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According to the oral polio vaccine (OPVA) AIDS hypothesis, the AIDS pandemic originated from live polio vaccines prepared in chimpanzee tissue cultures (at least some of which were almost certainly contaminated with chimpanzee SIV^{[citation needed]}) which were administered to up to one million Africans between 1957 and 1960. The specific populations, who may not have been properly informed of the risks before volunteering for the vaccination,^{[citation needed]} were the first in the world to experience HIV-1 infections and AIDS some five years later. Image File history File links Circle-question-red. ... Image File history File links Unbalanced_scales. ... Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS or Aids) is a collection of symptoms and infections resulting from the specific damage to the immune system caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). ... A pandemic (from Greek παν pan all + δήμος demos people) is an epidemic (an outbreak of an infectious disease) that spreads across a large region (example a continent), or even worldwide. ... Two polio vaccines are used throughout the world to combat polio. ... Type species Simia troglodytes Blumenbach, 1775 distribution of Species Pan troglodytes Pan paniscus Chimpanzee, often shortened to chimp, is the common name for the two extant species in the genus Pan. ... Simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) is a retrovirus that is found, in numerous strains, in primates; the strains infecting humans are HIV-1 and HIV-2, the viruses that cause AIDS. The origin of HIV is now generally attributed to SIV from African primates. ... Year 1957 (MCMLVII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link displays the 1957 Gregorian calendar). ... 1960 (MCMLX) was a leap year starting on Friday (the link is to a full 1960 calendar). ...

In particular the experimental oral vaccine, called CHAT-1, is claimed to have been contaminated with simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), a group of viruses endemic to African primates and widely accepted as the origin of HIV. Recent evidence shows that CHAT-1 may have been concentrated in African facilities using tissue cultures made from chimpanzee kidneys (more importantly, utilizing chimpanzee serum, containing macrophages, the target of immunodeficiency viruses).^{[citation needed]} To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Species Human immunodeficiency virus 1 Human immunodeficiency virus 2 Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a retrovirus that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS, a condition in humans in which the immune system begins to fail, leading to life-threatening opportunistic infections). ... Type species Simia troglodytes Blumenbach, 1775 distribution of Species Pan troglodytes Pan paniscus Chimpanzee, often shortened to chimp, is the common name for the two extant species in the genus Pan. ... Macrophages (Greek: big eaters) are cells found in tissues that are responsible for phagocytosis of pathogens, dead cells and cellular debris. ...

Proponents of the OPV AIDS hypothesis include journalist Edward Hooper as well as scientists Louis Paschal and the late W.D. Hamilton. Edward Hooper is a British journalist. ... This article is about the British biologist Bill Hamilton. ...

The OPV AIDS hypothesis is contradicted by a large mass of scientific evidence, and is considered to be incorrect by the scientific community.^{[1][2][3][4][5][6]} Scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena and acquiring new knowledge, as well as for correcting and integrating previous knowledge. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ...

Vaccines

Vaccines are weakened, attenuated versions of pathogens intended to provoke an immune response but not to cause disease. Many vaccines are grown in tissue cultures to increase the concentration of the pathogen and modify its properties. In the 1950s, when the OPV was created, there were no rules about which species to use. Chimpanzee kidneys, in particular, were marked as good cultures for growing polio viruses. Vaccines may be "live" or "killed". Live vaccines contain living pathogens and are more potent than killed vaccines. They provoke a stronger, lasting immune response and usually only one dose is required. However, they are unstable and may be contaminated with unwanted pathogens. In the 1950s, it was common practice to locally amplify oral vaccines, because the concentration of the vaccine changed unpredictably during transport. Although killed polio vaccines had been used with much success, no country wanted to be the first to test a live polio vaccine (Pascal, 1990).

The CHAT vaccine

CHAT was an oral, live experimental vaccine created at the Wistar Institute in Philadelphia by Hilary Koprowski. Between 1957 and 1960 it was given to roughly a million Africans. In Africa, it was administered in the Belgian territories; now the Congo, Rwanda and Burundi. [1] The Wistar Institute is a scientific institute located on the campus of the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States specializing in the fields of immunology and cell biology. ... Nickname: Motto: Philadelphia maneto - Let brotherly love continue Location in Pennsylvania Coordinates: Country United States Commonwealth Pennsylvania County Philadelphia Founded October 27, 1682 Incorporated October 25, 1701 Government  - Mayor John F. Street (D) Area  - City 369. ... Hilary Koprowski (b. ...

CHAT was an oral vaccine; it was often squirted from a syringe into the back of the patient's throat. Oral transmission is a proven route for HIV infection. In developing countries, an estimated one-third to one-half of the millions of HIV infected children were infected through breastfeeding.[2][3] A study comparing oral and rectal exposure of adult macaques to cell-free SIV determined that non traumatic oral exposure was 6000-fold more effective in producing a systemic infection than from rectal exposure. [4]Mucosal cells and oral lesions, as well as the tonsils, are possible entry points for HIV. The vaccine was given to many young infants with undeveloped immune systems.

In Africa, it was standard to transport a small amount of the original vaccine and then locally amplify it using local facilities and tissue cultures harvested from native animals. In South Africa, African green monkey tissue was used to amplify the Sabin vaccine. In French West Africa and Equatorial Africa, baboons were used to amplify a vaccine from the Pasteur Institute. And in Poland, the CHAT vaccine was amplified using Asian macaques.[5]

Recent discoveries

The LMS was sited at Kisangani, formerly Stanleyville

In 2003, Edward Hooper and colleagues travelled to the Democratic Republic of Congo and uncovered testimony supporting the OPV hypothesis. In the Congo, the Laboratoire Medical de Stanleyville (LMS) was responsible for testing the CHAT vaccine and performing the initial set of vaccinations. A few miles from LMS was Lindi Camp, a chimpanzee colony at which more than 500 chimps and bonobos, collected from a 300km radius, were sacrificed between 1956 and 1960. Map of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, from [1]. File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Map of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, from [1]. File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Binomial name Pan paniscus Schwarz, 1929 Bonobo distribution The Bonobo (Pan paniscus), until recently usually called the Pygmy Chimpanzee and less often the Dwarf or Gracile Chimpanzee,[3] is one of the two species comprising the chimpanzee genus, Pan. ...

In Kisangani, Hooper talked to former lab technicians that had worked on the vaccination program at LMS. Jacques Kanyama, a virology technician, alleged that batches of CHAT had been prepared locally, a possibility formerly denied by Belgian and American staff who claimed that the lab was too primitive and lacked equipment. According to Kanyama, Paul Osterrieth, in charge of the virology department, had been producing an oral polio vaccine on-site. Philip Elebe, a microbiology technician, claimed that tissue cultures were being produced from Lindi chimpanzees. Osterrieth disputes these claims,^[7][8] saying that no vaccine was prepared locally and that only the CHAT vaccine from America was used. If the accounts are true, they describe a clear mechanism for the introduction of HIV into the human population. Kisangani, formerly Stanleyville, (population 500,000) is a city in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in Central Africa. ...

History

San Antonio physician Eva Lee Snead was the first person to voice the theory that AIDS could have crossed to humans via an infected polio vaccine. However she also argued, incorrectly that SV-40 might be a precursor to HIV.

In May 1987 Louis Pascal heard a radio broadcast by Dr. Snead explaining her theory. By reading medical journals from the 1950s and 1960s and comparing with what was known about the first cases of HIV infection, he concluded that Koprowski's CHAT Type 1 vaccine administered in Belgian Congo between 1957 and 1960 was a likely source.[6] Pascal wrote a paper on the theory, which was mailed to prominent researchers , but received no response apart from a note of thanks on behalf of Luc Montagnier. He next submitted the paper to three scientific, and two multidisciplinary journals, none of whom would publish it. The Lancet and New Scientist gave no reasons for rejection, but Nature said that "while the theory cannot be ruled out, it does not seem readily to fit the epidemiology of AIDS". Luc Montagnier (born 1932 in Chabris, France) is a French virologist. ...

In the same year Blaine Elswood, an AIDS treatment activist who had developed similar ideas, contacted the journalist Tom Curtis about a "bombshell story." Curtis investigated the story and published an article in Rolling Stone 1992.[7]. Hilary Koprowski sued the Rolling Stone and Tom Curtis for defamation. The magazine published a "retraction" which praised Dr. Koprowski and absolved him from any blame for the introduction of AIDS to the human population: "we never wished to suggest that it has been scientifically proven that Koprowski is the father of AIDS."[8] However the "retraction" also reiterated that the OPV theory was "one of several disputed and unproven theories". Rolling Stone had to pay $US 1 million in damages and around $US 500,000 for legal fees. The legal action cost Dr Koprowski around $US 300,000. Tom Curtis (born 1973, Ilkeston) is a professional football player, & currently plays for Notts County. ... This article is about the magazine. ...

A few scientists, notably the biologist W.D. Hamilton thought the theory required serious investigation, but they received little support from the scientific community. Hamilton wrote a letter to Science in 1994[9] supporting Pascal and Curtis, but it was rejected by the editors. This article is about the British biologist Bill Hamilton. ... Science is the journal of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). ...

Journalist Edward Hooper, who had already begun to investigate the origin of AIDS when the OPV theory was first put forward gradually became convinced of its truth. After nine years of investigations, he detailed the theory and evidence in his 1999 book, The River. In 2004, the Origin of Aids, a TV documentary strongly supportive of the OPV theory, appeared on television stations globally. Edward Hooper is a British journalist. ...

Criticism

For 15 years, the OPV AIDS theory has been criticized by members of the scientific and medical establishment as being unfounded, unlikely or inconsistent with HIV epidemiology. However, although these criticisms are widely publicized, particularly by mainstream science journals, some people remain convinced of the OPV hypothesis and controversy continues. In October 1992, the journal Science ran a story titled "Panel Nixes Congo Vaccine as AIDS source," on the basis of a panel arranged by the Wistar Institute, an organization at the center of this controversy. In September 2000, 6 samples of the CHAT vaccine from the Wistar Institute were independently tested and no trace of HIV, SIV or chimpanzee DNA was found. This led to widespread announcements of the death of the OPV theory, for example Robin Weiss's article in Nature titled 'Polio vaccines exonerated.' But the samples were not from the same batch as was given out in Kinshasa. Epidemiology is the study of factors affecting the health and illness of populations, and serves as the foundation and logic of interventions made in the interest of public health and preventive medicine. ... Science is the journal of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). ... Nature is one of the most prominent scientific journals, first published on 4 November 1869. ...

However, in April 2004, claims by the OPV AIDS theory that Kisangani chimpanzees were, indirectly, the true source of HIV-1 was finally put to rest by an article which appeared in Nature entitled "Origin of AIDS: contaminated polio vaccine theory refuted." In the article, researchers Michael Worobey and colleagues verified the existence of SIVcpz in Kisangani chimps. However, through phylogenetic analyses of the virus, they found the SIVcpz that infected these chimps were nested within an entirely different clade of SIVcpz than the strain that includes HIV-1. These results show that the Kisangani chimpanzees could not have been the source of HIV-1. Further, the article proclaims the disproval of a central tenet to the OPV AIDS theory [10]. Hooper disputes this proclamation by asserting the OPV theory never completely relied on the now disproven premise. He explains OPV chimpanzees came from other areas as well[11]. Nature is one of the most prominent scientific journals, first published on 4 November 1869. ... A clade is a term belonging to the discipline of cladistics. ...

Critics claim that the OPV hypothesis, if widely known, would undermine public confidence in mass vaccination programs and, in particular, UN plans to eradicate polio. Some, such as Hilary Koprowski, have claimed that anti-vaccine sentiment in Africa has intensified due to the publicization of the hypothesis. However, Hooper argues that conspiratorial rumours about vaccination have been prevalent for most of the century and do not relate to the OPV hypothesis. Hooper also points out that he does not claim that modern polio vaccines are anything but safe[12]. The foundation of the U.N. The United Nations (UN) is an international organization whose stated aims are to facilitate co-operation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress and human rights issues. ...

SV40

If polio vaccination were responsible for AIDS, it would not be without precedent. SV40, the 40th discovered simian virus, was introduced into the human population in the 1950s by contaminated polio vaccines produced in Asian rhesus monkey kidney cells. It now infects some humans, although it is unclear if it can be passed by human-to-human contact. Research has shown that SV40 induces tumours in hamsters, and has been found present in human brain tumors, mesotheliomas and bone tumors. There is some evidence that SV40 exposure could lead to cancer in humans under natural conditions, but the evidence is far from conclusive.[13][14] SV40 is an abbreviation for Simian vacuolating virus 40 or Simian virus 40, a polyomavirus that is found in both monkeys and humans. ...

A similar case occurred in 1942, in which 50,000 US servicemen were infected with acute hepatitis B due to contaminated yellow fever vaccine. Hepatitis B is an inflammation of the liver and is caused by the Hepatitis B virus (HBV), a member of the Hepadnavirus family[1] and one of hundreds of unrelated viral species which cause viral hepatitis. ...

Zoonoses

A zoonosis is a disease capable of passing between animals and humans. Like other AIDS origin hypotheses, the OPV hypothesis depends on zoonotic transfer to explain the spread of SIV into the human population and its evolution into HIV. Examples of zoonotic transfer include Ebola virus, Marburg virus and SV40 (see above). Arguments against xenotransplantation, the transfer of animal tissue into humans, are supported by the OPV hypothesis, if proven. Such medical experimentation could lead to future epidemics of unknown animal viruses and prions. Zoonosis (pronounced ) is any infectious disease that may be transmitted from other animals, both wild and domestic, to humans or from humans to animals (the latter is sometimes called reverse zoonosis). ... Ebola is both the common term used to describe a group of viruses belonging to genus Ebolavirus, family Filoviridae, and the common name for the disease which they cause, Ebola hemorrhagic fever. ... The Marburg virus is the causative agent of Marburg hemorrhagic fever. ... SV40 is an abbreviation for Simian vacuolating virus 40 or Simian virus 40, a polyomavirus that is found in both monkeys and humans. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... For the bird called a prion, see Prion (bird) Prions - short for proteinaceous infectious particle - are infectious self-reproducing protein structures. ...

References

Notes

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in Atlanta is recognized as the lead United States agency for protecting the public health and safety of people by providing credible information to enhance health decisions, and promoting health through strong partnerships with state health departments and other organizations. ... March 19 is the 78th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (79th in leap years). ... 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ...

General references

• Omar Bagasra (1999). "HIV and Molecular Immunity: Prospects for the AIDS Vaccine" Natick, MA: Biotechniques Books.
• Julian Cribb (1996). The White Death. Angus and Robertson ISBN 0 207 19041 0
• Tom Curtis (1992). "The Origin of AIDS: A startling new theory attempts to answer the question 'Was it an Act of God, or an Act of Man?" Rolling Stone, Issue 626, 19 March 1992, pp. 54-59, 61, 106, 108.
• Raanan Gillon (1992). "A startling 19,000-word thesis on the origin of AIDS: should the JME have published it?", Journal of Medical Ethics, vol. 18, pp. 3-4

[15] Angus & Robertson is a bookstore chain in Australia. ... Tom Curtis (born 1973, Ilkeston) is a professional football player, & currently plays for Notts County. ...

• Gerasmos Lecatsas & Jennifer Alexander (1989). "Safe Testing of Poliovirus Vaccine and the Origin of HIV Infection in Man," South African Medical Journal, Vol 76, No. 8,Oct 21, p. 451
• Gerasmos Lecatsas (1991). "Origin of AIDS," Nature, Vol 351, No. 6323, May 16, p. 179.
• Brian Martin (1996). "Sticking a needle into science: the case of polio vaccines and the origin of AIDS", Social Studies of Science, Vol. 26, No. 2, pp. 245-276

[16] Nature is one of the most prominent scientific journals, first published on 4 November 1869. ... Brian Martin is a former Oxford University lecturer and school teacher, who has written and edited academic books in the past. ...

• Louis Pascal (1991). What Happens When Science Goes Bad: The Corruption of Science and the Origin of AIDS: A Study in Spontaneous Generation, Science and Technology Analysis Working Paper #9, University of Wollongong. [17]
• Edward Hooper (1999). The River : A Journey to the Source of HIV and AIDS. Boston: Little, Brown, Harmondsworth: The Penguin Press.
• Edward Hooper (2003). "Aids and the Polio Vaccine," London Review of Books, Vol 25, No. 7. [18]
• Edward Hooper (2004). "Untruths, misrepresentations and spin:

the dubious methods and tactics used by Stanley Plotkin's group in the "Origins of AIDS" debate." [19] This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... Edward Hooper is a British journalist. ... Edward Hooper is a British journalist. ... The London Review of Books (or LRB) is a twice-monthly British literary magazine. ... Edward Hooper is a British journalist. ...

• Edward Hooper (2004). "The New Round of Legal Threats by Doctors Kowprowski and Plotkin" "[20]
• Brian Martin (1994). "Polio vaccines and the origin of AIDS: the career of a threatening idea", Townsend Letter for Doctors, #126 pp. 97-100.
• Regis A. Vilchez & Janet S. Butel (2004). "Emergent human pathogen simian virus 40 and its role in cancer," Clinical Microbiology Reviews Vol 17, No. 3, July, pp 495-508.

Edward Hooper is a British journalist. ... Brian Martin is a former Oxford University lecturer and school teacher, who has written and edited academic books in the past. ... Clinical Microbiology Reviews is an academic journal published by the American Society for Microbiology. ...

External links

• Oral Polio Vaccine and HIV/AIDS: Questions and Answers, from the United States Centers for Disease Control
• Polio vaccines and the origin of AIDS: some key writings claiming a link
• AIDSOrigins (maintained by Edward Hooper)