O	Acquitted	Chancellor of Germany in 1932 and Vice-Chancellor under Hitler in 1933-1934. Ambassador to Austria 1934-38 and ambassador to Turkey 1939-1944. Although acquitted at Nuremberg, von Papen was reclassified as a war criminal in 1947 by a German de-Nazification court, and sentenced to eight years' hard labour. He was acquitted following appeal after serving two years (IQ = 134).[18]
Erich Raeder	G	G	G	O	Life Imprisonment	Commander In Chief of the Kriegsmarine from 1928 until his retirement in 1943, succeeded by Dönitz. Released (ill health) September 26, 1955 (IQ = 134).[19]
Joachim von Ribbentrop	G	G	G	G	Death	Ambassador-Plenipotentiary 1935-1936. Ambassador to the United Kingdom 1936-1938. Nazi Minister of Foreign Affairs 1938-1945 (IQ = 129),[20]
Alfred Rosenberg	G	G	G	G	Death	Racial theory ideologist. Later, Minister of the Eastern Occupied Territories 1941-1945 (IQ = 129).[21]
Fritz Sauckel	I	I	G	G	Death	Gauleiter of Thuringia 1927-1945. Plenipotentiary of the Nazi slave labor program 1942-1945 (IQ = 118).[22]
Dr. Hjalmar Schacht	I	I	O	O	Acquitted	Prominent banker and economist. Pre-war president of the Reichsbank 1923-1930 & 1933-1938 and Economics Minister 1934-1937. Admitted to violating the Treaty of Versailles (IQ = 143).[23]
Baldur von Schirach	I	O	O	G	20 years	Head of the Hitlerjugend from 1933 to 1940, Gauleiter of Vienna 1940-1943. Expressed repentance (IQ = 130).[24]
Arthur Seyss-Inquart	I	G	G	G	Death	Instrumental in the Anschluss and briefly Austrian Chancellor 1938. Deputy to Frank in Poland 1939-1940. Later, Reich Commissioner of the occupied Netherlands 1940-1945. Expressed repentance (IQ = 141).[25]
Albert Speer	I	I	G	G	20 Years	Hitler's favorite architect and close friend, and Minister of Armaments from 1942. In this capacity, he was ultimately responsible for the use of slave labourers from the occupied territories in armaments production. Expressed repentance (IQ = 128).[26]
Julius Streicher	I	O	O	G	Death	Gauleiter of Franconia 1922-1945. Incited hatred and murder against the Jews through his weekly newspaper, Der Stürmer (IQ = 106).[27]

"I" indicted      "G" indicted and found guilty      "O" Not Charged Martin Bormann Martin Bormann (June 17, 1900 - c. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (544x657, 45 KB) Description: Head and shoulders portrait of Vice Admiral Karl Doenitz, flag officer in charge of German U-boats (BdU) from 1935 to 1943 and Commander in Chief of the German Navy from 1943 to 1945 Source: IWMCollections IWM... Karl Dönitz (IPA pronunciation:  ) (born 16 September 1891; died 24 December 1980) was a German naval leader, who commanded the German Navy (Kriegsmarine) during the second half of World War II. Dönitz was also President of Germany for 23 days after Adolf Hitlers suicide. ... U-boat is also a nickname for some diesel locomotives built by GE; see List of GE locomotives October 1939. ... The President of Germany is Germanys head of state. ... Karl Dönitz (IPA pronunciation:  ) (born 16 September 1891; died 24 December 1980) was a German naval leader, who commanded the German Navy (Kriegsmarine) during the second half of World War II. Dönitz was also President of Germany for 23 days after Adolf Hitlers suicide. ... U-boat is also a nickname for some diesel locomotives built by GE; see List of GE locomotives October 1939. ... The London Naval Treaty was an agreement between the United Kingdom, Japan, France, Italy and the United States, signed on April 22, 1930, which to regulate submarine warfare and limited military shipbuilding. ... Chester William Nimitz (February 24, 1885 – February 20, 1966) was the Commander in Chief of Pacific Forces for the United States and Allied forces during World War II. He was the United States leading authority on submarines, as well as Chief of the Navys Bureau of Navigation in 1939. ... Unrestricted submarine warfare is a kind of naval warfare in which submarines sink merchant ships without warning. ... The Second London Naval Disarmament Conference opened in England on December 9, 1935. ... Hans Frank File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Hans Frank (May 23, 1900 – October 16, 1946) was a lawyer for the Nazi party during the 1920s and a senior official in Nazi Germany. ... The General Government (in full General government for the occupied Polish areas, in German Generalgouvernement für die besetzten polnischen Gebiete) was the name given by Germany to the governing authority in Poland after its occupation by the Wehrmacht in September and October 1939. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Dr. Wilhelm Frick (March 12, 1877 â€“ October 16, 1946) was a prominent Nazi official. ... 1933 to 1939 Nazi racial policy changed extensively in the years between 1933 and 1939. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Hans Fritzsche (April 21, 1900 - September 27, 1953) was a senior Nazi official, ending the war as Ministerialdirektor at the Propagandaministerium. ... Paul Joseph Goebbels (German pronunciation: IPA: ; English generally IPA: ) (October 29, 1897 – May 1, 1945) was a German politician and Minister for Public Enlightenment and Propaganda during the National Socialist regime from 1933 to 1945. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Walter Funk Walter Emanuel Funk (August 18, 1890 - May 31, 1960) was a prominent Nazi official. ... A 100 Mark banknote issued by the German Reichsbank in 1908 (http://www. ... is the 136th day of the year (137th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1957 (MCMLVII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link displays the 1957 Gregorian calendar). ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Hermann Wilhelm Göring ( ) (also Goering in English) (January 12, 1893 – October 15, 1946) was a German politician and military leader, a leading member of the Nazi Party, second in command of the Third Reich, and commander of the Luftwaffe. ... The original uniform of the Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring shown in the Luftwaffe-Museum in Berlin. ... The Deutsche Luftwaffe or   (German: air force, IPA: ) is the commonly used term for the German air force. ... SS or ss or Ss may be: The Schutzstaffel, a Nazi paramilitary force Steamship (SS) (ship prefix) The United States Secret Service A submarine not powered by nuclear energy (SS) (United States Navy designator), see SSN A Soviet/Russian surface-to-surface missile, as listed by NATO reporting name Shortstop... Not to be confused with Rudolf Hoess. ... Image File history File links Alfred-jodl-72-926. ... Alfred Jodl (May 10, 1890 – October 16, 1946) was a German military commander, attaining the position of Chief of the Operations Staff of the Armed Forces High Command (Oberkommando der Wehrmacht, or OKW) during World War II, acting as deputy to Wilhelm Keitel. ... The straight-armed Balkenkreuz, a stylized version of the Iron Cross, the emblem of the Wehrmacht. ... Colonel General is a senior military rank which is used in some of the world’s militaries. ... Ernst Kaltenbrunner File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Ernst Kaltenbrunner (October 4, 1903 – October 16, 1946) was a senior Nazi official during World War II. He was the highest ranking SS leader to face trial. ... SS or ss or Ss may be: The Schutzstaffel, a Nazi paramilitary force Steamship (SS) (ship prefix) The United States Secret Service A submarine not powered by nuclear energy (SS) (United States Navy designator), see SSN A Soviet/Russian surface-to-surface missile, as listed by NATO reporting name Shortstop... Reinhard Heydrich - the first director of RSHA The RSHA, or Reichssicherheitshauptamt (Reich Security Main Office), was a subordinate organization of the SS created by Heinrich Himmler on September 22, 1939, through the merger of the Sicherheitsdienst (SD, or Security Agency), the Gestapo (Secret State Police) and the Kriminalpolizei (Criminal Police). ... A member of Einsatzgruppe D is just about to shoot a Jewish man kneeling before a filled mass grave in Vinnitsa, Ukraine, in 1942. ... It has been suggested that Internment be merged into this article or section. ... Wilhelm Bodewin Johann Gustav Keitel (September 22, 1882–October 16, 1946) was a German field marshal (Generalfeldmarschall) and a senior military leader during World War II. // Keitel was born in Helmscherode, Brunswick, German Empire, the son of Carl Keitel, a middle-class landowner, and his wife Apollonia Vissering. ... Gustav Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach, Taffi, (August 7, 1870 - January 16, 1950) ran the German Friedrich Krupp AG heavy industry conglomerate from 1909 until 1941. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (514x740, 50 KB) Description: Portrait Dr. Robert Ley Source: USHMM Photograph #09606 Post-Work: User:W.wolny Licence: Public Domain File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Nuremberg... Dr Robert Ley Dr. Robert Ley (15 February 1890 – 25 October 1945), Nazi German politician, was head of the German Labour Front from 1933 to 1945. ... The Deutsche Arbeitsfront (abbr. ... is the 298th day of the year (299th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1945 (MCMXLV) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar). ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Konstantin von Neurath Konstantin Freiherr von Neurath (February 2, 1873 – August 14, 1956) was a German diplomat, Foreign Minister of Germany (1932-1938) and Reichsprotektor (nazi representative in the Czech puppet state) of Bohemia and Moravia (1939-1943). ... Joachim von Ribbentrop Joachim von Ribbentrop (born Joachim Ribbentrop) (April 30, 1893–October 16, 1946) was the Foreign Minister of Nazi Germany from 1938 until 1945. ... Flag of Bohemia Bohemia (Czech: ; German: ) is a historical region in central Europe, occupying the western and middle thirds of the Czech Republic. ... Flag of Moravia Moravia (Czech and Slovak: Morava; German: ; Hungarian: ; Polish: ) is a historical region in the east of the Czech RepublicCzechia. ... is the 310th day of the year (311th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1954 (MCMLIV) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Image File history File links Vonpapen1. ... Franz Joseph Hermann Michael Maria von Papen (29 October 1879 – 2 May 1969) was a German nobleman Catholic politician, General Staff officer, and diplomat, who served as Chancellor of Germany in 1932. ... For other uses, see Chancellor (disambiguation). ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Grossadmiral Erich Raeder Erich Johann Albert Raeder (April 24, 1876 - November 6, 1960) was a naval leader in Germany before and during World War II. Raeder attained the highest possible naval rank – that of Großadmiral (Grand Admiral) – in 1939, becoming the first person to hold that rank since Alfred... is the 269th day of the year (270th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1955 (MCMLV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays the 1955 Gregorian calendar). ... Ulrich Friedrich Wilhelm Joachim von Ribbentrop (born Ulrich Friedrich Wilhelm Joachim Ribbentrop) (April 30, 1893 – October 16, 1946) was Foreign Minister of Germany from 1938 until 1945. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Alfred Rosenberg around 1935   (January 12, 1893 Reval (today Tallinn) – October 16, 1946) was an early and intellectually influential member of the Nazi party, who later held several important posts in the Nazi government. ... The master race (German: die Herrenrasse,  ) is a concept in Nazi ideology, which holds that the Germanic and Nordic people represent an ideal and pure race. It derives from nineteenth century racial theory, which posited a hierarchy of races placing African Bushmen and Indigenous Australians at the bottom of the... File links The following pages link to this file: Fritz Sauckel ... Fritz Sauckel (Ernst Friedrich Christoph Sauckel) (October 27, 1894 – October 16, 1946) was a Nazi war criminal, who organized the systematic enslavement of millions of men and boys from lands occupied by Nazi Germany. ... Source: http://www. ... Dr. Hjalmar Horace Greeley Schacht Dr. Hjalmar Horace Greeley Schacht (22 January 1877 – 3 June 1970) was a German financial expert and Minister of Economics from 1935 until 1937. ... This article is about the Treaty of Versailles of June 28, 1919, which ended World War I. For other uses, see Treaty of Versailles (disambiguation) . The Treaty of Versailles (1919) was a peace treaty that officially ended World War I between the Allied and Associated Powers and Germany. ... Image File history File links Baldur_von_Schirach_beim_Diner. ... Baldur von Schirach Baldur Benedikt von Schirach (May 9, 1907 – August 8, 1974) was a Nazi youth leader later convicted of being a war criminal. ... Nazism in history Nazi ideology Nazism and race Outside Germany Related subjects Lists Politics Portal         For the SS division with the nickname Hitlerjugend see; 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend The Hitler Youth (German:   , abbreviated HJ) was a paramilitary organization of the Nazi Party. ... For other uses, see Vienna (disambiguation). ... Arthur Seyss-Inquart Arthur Seyss-Inquart (born Arthur Zajtich, officially (German) Arthur Seyß-Inquart) (July 22, 1892 – October 16, 1946) was a prominent Nazi official in Austria and for wartime Germany in Poland and the Netherlands. ... German troops march into Austria on 12 March 1938. ... Image File history File links Albert-Speer-72-929. ... For the son of Albert Speer, also an architect, see Albert Speer (the younger). ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Julius Streicher (February 12, 1885 – October 16, 1946) was a prominent Nazi prior to and during World War II. He was the publisher of the Nazi Der Stürmer newspaper, which was to become a part of the Nazi propaganda machine. ... 1943 Stürmer issue: Satan Der Stürmer (literally, The Stormer) was a weekly Nazi newspaper published by Julius Streicher from 1923 to the end of World War II in 1945, with brief suspensions in circulation due to legal difficulties. ... In the common law legal system, an indictment (IPA: ) is a formal accusation of having committed a criminal offense. ...

Throughout the trials, specifically between January and July 1946, the defendants and a number of witnesses were interviewed by American psychiatrist Leon Goldensohn. His notes detailing the demeanour and personality of the defendants survive. Leon Goldensohn Leon N. Goldensohn (October 19, 1911 – October 24, 1961) was an American psychiatrist charged with caring for the mental health of the twenty-one Nazi defendants awaiting trial at Nuremburg in 1946. ...

The death sentences were carried out Oct 16th 1946 by hanging using the standard drop method instead of long drop.^[28][29] The executioner was John C. Woods. The French judges suggested the use of a firing squad for the military condemned, as is standard for military courts-martial, but this was opposed by Biddle and the Soviet judges. These argued that the military officers had violated their military ethos and were not worthy of the firing squad, which was considered to be more dignified. The prisoners sentenced to incarceration were transferred to Spandau Prison in 1947. Hanging is the suspension of a person by a ligature, usually a cord wrapped around the neck, causing death. ... Spandau Prison from the air Spandau Prison was a prison situated in the borough of Spandau in western Berlin, constructed in 1876 and demolished in 1987 after the death of the last prisoner. ...

Of the twelve defendants sentenced to death by hanging, two were not hanged: Hermann Göring committed suicide the night before the execution and Martin Bormann was not present when convicted. The remaining ten defendants sentenced to death were hanged.

The definition of what constitutes a war crime is described by the Nuremberg Principles, a document which was created as a result of the trial. The medical experiments conducted by German doctors and prosecuted in the so-called Doctors' Trial led to the creation of the Nuremberg Code to control future trials involving human subjects. The Nuremberg Principles were a set of guidelines for determining what constitues a war crime. ... Karl Brandt at the Doctors Trial The Doctors Trial (officially United States of America v. ... The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view. ...

Of the organizations the following were found not to be criminal:

• Reichsregierung
• Oberkommando
• Generalstab der Wehrmacht
• Sturmabteilung

The seal of SA The  , abbreviated SA, (German for Storm division or Storm section, usually translated as stormtroop(er)s), functioned as a paramilitary organization of the NSDAP — the German Nazi party. ...

Subsidiary and related trials

• Eichmann Trial
• Anton Dostler
• Subsequent Nuremberg Trials for the trials conducted by the NMT.
• Dachau Trials
• Romanian People's Tribunals
• Soviet Military Tribunal
• War-responsibility trials in Finland
• Frankfurt Auschwitz trials

The Trial of Adolf Eichmann were held in Israel in the early 1960s. ... Dostler tied to a stake before his execution Anton Dostler (May 10, 1891 - December 1, 1945) was a General of infantry in the regular German army during World War II (see Germany and Nazi party). ... Chief prosecutor Telford Taylor opens the prosecution case in the Krupp Trial The Subsequent Nuremberg Trials (or, more formally, the Trials of War Criminals before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals (NMT)) were a series of twelve U.S. military trials for war crimes against surviving members of the military, political, and... The Dachau Trials were proceedings against minor war criminals found in the United States sectors of occupation in Germany and Austria, and those accused of committing war crimes against American citizens and military personnel. ... The two Romanian Peoples Tribunals, the Bucharest Peoples Tribunal and the Northern Transylvania Peoples Tribunal (which sat in Cluj) were set up by postwar Romanian Government, overseen by the Allied Control Commission to try suspected war criminals, in line with Article 14 of the Armistice Agreement with... The war-responsibility trials in Finland (Finnish: ) was a trial of the Finnish wartime leaders held responsible for the starting or continuation of the war of aggression against the Soviet Union during the Continuation War, 1941-1944. ... The Frankfurt Auschwitz Trials, known in German as der Auschwitz-Prozess or der zweite Auschwitz-Prozess, (the second Auschwitz trial) was a series of trials running from December 20, 1963 to August 10, 1965, charging twenty-two defendants under German penal law for their roles in the Holocaust as mid...

Influence on the development of international criminal law

The Nuremberg trials had a great influence on the development of international criminal law. The International Law Commission, acting on the request of the United Nations General Assembly, produced in 1950 the report Principles of International Law Recognized in the Charter of the Nürnberg Tribunal and in the Judgement of the Tribunal (Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 1950, vol. III). The influence of the tribunal can also be seen in the proposals for a permanent international criminal court, and the drafting of international criminal codes, later prepared by the International Law Commission. International law deals with the relationships between states, or between persons or entities in different states. ... The International Law Commission was established by the General Assembly of the United Nations in 1948 with the purpose of codifying and promoting international law. ... The United Nations General Assembly (GA, UNGA) is one of the five principal organs of the United Nations and the only one in which all member nations have equal representation. ...

Part of the defence was that some treaties were not binding on the Axis powers because they were not signatories. This was addressed in the judgment relating to war crimes and crimes against humanity^[30] contains an expansion of customary law "the Convention Hague 1907 expressly stated that it was an attempt 'to revise the general laws and customs of war,' which it thus recognised to be then existing, but by 1939 these rules laid down in the Convention were recognised by all civilised nations, and were regarded as being declaratory of the laws and customs of war which are referred to in Article 6 (b) of the [London] Charter." The implication under international law is that if enough countries have signed up to a treaty, and that treaty has been in effect for a reasonable period of time, then it can be interpreted as binding on all nations not just those who signed the original treaty. This is a highly controversial aspect of international law, one that is still actively debated in international legal journals. The Hague Conventions were international treaties negotiated at the First and Second Peace Conferences at The Hague, Netherlands in 1899 and 1907, respectively, and were, along with the Geneva Conventions, among the first formal statements of the laws of war and war crimes in the nascent body of secular international...

The Nuremberg trials initiated a movement for the prompt establishment of a permanent international criminal court, eventually leading over fifty years later to the adoption of the Statute of the International Criminal Court. The official logo of the ICC The International Criminal Court (ICC or ICCt)[1] was established in 2002 as a permanent tribunal to prosecute individuals for genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and the crime of aggression, although it cannot currently exercise jurisdiction over the crime of aggression. ...

• The Conclusions of the Nuremberg trials served to help draft:
  • The Genocide Convention, 1948.
  • The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948.
  • The Convention on the Abolition of the Statute of Limitations on War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity, 1968.
  • The Geneva Convention on the Laws and Customs of War, 1949; its supplementary protocols, 1977.

Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide Approved and proposed for signature and ratification or accession by General Assembly resolution 260 A (III) of 9 December 1948 Entry into force: 12 January 1951, in accordance with article XIII The Contracting Parties , Having considered the declaration made... The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (abbreviated UDHR) is an advisory declaration adopted by the United Nations General Assembly (A/RES/217, 10 December 1948 at Palais de Chaillot, Paris). ... The Geneva Conventions consist of treaties formulated in Geneva, Switzerland that set the standards for international law for humanitarian concerns. ...

Validity of the court

US Supreme Court Chief Justice Harlan Fiske Stone called the Nuremberg trials a fraud. "[Chief US prosecutor] Jackson is away conducting his high-grade lynching party in Nuremberg," he wrote. "I don't mind what he does to the Nazis, but I hate to see the pretense that he is running a court and proceeding according to common law. This is a little too sanctimonious a fraud to meet my old-fashioned ideas."^[31]

Associate Supreme Court Justice William Douglas charged that the Allies were guilty of "substituting power for principle" at Nuremberg. "I thought at the time and still think that the Nuremberg trials were unprincipled," he wrote. "Law was created ex post facto to suit the passion and clamor of the time."^[32]

The validity of the court has been questioned for a variety of reasons:

• The defendants were not allowed to appeal or affect the selection of judges. A. L. Goodhart, Professor at Oxford, opposed the view that, because the judges were appointed by the victors, the Tribunal was not impartial and could not be regarded as a court in the true sense. He wrote:

"Attractive as this argument may sound in theory, it ignores the fact that it runs counter to the administration of law in every country. If it were true then no spy could be given a legal trial, because his case is always heard by judges representing the enemy country. Yet no one has ever argued that in such cases it was necessary to call on neutral judges. The prisoner has the right to demand that his judges shall be fair, but not that they shall be neutral. As Lord Writ has pointed out, the same principle is applicable to ordinary criminal law because 'a burglar cannot complain that he is being tried by a jury of honest citizens.'" ("The Legality of the Nuremberg Trials", Juridical Review, April, 1946.)

• The main Soviet judge, Nikitchenko, had taken part in Stalin's show trials of 1936-1938,^[33].

• Haj Mohammad Amin al-Husayni, one of the most important collaborators with the Nazis, who, according to Adolf Eichmann, was a staunch supporter of the Nazi’s death camps,^[34] was exempted from these trials.

• One of the charges, brought against Keitel, Jodl, and Ribbentrop included conspiracy to commit aggression against Poland in 1939. The Secret Protocols of the German-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact of August 23, 1939, proposed the partition of Poland between the Germans and the Soviets (which was subsequently executed in September 1939); however, Soviet leaders were not tried for being part of the same conspiracy.^[35]. Instead, the Tribunal falsely proclaimed the Secret Protocols of the Non-Aggression Pact to be a forgery.

• In 1915, the Allied Powers, Britain, France, and Russia, jointly issued a statement explicitly charging, for the first time, another government (the Sublime Porte) of committing "a crime against humanity." However it was not until the phrase was further developed in the London Charter that it had a specific meaning. As the London Charter definition of what constituted a crime against humanity was unknown when many of the crimes were committed, it could be argued to be a retrospective law, in violation of the principles of prohibition of ex post facto laws and the general principle of penal law nullum crimen, nulla poena sine praevia lege poenali.^[36]

• The court agreed to relieve the Soviet leadership from attending these trials as war criminals in order to hide their crimes against war civilians, crimes that were committed by their army that included "carving up Poland in 1939 and attacking Finland three months later." This "exclusion request" was initiated by the Russians and subsequently approved by the court's administration.^[37]

• The trials were conducted under their own rules of evidence; the indictments were created ex post facto and were not based on any nation's law; the tu quoque defense was removed; and some claim the entire spirit of the assembly was "victor's justice". The Charter of the International Military Tribunal permitted the use of normally inadmissible "evidence." Article 19 specified that "The Tribunal shall not be bound by technical rules of evidence... and shall admit any evidence which it deems to have probative value." Article 21 of the Nuremberg International Military Tribunal (IMT) Charter stipulated:

"The Tribunal shall not require proof of facts of common knowledge but shall take judicial notice thereof. It shall also take judicial notice of official governmental documents and reports of the United [Allied] Nations, including acts and documents of the committees set up in the various allied countries for the investigation of war crimes, and the records and findings of military and other Tribunals of any of the United [Allied] Nations"

• False evidence was submitted by the Soviets. For example, on the basis of articles 19 and 21 of the IMT Charter, German guilt for the killing of thousands of Polish officers in the Katyn forest near Smolensk was confirmed by Nuremberg document USSR-54. This detailed report by a Soviet "investigative commission" was submitted as proof for the charge made in the joint indictment of the four Allied governments. As a Soviet prosecutor explained: "We find, in the Indictment, one of the most important criminal acts for which the major war criminals are responsible was the mass execution of Polish prisoners of war shot in the Katyn forest near Smolensk by the German fascist invaders." ^{[38] [39] [40] [41] [42] [43]}

In 1990, the Soviet government acknowledged that the Katyn massacre was carried out, not by a German unit, as "proven" at Nuremberg, but by the Soviet secret police.^[44]

However, as described above, the unconditional surrender of the Axis powers was unusual and led directly to the formation of the international tribunals. In most cases those who are not prisoners of war are tried under their own judicial system if they are suspected of committing war crimes; in restricting the international tribunal to trying suspected Axis war crimes, the Allies were acting within normal international law. Arthur Lehman Goodhart KBE, KC (1891–1978) was an academic lawyer and the first American to be the Master of an Oxford College. ... The University of Oxford, located in the city of Oxford in England, is the oldest university in the English-speaking world. ... The Nuremberg judges, left to right: John Parker, Francis Biddle, Alexander Volchkov, Iona Nikitchenko, Geoffrey Lawrence, Norman Birkett Major-General Iona Timofeevich Nikitchenko (Russian: Иона Тимофеевич Никитченко) (1895 - April 22, 1967) was a judge of the Soviet Union. ... Josef Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili (Georgian: , Ioseb Besarionis Dze Jughashvili; Russian: , Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili) (December 18 [O.S. December 6] 1878[1] – March 5, 1953), better known by his adopted name, Joseph Stalin (alternatively transliterated Josef Stalin), was General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Unions Central Committee from... The Moscow Trials were a series of trials of political opponents of Joseph Stalin during the Great Purge. ... Mohammad Amin al-Husayni (ca. ... Otto Adolf Eichmann (known as Adolf Eichmann; March 19, 1906 – June 1, 1962) was a high-ranking Nazi and SS Obersturmbannführer (equivalent to Lieutenant Colonel). ... Year 1939 (MCMXXXIX) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, also known as the Hitler-Stalin Pact or Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact or Nazi-Soviet Pact and formally known as the Treaty of Nonaggression between Germany and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, was in theory a non-aggression treaty between the German Third Reich and the... {| style=float:right; |- | |- | |} is the 235th day of the year (236th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Synonym of the government of the Ottoman Empire often confusing the Sublime Porte and the High Porte. ... In international law, a crime against humanity consists of acts of persecution or any large scale atrocities against a body of people, as being the criminal offence above all others. ... An ex post facto law (from the Latin for from something done afterward) or retroactive law, is a law that retroactively changes the legal consequences of acts committed or the legal status of facts and relationships that existed prior to the enactment of the law. ... Nullum crimen, nulla poena sine praevia lege poenali is a basic maxim in continental European legal thinking, authored by Paul Johann Anselm Ritter von Feuerbach as part of the Bavarian Code in 1813. ... Soviet war crimes gives a short overview about serious crimes, which probably offend against international law, committed by the Red Armys (1918-1946, later Soviet Army) leadership and an unknown number of single members of the Soviet armed forces during in 1919 - 1990 including those in Eastern Europe in... Rules of evidence govern if, when, how, and for what purpose proof of a case is placed before a trier of fact for consideration. ... An ex post facto law (Latin for from a thing done afterward), also known as a retrospective law, is a law that is retroactive, i. ... An ad hominem argument, also known as argumentum ad hominem (Latin, literally argument to the man), is 1) a logical fallacy that involves replying to an argument or assertion by addressing the person presenting the argument or assertion rather than the argument itself; 2) an argument pointing out an inconsistency... The label victors justice (in German, Siegerjustiz) is applied by advocates to a situation in which they believe that a victorious nation is applying different rules to judge what is right or wrong for their own forces and for those of the (former) enemy. ... For the 1947 Soviet film about the trials, see Nuremberg Trials (film). ... Unconditional surrender refers to a surrender without conditions, except for those provided by international law. ...

Many commentators, however, felt the Nuremberg Trials represented a step forward in extending fairness to the vanquished by requiring that actual criminal misdeeds be proved before punishment could ensue; including some of the defendants and their legal team:

Perhaps the most telling responses to the critics of Jackson and Nuremberg were those of the defendants at trial. Hans Frank, the defendant who had served as the Nazi Governor General of occupied Poland, stated, “I regard this trial as a God-willed court to examine and put an end to the terrible era of suffering under Adolf Hitler.” With the same theme, but a different emphasis, defendant Albert Speer, Hitler’s war production minister, said, “This trial is necessary. There is a shared responsibility for such horrible crimes even in an authoritarian state.” Dr. Theodore Klefish, a member of the German defense team, wrote: "It is obvious that the trial and judgment of such proceedings require of the tribunal the utmost impartiality, loyalty and sense of justice. The Nuremberg tribunal has met all these requirements with consideration and dignity. Nobody dares to doubt that it was guided by the search for truth and justice from the first to the last day of this tremendous trial."^[45]

Notes

Nazi War Criminals and Trials: A Selected Bibliography Allen, Charles R. Nazi War Criminals in America: Facts--Action: The Basic Handbook. Charles R. Allen, Jr. New York: Highgate House, 1985. The Sunday Times is a Sunday broadsheet newspaper distributed in the United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland, published by Times Newspapers Ltd, a subsidiary of News International which is in turn owned by News Corporation. ... is the 1st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... The Avalon Project is Yale Law Schools digital library of Documents in Law, History and Diplomacy. ... The Sterling Law Building Sculptural ornamentation on the Sterling Law Building Yale Law School, or YLS, is the law school of Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut. ... is the 230th day of the year (231st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 252nd day of the year (253rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1947 (MCMXLVII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1947 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Hitler redirects here. ... The Avalon Project is Yale Law Schools digital library of Documents in Law, History and Diplomacy. ... The Sterling Law Building Sculptural ornamentation on the Sterling Law Building Yale Law School, or YLS, is the law school of Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut. ... The Avalon Project is Yale Law Schools digital library of Documents in Law, History and Diplomacy. ... The Sterling Law Building Sculptural ornamentation on the Sterling Law Building Yale Law School, or YLS, is the law school of Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut. ... Dr. George Robert Ackworth Conquest (born July 15, 1917), British historian, became one of the best-known writers on the Soviet Union with the publication, in 1968, of his account of Stalins purges of the 1930s, The Great Terror. ... BBC News is the department within the BBC responsible for the corporations news-gathering and production of news programmes on BBC television, radio and online. ... is the 350th day of the year (351st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2004 (MMIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Henry T. King Jr. ... is the 121st day of the year (122nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

American Bar Association. Section of International and Comparative Law Section. Nuremberg revisited: The Judgement of Nuremberg in today's world. S.l.: s.n., 1970.

Andrus, Burton C. The Infamous of Nuremburg. London: Leslie Frewin, 1969.

Arendt, Hannah. Eichmann in Jerusalem: a Report on the Banality of Evil. New York: Penguin Books, 1987, c1964.

Benton, Wilbourn E. and Georg Grimm, eds. Nuremberg: German Views of the War Trials. Dallas: Southern Methodist University Press, 1970.

Bernstein, Victor Heine. Final Judgment; the Story of Nuremberg. New York: Boni & Gaer, 1947.

Blum, Howard. Wanted! The Search for Nazis in America. Quadrangle, New York: The New York Times Book Company, 1977.

Bosch, William J. Judgment on Nuremburg. Chappel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press, 1970.

Borkin, Joseph. The Crime and Punishment of I. G. Farben. New York: Free Press, 1978.

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See also

• Nazi war criminals
• Command responsibility
• Doctors' Trial
• Nazi eugenics
• Judgment at Nuremberg (1961 film)
• Nuremberg Defense
• Nuremberg Diary, an account of observations and discussions with the defendants by an American psychologist
• Tanya Savicheva
• War crime and List of war crimes
• International Military Tribunal for the Far East
• Eichmann in Jerusalem

The following is a list of people suspected of commiting war crimes on behalf of Nazi Germany or any of the Axis Powers during World War Two. ... Peace Palace in The Hague Command responsibility, sometimes referred to as the Yamashita standard, or the Medina standard is the doctrine of hierarchical accountability in cases of war crimes. ... Karl Brandt at the Doctors Trial The Doctors Trial (officially United States of America v. ... Nazism in history Nazi ideology Nazism and race Outside Germany Related subjects Lists Politics Portal         Nazi eugenics pertains to Nazi Germanys race based social policies that placed the improvement of the race through eugenics at the center of their concerns and targeted those humans they identified as life unworthy... Maximilian Schell and Richard Widmark in Judgment at Nuremberg Judgment at Nuremberg is a 1961 film which gives a fictionalized account of the post-World War II Nuremberg Trials. ... The Nuremberg Defense is a legal defense that essentially states that the defendant was only following orders (befehl ist befehl) and is therefore not responsible for his crimes. ... Nuremberg Diary is Gustave Gilberts account of and interviews he conducted during the Nuremberg Trials of Nazi Leaders, including Hermann Göring, involved in World War II and the Holocaust. ... Tatyana Nikolayevna Savicheva (Russian: Татьяна Николаевна Савичева), commonly referred to as Tanya Savicheva (Таня Савичева) (January 25, 1930 - July 1, 1944) was a Russian child diarist who died during the Siege of Leningrad during World War II. The diary that survives her is brief yet heartbreaking. ... In the context of war, a war crime is a punishable offense under International Law, for violations of the laws of war by any person or persons, military or civilian. ... This article lists and summarizes War Crimes committed since the Hague Convention of 1907. ... The International Military Tribunal for the Far East (IMTFE), also known as the Tokyo Trials, the Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal or simply as the Tribunal, was convened to try the leaders of the Empire of Japan for three types of crimes: Class A (crimes against peace), Class B (war crimes... The cover of Eichmann in Jerusalem by Hannah Arendt Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil is a book written by political theorist Hannah Arendt, originally published in 1963. ...

External links

• Official records of the Nuremberg trials (The Blue series) in 42 volumes from the records of the Library of congress
• UK Holocaust Centre Owned and run by the Aegis Trust An independent international organisation dedicated to eliminating genocide
• Official page of the Nuremberg City Museum
• Nuremberg defence doesn't make the grade-The Age newspaper
• Donovan Nuremberg Trials Collection Cornell Law Library
• Nuremberg Trials Project: A digital document collection Harvard Law School Library
• The Avalon Project
• Charter of the International Military Tribunal (Nuremberg trials)
• The Subsequent Nuremberg Trials
• Nizkor Holocaust Web Project
• United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Online Exhibit
• Special focus on The Nuremberg Trials - USHMM
• Famous World Trials - Nuremberg Trials
• Nuremberg Trials Gallery
• The Nuremberg Trials: The Defendants and Verdicts
• Results and Reactions to the Nuremberg Trials
• Nuremberg War Crimes - Trials
• Nuremberg Trials 1945-1949
• "American Experience: The Nuremberg Trials" (PBS)
• Trial Watch: The Nuremberg Trials
• Obituary of Anthony Marreco
• Crimes, Trials and Laws
• Nuremberg Trials
• Nuremberg defendants
• The Nuremberg Judgments, Chapter 6 from The High Cost of Vengeance, by Freda Utley, Henry Regnery Company, Chicago, (1948). Made available by "The Freda Utley Foundation"
• A Tree Fell in the Forest: The Nuremberg Judgments 60 Years On, JURISTWhats up
• CBC Radio: A Conversation with Geoffrey Robertson, Author of the Tyrannicide Brief (Feb 18/07) (RealAudio)
• JAG Corps Attorneys
• Attorney Shawcross reads an account of a massacre - 27.7.1946 (BBC) (Windows Media and Real Audio) Warning: graphic descriptions of atrocities