NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Oil shale

Oil shale is a general term applied to a fine-grained sedimentary rock containing significant traces of kerogen (a solid mixture of organic chemical compounds) that have not been buried for sufficient time to produce conventional fossil fuels. When heated to a sufficiently high temperature a vapor is driven off which can be distilled (retorted) to yield a petroleum-like shale oil—a form of non-conventional oil—and combustible shale gas. Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Two types of sedimentary rock: limey shale overlaid by limestone. ... Kerogens are chemical compounds that make up a portion of the organic matter in sedimentary rocks. ... A chemical compound is a chemical substance of two or more different chemically bonded chemical elements, with a fixed ratio determining the composition. ... Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons, primarily coal and petroleum (fuel oil or natural gas), formed from the fossilized remains of dead plants and animals[1] by exposure to heat and pressure in the Earths crust over hundreds of millions of years[2]. The theory that hydrocarbons were formed from these... Vapor (US English) or vapour (British English) is the gaseous state of matter. ... Laboratory distillation set-up using, without a fractionating column 1: Heat source 2: Still pot 3: Still head 4: Thermometer/Boiling point temperature 5: Condenser 6: Cooling water in 7: Cooling water out 8: Distillate/receiving flask 9: Vacuum/gas inlet 10: Still receiver 11: Heat control 12: Stirrer speed... It has been suggested that theoretical yield be merged into this article or section. ... Pumpjack pumping an oil well near Lubbock, Texas Ignacy Åukasiewicz - inventor of the refining of kerosene from crude oil. ... Non-conventional oil is oil extracted using techniques other than the traditional oil well method. ...

The kerogen in oil shale can be converted to oil through the chemical process of pyrolysis. Oil shale can also be burnt directly as a low-grade fuel for power generation and heating, and be used as a raw material in the chemical and construction materials industries. Currently oil shales are used commercially for oil production in Estonia, Brazil and China, for power generation in Estonia, China, Israel and Germany, for cement production in Estonia, Germany and China, and for chemical industry in Estonia and Russia.^[1]^[2]^[3] Simple sketch of pyrolysis chemistry Pyrolysis usually means the chemical decomposition of organic materials by heating in the absence of oxygen or any other reagents, except possibly steam. ... A combustion reaction taking place in a igniting match Combustion or burning is a complex sequence of exothermic chemical reactions between a fuel and an oxidant accompanied by the production of heat or both heat and light in the form of either a glow or flames. ...

World deposits of oil shale are estimated to equal 2.9–3.3 trillion barrels of recoverable oil, 1.5–2.6 trillion barrels of which are in the United States.^[4]^[5]^[6]^[7] Attempts to develop these reserves, ongoing for over 150 years, have had limited success.^[8] Although still seen as a potential future alternative to conventional oil, world production reached a peak of 46 million tons in 1980 before falling to about 16 million tons in 2000 due to the high cost of production relative to conventional petroleum.^[9]^[10] Deposition, also known as sedimentation, is the geological process whereby material is added to a landform. ...

Environmentalists have expressed concern over the extraction of shale oil,^[10] and protests appear to have contributed to the halting of the developing industry in Australia. ^[11] For the psychology topic, see Environmental psychology. ...

In addition to the oil shale, there are other groups of organic-rich sedimentary rock—bitumen-impregnated rocks (tar sands and petroleum reservoir rocks), and humic coals and carbonaceous shale.^[12] Bituminous rocks are sedimentary rocks, usually shale, sandstone, limestone or dolostone, that contain traces of tar, bitumen, asphalt or petroleum. ... Athabasca Oil Sands Tar sands, also referred to as oil sands, bituminous sands, or (in Venezuela) extra-heavy oil, are a mixture of sand or clay, water, and extremely heavy crude oil. ... This article belongs in one or more categories. ... Shale Shale is a fine-grained sedimentary rock whose original constituents were clays or muds. ...

Geology

Oil shales are a group of fine-grained sedimentary rocks which contain kerogen. ... Image File history File linksMetadata No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File linksMetadata No higher resolution available. ... The Ordovician period is the second of the six (seven in North America) periods of the Paleozoic era. ...

Classification and varieties

Oil shale does not have a specific chemical formula. Different types of oil shales vary in their chemical composition, type of kerogen, age, and depositional history, including the organisms from which they were derived.^[13]

Oil shales have been divided into three categories depending on their composition. These three categories are carbonate-rich shale, siliceous shale and cannel shale. Carbonate-rich shales derive their name from the large amount of carbonate minerals such as calcite and dolomite that can be found in it. As many as 20 carbonate minerals have been found in oil shale, the majority of which have thought to have been deposited at the time of deposition. One type of carbonate-rich shale that is valued quite highly is lacustrine-sourced deposits, because of the frequent occurrence of organic-rich shale layers sandwiched between carbonate-rich layers of oil shale. These deposits are hard formations which could be difficult to process using ex-situ methods.^[14] Siliceous shales derive their names as they are not rich in carbonate deposits but rather Detritus detrital minerals. Detrital minerals that have been known to be present are quartz, feldspar, clay, chert and opal. Younger siliceous shales can be good sources for hydrocarbons, but as the deposits get older and deeper the hydrocarbons that might have been present have generally migrated. Siliceous shales are not as hard or as weather-resistant as carbonate-rich shale and may be better suited for extraction via ex-situ methods.^[14] In organic chemistry, a carbonate is a salt of carbonic acid. ... R-phrases R42 R43 R49 S-phrases S22 S36 S37 S45 S53 Flash point non-flammable Supplementary data page Structure and properties n, Îµr, etc. ... Doubly refracting Calcite from Iceberg claim, Dixon, New Mexico. ... Dolomite crystals from Touissite, Morocco Dolomite is the name of both a carbonate rock and a mineral consisting of calcium magnesium carbonate (formula: CaMg(CO3)2) found in crystals. ... Lacustrine is derived from the Latin word lacus, which means lake. ... Quartz is one of the most common minerals in the Earths continental crust. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Chert Chert (IPA: ) is a fine-grained silica-rich cryptocrystalline sedimentary rock that may contain small fossils. ... The mineraloid opal is amorphous SiO2Â·nH2O, hydrated silicon dioxide, the water content sometimes being as high as 20% but is usually between three and ten percent. ...

Based upon environment of deposition, oil shales are characterized as terrestrial, lacustrine, and marine. To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Lacustrine is derived from the Latin word lacus, which means lake. ... Marine is an umbrella term for things relating to the ocean, as with marine biology, marine geology, and as a term for a navy, etc. ...

Cannel coal is brown to black coal (sometimes with shaly texture) composed of resins, spores, waxes, cutinaceous and corky materials derived from terrestrial vascular plants as well as varied amounts of vitrinite and inertinite. Lamosite is pale brown and grayish-brown to dark-gray to black oil shale in which the chief organic constituent is lamalginite derived from lacustrine planktonic algae. Marinite is a gray to dark-gray to black oil shale of marine origin in which the chief organic components are lamalginite and bituminite derived from marine phytoplankton with varied admixtures of bitumen, telalginite, and vitrinite. Torbanite, named after Torbane Hill in Scotland, is a black oil shale whose organic matter is telalginite derived from lipid-rich Botryococcus and related algal forms. Tasmanite, named after Tasmania, is a brown to black oil shale whose organic matter consists of telalginite derived chiefly from unicellular tasmanitid algae of marine origin. Kukersite, named after Kukruse in Estonia, is a light-brown marine oil shale whose principal organic component is telalginite derived from the green alga, Gloeocapsomorpha prisca.^[16] Cannel coal, also know as candle coal, is a type of coal with a large amount of hydrogen, which burns easily with a bright light and leaves little ash. ... Torbanite is a variety of coal, sometimes known as boghead coal. ... Tasmanite is a prasinophyte algae commonly associated with high-latitude, nutrient-rich, marginal marine settings find in Tasmania. ... Cutin is a waxy substance which is a component of cuticle at the surface of leaves in plants. ... A terrestrial plant is one that grows on land. ... Divisions Non-seed-bearing plants Equisetophyta Lycopodiophyta Psilotophyta Pteridophyta Superdivision Spermatophyta Pinophyta Cycadophyta Ginkgophyta Gnetophyta Magnoliophyta The vascular plants are plants in the Kingdom Plantae (also called Viridiplantae) that have specialized tissues for conducting water. ... Vitrinite is one of the primary components of coals and most sedimentary kerogens. ... Inertinite is fossilised charcoal. ... Photomontage of plankton organisms Plankton are any drifting organism that inhabits the water column of oceans, seas, and bodies of fresh water. ... A seaweed (Laurencia) up close: the branches are multicellular and only about 1 mm thick. ... Diagrams of some typical phytoplankton Phytoplankton are the autotrophic component of plankton. ... Capital Hobart Government Constitutional monarchy Governor William Cox Premier Paul Lennon (ALP) Federal representation - House seats 5 - Senate seats 12 Gross State Product (2004-05) - Product ($m) $16,114 (7th) - Product per capita $33,243/person (8th) Population (End of September 2006) - Population 489,600 (6th) - Density 7. ...

Composition

Organic matter in oil shale consists of the remains of algae, spores, pollen, plant cuticles and corky fragments of herbaceous and woody plants, and cellular debris from other lacustrine, marine, and land plants. While terrestrial oil shales contains resins, spores, waxy cuticles, and corky tissue of roots and stems of vascular terrestrial plants, lacustrine oil shales include lipid-rich organic matter derived from algae, and marine oil shales are composed of marine algae, acritarchs, and marine dinoflagellates. Some oil-shale deposits may also contain non-organic minerals and metals including alum, nahcolite (NaHCO3), dawsonite, sulfur, ammonium sulfate, vanadium, zinc, copper, uranium, and others.^[16] Image File history File linksMetadata No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File linksMetadata No higher resolution available. ... A fossil Ammonite Fossils are the mineralized remains of animals or plants or other traces such as footprints. ... This article is about a biological reproductive structure; for the video game, see Spore (video game). ... SEM image of pollen grains from a variety of common plants: sunflower (Helianthus annuus), morning glory (Ipomoea purpurea), prairie hollyhock (Sidalcea malviflora), oriental lily (Lilium auratum), evening primrose (Oenothera fruticosa), and castor bean (Ricinus communis). ... Plant cuticles are a protective waxy covering produced only by the epidermal cells (Kolattukudy, 1996) of leaves, young shoots and all other aerial plant organs. ... This article is about the plants used in cooking and medicine. ... Debris (French, pronounced (IPA) dibri) is a word used to describe the remains of something that has been otherwise destroyed. ... Acritarchs are small organic structures found as fossils. ... Classes Dinophyceae Noctiluciphyceae Syndiniophyceae The dinoflagellates are a large group of flagellate protists. ... A crystal of alum Alum, Allom [aluminium potassium sulphate], in chemistry, is a term given to the crystallized double sulfates of the typical formula M+2SO4Â·M3+2(SO4)3Â·24H2O, where M+ is the sign of an alkali metal (lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, or caesium), and M3+ denotes one... Dawsonite is a mineral composed of sodium aluminium carbonate hydroxide, chemical formula NaAlCO3(OH)2. ... General Name, Symbol, Number sulfur, S, 16 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 16, 3, p Appearance lemon yellow Standard atomic weight 32. ... Ammonium sulphate, [NH4]2[SO4] contains 21% nitrogen as ammonia and 24% sulfur as sulfate. ... General Name, Symbol, Number vanadium, V, 23 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 5, 4, d Appearance silver-grey metal Atomic mass 50. ... General Name, Symbol, Number zinc, Zn, 30 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 12, 4, d Appearance bluish pale gray Standard atomic weight 65. ... General Name, Symbol, Number copper, Cu, 29 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 11, 4, d Appearance metallic pinkish red Standard atomic weight 63. ... General Name, Symbol, Number uranium, U, 92 Chemical series actinides Group, Period, Block n/a, 7, f Appearance silvery gray metallic; corrodes to a spalling black oxide coat in air Standard atomic weight 238. ...

Capital Sydney Government Constitutional monarchy Governor Professor Marie Bashir Premier Morris Iemma (ALP) Federal representation - House seats 50 - Senate seats 12 Gross State Product (2004-05) - Product ($m) $305,437 (1st) - Product per capita $45,153/person (4th) Population (End of March 2006) - Population 6,817,100 (1st) - Density 8. ... The Permian is a geologic period that extends from about 299. ... Capital Hobart Government Constitutional monarchy Governor William Cox Premier Paul Lennon (ALP) Federal representation - House seats 5 - Senate seats 12 Gross State Product (2004-05) - Product ($m) $16,114 (7th) - Product per capita $33,243/person (8th) Population (End of September 2006) - Population 489,600 (6th) - Density 7. ... Please wikify (format) this article or section as suggested in the Guide to layout and the Manual of Style. ... The ParaÃba Valley (Portuguese: Vale do ParaÃba) is a microregiÃ£o of the eastern part of the state of SÃ£o Paulo. ... Motto: Munit Haec et Altera Vincit(Latin) One defends and the other conquers Capital Halifax Largest city Halifax Regional Municipality Official languages English Government - Lieutenant-Governor Mayann E. Francis - Premier Rodney MacDonald (PC) Federal representation in Canadian Parliament - House seats 11 - Senate seats 10 Confederation July 1, 1867 (1st) Area... Location within China Fushun (Simplified Chinese: ; Traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: ) is a city in Liaoning, China, about 45 km from Shenyang, with a population about 1. ... hfajhfiudshfas == == == --24. ... The Ordovician period is the second of the six (seven in North America) periods of the Paleozoic era. ... Autun is a town in the SaÃ´ne-et-Loire dÃ©partement in Burgundy, France, and has a history which dates back to Roman times. ... The Toarcian Stage was the last faunal stage of the Early Jurassic period. ... Ermelo is the educational, industrial and commercial centre of a 7,750mÂ² district in Mpumalanga Province of South Africa. ... Puertollano is an industrial city in Ciudad Real Province, Castilla-La Mancha, Spain. ... Motto (Latin) No one provokes me with impunity Cha togar mfhearg gun dioladh (Scottish Gaelic) Wha daur meddle wi me?(Scots)1 Anthem (Multiple unofficial anthems) Scotlands location in Europe and the United Kingdom Capital Edinburgh Largest city Glasgow Official languages English, Gaelic and Scots1 Government Constitutional monarchy... Official language(s) English[1] Spoken language(s) English 85. ... The Jurassic Period is a major unit of the geologic timescale that extends from about 199. ... The Green River Formation is an Eocene geologic formation that records the sedimentation in a series of intermontane lakes. ... Official language(s) English Capital Denver Largest city Denver Area Ranked 8th - Total 104,185 sq mi (269,837 kmÂ²) - Width 280 miles (451 km) - Length 380 miles (612 km) - % water 0. ... Official language(s) English Capital Cheyenne Largest city Cheyenne Area Ranked 10th - Total 97,818 sq mi (253,348 kmÂ²) - Width 280 miles (450 km) - Length 360 miles (580 km) - % water 0. ... Official language(s) English Capital Salt Lake City Largest city Salt Lake City Area Ranked 13th - Total 84,889 sq mi (219,887 kmÂ²) - Width 270 miles (435 km) - Length 350 miles (565 km) - % water 3. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Artists illustration of a Devonian scene. ...

Formation

Oil shale is considered to be formed by the deposition of organic matter in lakes, lagoons and restricted estuarine areas such as oxbow lakes, peat bogs, swamps, and muskegs. When plants die in such anaerobic aquatic environments, low oxygen levels prevent their complete decay by bacteria.^{[citation needed]} For masses of undecayed organic matter to be preserved and to form oil shale the environment must remain uniform for prolonged periods of time to build up sufficiently thick sequences of algal matter. Unlike coal, oil shale does not necessarily require low mineral and ash content, as it is used mainly for extraction, and mineral waste in oil liquefaction plants is easier to deal with.^{[citation needed]} Rio de la Plata estuary Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Estuaries An estuary is a semi-enclosed coastal body of water with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the open sea. ... Songhua River, northeast China. ... Wiktionary has a definition of: Bog Virgin boreal acid bogs at Browns Lake Bog, Ohio A bog is a wetland type that accumulates peat, a deposit of dead plant material. ... Muskeg is a soil type (also a peatland or wetland type called a bog) common in arctic and boreal areas. ... â€œSpoilageâ€ redirects here. ... Coal Coal (IPA: ) is a fossil fuel formed in swamp ecosystems where plant remains were saved by water and mud from oxidization and biodegradation. ...

Eventually the algal swamp or other restricted environments are disrupted and oil shale accumulation ceases. Burial by sedimentary loading on top of the algal swamp deposits converts the organic matter to kerogen by the following normal diagenetic processes^{[citation needed]}: In geology and oceanography, diagenesis is any chemical, physical, or biological change undergone by a sediment after its initial deposition and during and after its lithification, exclusive of surface alteration (weathering) and metamorphism. ...

Lower temperature and pressure during the diagenesis process compared to other modes of hydrocarbon genesis result in the achievement of a lower maturation level shown by oil shale reserves. Continued burial and further applied heating and pressure combined with the correct geological structures could result in the production of oil and gas reservoir from the oil shale source rock.^[17] The largest deposits are found in the remains of large lakes like those deposits at Green River, other deposits can in shallow sea’s that were on continentals shelf's and smaller shale deposits can be found in lagoons and lakes similar depositional environments to where coal is formed.^{[citation needed]} Large lake oil shale basins can be found where there has been block faulting or crustal warping due to mountain building. As a some of the larger deposits known can be found in these regions like along the Rocky Mountains where the majority of Americas oil shale's are located. Deposits such as the Green River can be as much as 600 m (2000 ft) and yield up to 40 gallons of oil for each ton (166 L/t) of shale.^{[citation needed]} Methanogenesis is the formation of methane by microbes. ... Dehydration (hypohydration) is the removal of water (hydro in ancient Greek) from an object. ... In geology and oceanography, diagenesis is any chemical, physical, or biological change undergone by a sediment after its initial deposition and during and after its lithification, exclusive of surface alteration (weathering) and metamorphism. ... Maturation is the increase in the state of maturity. ... The Green River, a tributary of the Colorado, is shown highlighted on a map of the western United States. ... The Rocky Mountains, often called the Rockies, are a broad mountain range in western North America. ...

Shale's formed in the shallow seas of continental shelves generally are much thinner than large lake basin deposits generally in the order of feet or tens of feet thick. They are however due to the depositional nature spread over a very large surface area stretching up to thousands of square kilometres. Of the three lithologic types of shales, siliceous shales are the most commonly found in this environment. These shales are not as energy rich as the previous shales and generally do not contain more than 30 gallons per ton (125 L/t) of shale.^{[citation needed]} Oil shales deposited in lagoonal or small lake environments are rarely extensive and are often associated with coal bearing rocks. These shales though can have high yields close to 40 gallons per ton (166 L/t) of shale however due to their sporadic placement and thin bed nature they are thought to be unlikely candidates for commercial exploitation. Most shales are of the cannel type.^{[citation needed]}

Formations in the United States

The United States has two significant oil-shale deposits which are considered suitable for development due to their size, grade, location and the understanding of them. These two deposits are the Eocene Green River Formation which covers parts of Colorado, Wyoming and Utah, and Devonian deposits in the eastern United States. In both of these plays there are sub-basins in which the volume and quality of the reserves vary. Oil shale in the Green River Formation is found in five sedimentary basins: Green River, Uinta, Piceance Creek, Sand Wash and Washakie. The first three have undergone some significant investigation and attempts to commercialise the oil shale reserves since the 1960’s. The Green River Formation includes deposits from two large lakes which covered an area of over 65,000 square kilometers during the early to middle Eocene period. These lakes were separated by the Uinta uplift and the Axial Basin anticline.^{[citation needed]} For significant periods during their 10-million-year life, the lakes became closed systems allowing for many changes in size, salinity and sediment deposition. Oil shale is a result of abundant blue-green algae that thrived in the lakes during such times.^{[citation needed]} Official language(s) English Capital Denver Largest city Denver Area Ranked 8th - Total 104,185 sq mi (269,837 kmÂ²) - Width 280 miles (451 km) - Length 380 miles (612 km) - % water 0. ... Official language(s) English Capital Cheyenne Largest city Cheyenne Area Ranked 10th - Total 97,818 sq mi (253,348 kmÂ²) - Width 280 miles (450 km) - Length 360 miles (580 km) - % water 0. ... Official language(s) English Capital Salt Lake City Largest city Salt Lake City Area Ranked 13th - Total 84,889 sq mi (219,887 kmÂ²) - Width 270 miles (435 km) - Length 350 miles (565 km) - % water 3. ... The Green River Formation is an Eocene geologic formation that records the sedimentation in a series of intermontane lakes. ... hfajhfiudshfas == == == --24. ... This view of Kings Peak and the Henrys Fork Basin shows the cliff bands and basins typical throughout the Uintas. ... A seaweed (Laurencia) up close: the branches are multicellular and only about 1 mm thick. ...

The oil shale that underlies almost three quarters of a million square kilometers in the eastern United States was formed in a marine depositional environment very different from the Green River Basins. These deposits have also undergone commercialisation attempts; they are also resources for natural gas and have been mined for low-grade oil shale. These oil shales were formed during the Late Devonian and Early Mississippian periods. During this time much of the eastern United States was covered by a large shallow sea. The oil shale is thought to have been the result of slow deposition of planktonic algae under quiet conditions. In parts close to the shoreline the organic mixture that helped form the oil shale contains organic-rich sediment from the rising Appalachian mountains.^{[citation needed]} Natural gas is a gaseous fossil fuel consisting primarily of methane but including significant quantities of ethane, butane, propane, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, helium and hydrogen sulfide. ... Artists illustration of a Devonian scene. ... Appalachians in North Carolina The Appalachian Mountains (French: les Appalaches) are a vast system of mountains in eastern North America. ...

Brazilian oil shale formations

Brazil has nine significant oil shale deposits. The size, location and quality of shale oil deposits in the Paraiba Valley and the Irati Formation have attraced the most attention. The two contain an estimated 1.4 billion barrels of in-situ shale oil with total resources as much as 3 or more billion barrels. While the Irati Formation play is the smaller of the two, containing an estimated 600 million barrels in-situ compared to 840 million in the Paraiba Valley formation, it is the more economically viable.^{[citation needed]} 3. ...

The Irati Formation consists of two beds of oil shale separated by 12 m of limestone and shale. The upper layer is thicker (approximately 9 m) but the thinner lower bed (4 m) is of greater value; the weight percent of shale oil yield is around 12% compared to 7%. This oil shale yield varies depending on location, and may be as little as 7% for the lower and 4% for the upper layer. The formation is a very fine grained and laminated deposit ranging in colour from dark grey to brown to black. 60-70% of the shale is clay minerals; organic matter makes up the rest.^{[citation needed]} No definitive consensus has been reached on the exact depositional nature of the shale. The two leading theories are that the organic material is from an algae deposited in a freshwater to brackish lacustrine environment. Alternatively, the organic sediment may have been deposited in a shallow, partially restricted marine basin. Hutton^{[citation needed]} has described it as a marine source shale.

Reserves

The world deposits of oil shale are estimated to be equal to 2.9-3.3 trillion barrels of recoverable oil. Although oil shale resources occur in many countries, only 33 countries possess deposits of economic value.^[9] Total resources of these countries are estimated at 411 billion tonnes, which is equal to 2.9 trillion U.S. barrels.^[16] Among those, USA accounts for 62% of the world resources, and USA, Russia and Brazil together account for 86% in terms of shale oil content.^[9] The above mentioned figure of total reserves is conservative because several deposits have not been explored sufficiently to make accurate estimates, and other deposits were not included.^[16]^[18] Oil shale reserves are diversely spread through out the earth, being found on every continent with perhaps the exception Antarctica. ...

Estimating shale oil reserves is complicated by several factors. First, the amount of kerogen contained in oil shale deposits varies considerably. Second, some nations report as reserves the total amount of kerogen in place, which means all kerogen regardless of technical or economic constraints, and not as an estimate of kerogen which may be extracted from identified and assayed oil shale rock using available technology and under current economic conditions. Third, by definition, "reserves" refers only to the amount of resource which is technically exploitable and economically feasible under current economic conditions. Fourth, shale oil recovery technologies are still developing, so the amount of recoverable kerogen can only be estimated.^{[citation needed]}

The table below reports reserves by amount of shale oil. Shale oil refers to synthetic oil obtained by heating organic material (kerogen) contained in oil shale rock to a temperature which will convert it to oil, combustible gas, and residual carbon that remains in the spent shale. All figures are presented in barrels and metric tons ("tonnes", equal to 2204.6 pounds).^[19]

Africa

Major oil shale deposits are located in the Democratic Republic of Congo (equal to 14.31 billion tonnes of shale oil) and Morocco (12.3 billion tonnes or 8.16 billion tonnes of shale oil). The biggest deposits in Morocco are Tarfaya and Timahdit. There are oil shale reserves also in Egypt, South Africa, Madagascar and Nigeria.^[16] Tarfaya is a city on the southwestern coast of Morocco. ...

Asia

Major oil shale deposits are located in China (total, 32 billion tonnes of which technically exploitable and economically feasible is 4.4 billion tonnes), Thailand (18.7 billion tonnes), Kazakhstan (several deposits; major deposit at Kenderlyk Field with 4 billion tonnes) and Turkey (2.2 billion tonnes).^[16]^[13]^[20] There are oil shale reserves also in Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Myanmar, Armenia and Mongolia. The main Chinese oil shale deposits and production lie in Fushun and Liaoning; others are in Maoming in Guangdong, Huadian in Jilin, Heilongjiang and Shandong. In 2002, China produced more than 90,000 tonnes of shale oil.^[20] Thailand's oil shale deposits are near Mae Sot, Tak Province, and at Li, Lamphun Province. Deposits in Turkey are located mainly in middle and western Anatolia.^[16] Location within China Fushun (Simplified Chinese: ; Traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: ) is a city in Liaoning, China, about 45 km from Shenyang, with a population about 1. ... (Simplified Chinese: ; Traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: LiÃ¡onÃng) is a northeastern province of the Peoples Republic of China. ... Maoming (èŒ‚å) is one of the largest city in the west of Guangdong province of the Peoples Republic of China. ... Guangdong, often spelt as Kwangtung, is a province on the south coast of the Peoples Republic of China. ... Huadian is a city in Jilin province in northern China. ... (Chinese: ; Pinyin: JÃlÃn; Wade-Giles: Chi-lin; Postal System Pinyin: Kirin; Manchu: Girin ula), is a province of the Peoples Republic of China located in the northeastern part of the country. ... Heilongjiang (Simplified Chinese: é»‘é¾™æ±Ÿçœ; Traditional Chinese: é»‘é¾æ±Ÿçœ; Hanyu Pinyin: ; Postal System Pinyin: Heilungkiang) is a province of the Peoples Republic of China located in the northeastern part of the country. ... (Simplified Chinese: ; Traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: ; Wade-Giles: Shan-tung) is a coastal province of eastern Peoples Republic of China. ... Mae Sot (Thai: à¹à¸¡à¹ˆà¸ªà¸à¸”) is a town and district in Tak Province, Thailand at the Thai-Myanmar border with Moei River as natural boundary. ... Tak (Thai à¸•à¸²à¸) is one of the northern provinces (changwat) of Thailand. ... Li (Thai: ) is the southernmost district (Amphoe) of Lamphun Province, northern Thailand. ... Lamphun (Thai ลำพูน) is one of the northern provinces (changwat) of Thailand. ... Anatolia and Europe Anatolia (Turkish: from Greek: Î‘Î½Î±Ï„Î¿Î»Î¯Î± - Anatolia) is a peninsula of Western Asia which forms the greater part of the Asian portion of Turkey, as opposed to the European portion (Thrace, or traditionally Rumelia). ...

Europe

The biggest oil shale reserves in Europe are located in Russia (equal to 35.47 billion tonnes of shale oil). Main deposits are located in the Volga-Petchyorsk province and the Baltic Basin. Other major oil shale deposits in Europe are located in Italy (10.45 billion tonnes of shale oil), Estonia (2.49 billion tonnes of shale oil), France (1 billion tonnes of shale oil), Belarus (1 billion tonnes of shale oil), Sweden (875 million tonnes of shale oil), Ukraine (600 million tonnes of shale oil) and the United Kingdom (500 million tonnes of shale oil). There are oil shale reserves also in Germany, Luxembourg, Spain, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Austria, Albania and Romania.^[16]

Middle East

Major oil shale deposits are located in Jordan (5,242 million tonnes of shale oil or 65 billion tonnes of oil shale) and Israel (550 million tonnes of shale oil or 6.5 billion tonnes of oil shale). Jordanian oil shales are high quality, comparable to western US oil shale, with the exception of high sulfur content. The most explored deposits are El Lajjun, Sultani and the Juref ed Darawishare located in west-central Jordan, while Yarmouk close to the northern border extends into Syria.^[16]^[21] Most of Israel's deposits are located in the Rotem Basin region of the northern Negev desert near the Dead Sea. Israeli oil shale is relatively low in heating value and oil yield.^[16]^[22] The Yarmouk River (Arabic:Nahr Al-Yarmuk; Hebrew:× ×”×¨ ×”×™×¨×ž×•×š, Nehar HaYarmukh; Greek:Hieromax) is one of the three main tributaries which enter the Jordan River between the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea (the other being the Jabbok). ... Rock face in the Negev Desert near Beersheba on the way to Eilat. ... The Dead Sea (â€Ž, Sea of Salt; Arabic: ) is a salt lake between the West Bank and Israel to the west, and Jordan to the east. ...

North America

At 3.3 trillion tonnes, the oil shale deposits in the United States are easily the largest in the world. There are two major deposits: the eastern US deposits, in Devonian-Mississippian shales, cover 250,000 square miles (650,000 square kilometers); the western US deposits of the Green River Formation in Colorado, Wyoming and Utah, are among the richest oil shale deposits in the world.^[16]^[23] In Canada 19 deposits have been identified. The most explored deposits are in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick.^[24] The Green River Formation is an Eocene geologic formation that records the sedimentation in a series of intermontane lakes. ... Official language(s) English Capital Denver Largest city Denver Area Ranked 8th - Total 104,185 sq mi (269,837 kmÂ²) - Width 280 miles (451 km) - Length 380 miles (612 km) - % water 0. ... Official language(s) English Capital Cheyenne Largest city Cheyenne Area Ranked 10th - Total 97,818 sq mi (253,348 kmÂ²) - Width 280 miles (450 km) - Length 360 miles (580 km) - % water 0. ... Official language(s) English Capital Salt Lake City Largest city Salt Lake City Area Ranked 13th - Total 84,889 sq mi (219,887 kmÂ²) - Width 270 miles (435 km) - Length 350 miles (565 km) - % water 3. ... Motto: Munit Haec et Altera Vincit(Latin) One defends and the other conquers Capital Halifax Largest city Halifax Regional Municipality Official languages English Government - Lieutenant-Governor Mayann E. Francis - Premier Rodney MacDonald (PC) Federal representation in Canadian Parliament - House seats 11 - Senate seats 10 Confederation July 1, 1867 (1st) Area... Motto: Spem reduxit (Hope restored) Capital Fredericton Largest city Saint John Official languages English, French (the only constitutionally bilingual province in the country) Government - Lieutenant-Governor HermÃ©nÃ©gilde Chiasson - Premier Shawn Graham (Liberal) Federal representation in Canadian Parliament - House seats 10 - Senate seats 10 Confederation July 1, 1867 (1st...

Oceania

Australia's oil shale resource is estimated to be around 58 billion tonnes or 4,531 million tonnes of shale oil. The deposits are located in the eastern and southern states with the biggest potential in the eastern Queensland deposits.^[16] There is also oil shale in New Zealand.^[25] Capital Brisbane Government Constitutional monarchy Governor Quentin Bryce Premier Peter Beattie (ALP) Federal representation - House seats 28 - Senate seats 12 Gross State Product (2004-05) - Product ($m) $158,506 (3rd) - Product per capita $40,170/person (6th) Population (End of November 2006) - Population 4,164,590 (3rd) - Density 2. ...

South America

Brazil has the world's second largest known oil shale resources (the Irati shale and lacustrine deposits) and has the second largest shale oil production after Estonia. Oil shale resources occur in São Mateus do Sul, Paraná, and in Vale do Paraíba. Brazil developed the world’s largest surface oil shale pyrolysis retort Petrosix, an 11-m vertical shaft retort. Production in 1999 was about 200,000 tonnes.^[26]^[13] Small resources are also found in Argentina, Chile, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay and Venezuela.^[27] Flag of ParanÃ¡ See other Brazilian States Capital Curitiba Largest City Curitiba Area 199,544 kmÂ² Population - Total - Density 9,150,000 48 inh. ... 3. ... Petrosix is currently the worldâ€™s largest surface oil shale pyrolysis reactor with 11-m diameter vertical shaft kiln, operational since 1992. ...

Industry

Currently oil shale is used industrially in Brazil, China, Estonia and to some extent in Germany, Israel and Russia, while several other countries research their reserves, have experimental production or have phase-out their oil shale industry.^[28] Estonia accounts for about 70% of the world's oil shale production.^[29] Oil shale is used industrially in Brazil, China, Estonia and to some extent in Germany, Israel and Russia. ...

History of usage

Oil shale has been used since ancient times. In 1637, Swedish alum shale of Cambrian and Ordovician age was used for extracting potassium aluminium sulfate.^[28] The modern use of oil shale for shale oil production dates to the mid-19th century. In 1837 oil shale mining began at the Autun mines in France, and continued until 1957.^[26] In 1847 the Scottish chemist James Young prepared "lighting oil," lubricating oil and wax from torbanite. In 1850 he patented the process of cracking oil.^[30] Oil from oil shale was produced in Scotland from 1857 until 1962 when production ceased due to the lower cost of petroleum.^[28] Germany developed its shale oil industry from mid-19th century until the 1940s. Today, only Rohrbach Zement in Dotternhausen uses oil shale for cement, and power and thermal energy production.^[28] Sweden retorted oil from shale from the end of the 19th century until 1966. In addition, in 1950-1989 alum shale was used in Sweden for uranium production and in the 1960s a small amount of vanadium was produced.^[16]^[28] Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 Ã— 444 pixelsFull resolution (1019 Ã— 566 pixel, file size: 58 KB, MIME type: image/png) From the U.S. Geological Survey, report Geology and Resources of Some World Oil-Shale Deposits http://pubs. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 Ã— 444 pixelsFull resolution (1019 Ã— 566 pixel, file size: 58 KB, MIME type: image/png) From the U.S. Geological Survey, report Geology and Resources of Some World Oil-Shale Deposits http://pubs. ... A crystal of alum Alum, Allom [aluminium potassium sulphate], in chemistry, is a term given to the crystallized double sulfates of the typical formula M+2SO4Â·M3+2(SO4)3Â·24H2O, where M+ is the sign of an alkali metal (lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, or caesium), and M3+ denotes one... The Cambrian is a major division of the geologic timescale that begins about 542 Â± 1. ... The Ordovician period is the second of the six (seven in North America) periods of the Paleozoic era. ... Aluminium sulfate is a widely used industrial chemical. ... Year 1957 (MCMLVII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link displays the 1957 Gregorian calendar). ... James Youngs gravestone in Inverkip (photo by Thomas Nugent) James Young (13 July 1811â€“May 13, 1883), a Scottish chemist, was born in Glasgow, the son of a joiner and carpenter. ... Factory of Shukhov cracking process, Baku, USSR, 1934 In petroleum geology and chemistry, cracking is the process whereby complex organic molecules such as kerogens or heavy hydrocarbons are broken down into simpler molecules (e. ... Motto (Latin) No one provokes me with impunity Cha togar mfhearg gun dioladh (Scottish Gaelic) Wha daur meddle wi me?(Scots)1 Anthem (Multiple unofficial anthems) Scotlands location in Europe and the United Kingdom Capital Edinburgh Largest city Glasgow Official languages English, Gaelic and Scots1 Government Constitutional monarchy... 1857 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... Year 1962 (MCMLXII) was a common year starting on Monday (the link is to a full 1962 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Dotternhausen is a town in the Zollernalbkreis district, in Baden-WÃ¼rttemberg, Germany. ...

Estonia first used oil shale as a low-grade fuel in 1838 after attempts to distill oil from the material failed. Estonia's resource was not seriously exploited until fuel shortages during World War I made it viable. Mining began in 1918 and has continued since, with the size of operation increasing with demand. After World War II, Estonian-produced oil shale gas was used in Leningrad and the cities in North Estonia as a substitute for natural gas.^[31]^[32] Two large oil shale-fired power stations were opened, a 1,400-MW plant in 1965 and a 1,600-MW plant in 1973. Oil shale production peaked in 1980 at 31.35 million tonnes. However, in 1981 the fourth reactor of the Sosnovy Bor nuclear power station opened nearby in Leningrad Oblast of Russia, reducing demand for Estonian shale. Production gradually decreased until 1995, since which time production has increased again slightly.^[28] â€œThe Great War â€ redirects here. ... Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki TÅjÅ Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000... Leningrad (Russian: Ð›ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ð½Ð³Ñ€Ð°Ð´) may mean: St. ... Oil power plant in Iraq A power station (also referred to as generating station or power plant) is a facility for the generation of electric power. ... The megawatt (symbol: MW) is a unit for measuring power corresponding to one million (106) watts. ... A tonne or metric ton (symbol t), sometimes referred to as a metric tonne, is a measurement of mass equal to 1,000 kilograms. ... , Sosnovy Bor (Russian: ) is a town in Leningrad Oblast, Russia, situated on the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland, 81 km west of St. ... A nuclear power plant (NPP) is a thermal power station in which the heat source is one or more nuclear reactors. ... Leningrad Oblast (Russian: , tr. ...

Australia mined 4 million tonnes of oil shale between 1862 and 1952, when government support of mining ceased. Since the 1970s, oil companies have been exploring again possible reserves.^[28] From 2000 to 2004 a demonstration-scale processing plant at the Stuart Deposit near Gladstone, Queensland produced over 1.5 million barrels of oil. The facility is now on care-and-maintenance in an operable condition, and the operator of the plant — Queensland Energy Resources — is conducting research and design studies for the next phase of its oil shale operations.^[33] Brazil has produced oil from oil shales since 1935. Since 1954 Oil shale development has been the focus of a specific department with in Petrobras named, Superintendencia da Industrializaco do Xisto (SIX). Initially SIX focused on oil shales in the larger Paraíba formation but has now since since refocued development in the Irati shale. The pilot plant with a prototype oil-shale retort was started in 1972 before using Petrosix technology in 1982 and the commercial production started in 1992.^[28] China has been mining oil shale since the 1920s near Fushun and Maoming.^[3]^[28] Russia has been mining its reserves since the 1930s. As most of Russian oil shale mines were closed on 1990s, the current production continues on a small-scale basis.^[28] Canada has produced some shale oil in mid of 1800s and in 1929-1930. Some experimental processing took place also in 1988.^[28] For other uses, see Gladstone (disambiguation). ... Petrosix is currently the worldâ€™s largest surface oil shale pyrolysis reactor with 11-m diameter vertical shaft kiln, operational since 1992. ... Location within China Fushun (Simplified Chinese: ; Traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: ) is a city in Liaoning, China, about 45 km from Shenyang, with a population about 1. ... Maoming (èŒ‚å) is one of the largest city in the west of Guangdong province of the Peoples Republic of China. ...

The United States has seen some attempts at large-scale exploitation. Oil distilled from shale was first burnt for horticultural purposes in the 19th century, but it was not until the 1900s that larger investigations were made. The Office of Naval Petroleum and Oil Shale Reserves was established in 1912. The reserves were seen as a possible emergency source of fuel for the military, particularly the Navy.^{[citation needed]} After World War II, the US Bureau of Mines opened a demonstration mine at Anvils Point, just west of Rifle, Colorado, which operated at a small-scale.^{[citation needed]} In the early sixties TOSCO (The Oil Shale Corporation) opened an underground mine and built an experimental plant near Parachute, Colorado. It closed in the late sixties because the price of production exceeded the cost of imported crude oil.^{[citation needed]} It was not until the oil crisis of the 1970s and the US becoming a net importer of oil that efforts at utilization were increased. Military uses were deemed less important and commercial exploitation came to the fore, with several oil companies investing. Unocal returned to the same area where TOSCO had worked. Several billion dollars were spent until declining oil prices rendered production uneconomical once more and Unocal withdrew in 1991.^{[citation needed]} The oil shale development program was initiated in 2003 in support of President Bush’s National Energy Policy.^[34] The Energy Policy Act of 2005 introduced a commercial leasing program for oil shale and tar sands resources on public lands with an emphasis on the most geologically prospective lands within each of the states of Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming.^[35] The federal government currently owns 72% of all known oil shale in the United States. Horticulture (Latin: hortus (garden plant) + cultura (culture)) is classically defined as the culture or growing of garden plants. ... The United States Office of Naval Petroleum and Oil Shale Reserves is part of the US Department of Energy. ... {{ USN redirects here. ... Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki TÅjÅ Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000... For most of the 20th century, the U.S. Bureau of Mines (USBM) was the primary United States Government agency conducting scientific research and disseminating information on the extraction, processing, use, and conservation of mineral resources. ... Rifle is a city located in Garfield County, Colorado. ... Tosco (The Oil Shale COrporation) was an independent U.S. based petroleum refining and marketing corporation. ... Parachute is a town located in Garfield County, Colorado. ... Oil crisis may refer to: 1973 oil crisis 1979 energy crisis 1990 spike in the price of oil Oil price increases of 2004 and 2005 Hubbert peak theory Energy crisis This is a disambiguation page: a list of articles associated with the same title. ... The Unocal Corporation (NYSE: UCL), based in Los Angeles, California, was founded in 1890 as the Union Oil Company of California. ... Oil price in 2003-2005 The price of light, sweet crude oil on NYMEX has been above $40/barrel since late July 2004. ... The Unocal Corporation (NYSE: UCL), based in Los Angeles, California, was founded in 1890 as the Union Oil Company of California. ... The Energy Policy Act of 2005 (Pub. ...

Mining

The oil shale is mined either by traditional underground mining or surface mining techniques. There are several mining methods, but the aim of all of them is the fragmenting of oil shale deposit to enable the transport of shale fragments to a power plant or retorting facility. Main methods of surface mining are open pit mining and strip mining. The main sub-surface mining method is the room-and-pillar method.^[36] Sub-surface mining or underground mining refers to a group of techniques used for the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the earth. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... The El Chino mine located near Silver City, New Mexico is an open-pit copper mine Open-pit mining refers to a method of extracting rock or minerals from the earth by their removal from an open pit or borrow. ... Strip mining is the practice of mining a seam of mineral ore by first removing all of the soil and rock that lies on top of it. ...

Power generation

Oil shale could be used as a fuel for thermal power plants, where the shale is burned like coal to drive steam turbines. Currently there are oil shale-fired power plants in Estonia (2967 MW installed capacities), Israel (12.5 MW), Germany (9.9 MW), and China.^[9]^[20] While some countries have closed their oil shale-fired power plants (e.g. Romania) or converted to other fuels (e.g. Russia), some other countries are looking for construction of these power plants (e.g. Jordan and Egypt), or burn oil shale at the power plants together with coal (e.g. Canada and Turkey).^[9]^[21]^[37]

The most modern technology of a combustion of oil shale in power plants is a bubbling fluidized bed (BFB) or circulating fluidized bed (CFB) process, while the traditional way of burning oil shale is through pulverized combustion.^[38]^[9] Huadian is a city in Jilin province in northern China. ... It has been suggested that Fluidized-bed combustion be merged into this article or section. ...

Oil extraction

At present, the major shale oil producers are Estonia, Brazil and China, while some other countries as Australia, USA, Canada and Jordan have planned to start or restart shale oil production.^[9]^[21] Although there are several oil shale retorting technologies, only five technologies are currently in commercial use, which are Kiviter, Galoter, Fushun, Petrosix, and Alberta Taciuk.^[39] Oil shale extraction refers to the process that converts kerogen, an immature form of hydrocarbon trapped in the oil shale, into a useable hydrocarbons in form of a petroleum-like shale oilâ€”a form of non-conventional oilâ€”and combustible shale gas. ...

Ex-situ

In case of the ex-situ method, the oil shale is/can be mined either by traditional underground mining or surface mining from the ground and then transported to a processing facility. At the facility, the shale is usually heated to 450–500 °C (750-950°F). At this temperature, the kerogen in the shale decomposes to gas, oil vapour and char, a process known as retorting. The gas and oil vapours are separated from the spent shale and cooled causing the oil to condense. The oil may be sold as a fuel oil or upgraded to meet refinery feed specifications by adding hydrogen and removing impurities such as sulphur and nitrogen. The non-condensible retort gas and char on the spent shale may be burned and the heat may be recovered for heating the raw shale or generating electricity. Combustion exhaust gases and water condenced with the oil need to be treated prior to emission to the environment. Usually the spent shale is cooled and moistened with water before disposal back to the mine, settling ponds or tailing piles.

There are hundreds of patents for oil shale retorting technologies. However, only a few dozen have been tested in a pilot plant (1 to 10 t/h) and less than 10 technologies have been tested at a demonstration scale (40 to 400 t/h). One method of classifying the different ex-situ technologies is by the method that is used to heat the shale to retorting temperature. The classes are internal combustion technologies, hot recycled solids technologies, conduction through a wall technologies, externally generated hot gas technologies, and reactive fluids technologies.^[40]

Internal combustion technologies

Internal combustion or directly heated technologies uses heat, which is transferred by flowing gases generated by combustion within the retort. Common characteristics of these technolgies are the feed shale consists of lumps (10-100 mm) and the retort vapours are diluted with the combustion exhaust. The main technologies are Kiviter, Union A, Paraho Direct, Superior Direct, and Fushun processes.^[40]^[41] The Kiviter processing takes place in gravitational shaft retorts and it's possible only using large-particle feed. The process gas combustion products are used as the heat carrier. In the case of kukersite the yield of crude oil accounts 14-17% of shale and the oil consists only small amount of low-boiling fractions. Main problems of Kiviter process are related with environmental concerns like extensive use and pollution of water in the process, as also solid residue continues to leach toxic substances.^[42]^[43] The Kiviter process is used by Estonian company VKG Oil, a subsidiary of Viru Keemia Grupp.^[44] The company operates several retorts, the largest processing 40 t/h of oil shale. Viru Keemia Grupp (VKG) is an Estonian holding group of chemical, energy and public utility companies. ...

Like the Kiviter, the Fushun-type retort processes oil shale lumps in a vertical shaft kiln. The Fushun Mining Group in Liaoning Province, China operates the largest shale oil plant in the world employing 80 Fushun-type retorts.^[45] The Paraho Direct is an American version of the lump-processing vertical shaft kiln. Shale Technologies LLC owns and operates a pilot plant facility in Rifle Colorado.^[46] The Fushun Mining Group is a state-owned coal and oil shale company in Fushun, Liaoning Province, China, which operates the largest shale oil plant in the world employing 80 Fushun-type retorts. ...

Hot recycled solids technologies

Hot recycled solids technologies use heat, which is transferred by mixing hot solid particles with the oil shale. These technologies usually process oil shale fines (less than 10 mm). The heat carrier (usually shale ash) is heated by combustion in a separate chamber or vessel, thus the retort vapours are not diluted with combustion exhaust. The main technologies are Alberta Taciuk Process, Galoter, TOSCO II, Lurgi-Ruhrgas, Chevron STB, LLNL HRS, and Shell Spher processes.^[40]^[41] In the Galoter process, retorting takes place in a rotary kiln-type retort and it's possible to use also shale fines. The spent shale is burned in a spouted bed and solid shale ash is used as the heat carrier.^[43] In the case of kukersite the yield of crude oil accounts roughly 12% of shale and the oil consists 15-20% of low-boiling fractions. The Galoter process is more environmental-friendly than the Kiviter process, as the water use and pollution is smaller. However, the burning residue causes some environmental problems because of organic carbon and calcium sulphide consistent.^[42] The Galoter process is used for oil production by Eesti Energia, Estonian energy company.^[44] The company has 2 retorts both processing 125 t/h of oil shale and plans to build 2 more.^[47] Another Estonian company, VKG Oil AS, is constructing in 2007/08 a new production line using the Galoter process engineered by Atomenergoproject of St Petersburg^[48] LURGI AG is a German Engineering, Construction and Chemical Process Licensing comapny. ... Eesti Energia AS is an Estonian state-owned energy company engaged in the production, transmission, distribution and sale of electric and thermal power, oil-shale mining, and construction and maintenance of energy systems. ...

Like the Galoter process, the Alberta Taciuk processes oil shale fines in a rotary kiln-type retort. The unique feature of the Alberta Taciuk is that drying and pyrolysis of the feed shale and combustion, recycling and cooling of the spent shale all occur in a single multi-chamber horizontal, rotating vessel.^[49] The produced oil consists up to 30% of low-boiling fractions. The water pollution in the process is quite moderate.^[42] Australian oil companies Southern Pacific Petroleum NL and later Queensland Energy Resources operated a 250 t/h industrial-scale pilot plant using the Alberta Taciuk Processor. The plant closed in 2004. UMATAC Industrial Processes is designing the 6000-ton-per-day Alberta Taciuk Processor in China, scheduled for operation in 2008.^[50] Estonian VKG Oil is considering construction of new retort using the Alberta Taciuk Processor.^[44] Oil Shale Exploration Company LLC has arranged for an exclusive right to license the ATP for research, development and demonstration near Vernal Utah.^[51] Like the Galoter and Alberta Taciuk, the TOSCO II also processes oil shale fines that are heated with hot recycled solids in a rotary kiln. However instead of recycling shale ash, the TOSCO II circulates hot ceramic balls between the retort and a heater. The process was tested in a 40 t/h test facility near Parachute Colorado that closed in 1972. The LLNL HRS (hot-recycled-solid) retorting process is worked out by the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. The technology was used in a 4-tonne/day pilot plant from 1990 to 1993. A delayed-fall combustor, which is used in this process, gives greater control over the combustion process compared with a lift pipe combustor. A fluidized-bed mixer is used instead of the screw mixer. which is used in the Lurgi process. The majority of the pyrolysis occurs in a settling-bed unit.^[40] Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 Ã— 495 pixelsFull resolution (915 Ã— 566 pixel, file size: 136 KB, MIME type: image/png) From the US Department of Energy, report Strategic Significance of Americaâ€™s Oil Shale Resource, Volume II: Oil Shale Resources, Technology and Economics http://www. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 Ã— 495 pixelsFull resolution (915 Ã— 566 pixel, file size: 136 KB, MIME type: image/png) From the US Department of Energy, report Strategic Significance of Americaâ€™s Oil Shale Resource, Volume II: Oil Shale Resources, Technology and Economics http://www. ... Aerial view of the lab and surrounding area. ... Year 1990 (MCMXC) was a common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1990 Gregorian calendar). ... Year 1993 (MCMXCIII) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display full 1993 Gregorian calendar). ...

Conduction through a wall technologies

Conduction through a wall technologies use heat, which is transferred by conduction through the retort wall. These technologies normally process fines and the retort vapours are not diluted by combustion exhaust. Technologies include Pumpherston, Fischer assay, Hom Tov and Oil-Tech processes.^[40]^[41] Oil-Tech staged electrically heated retort process is developed by Millennium Synfuels, LLC (former Oil Tech Inc.). In this process, the feedstock material is heated to greater degrees as it goes further down the retort. The retort-style prototype was reported to have passed a test.^[52] In the Hom Tov process (US Patent 5372708), fine oil shale is slurried with waste bitumen and pumped through coils in a heater. Israeli promoters claim that the technology enables the shale to be processed at somewhat lower temperatures with the addition of the catalyzing bitumen. The technology has not been tested in a pilot plant yet. Fischer Assay is a standardized laboratory test that is used to measure the grade of an oil shale sample. A 100-gram sample crushed to 8-mesh (2.38 mm) screen is heated in a small aluminum retort to 500 °C at a rate of 12 °C per minute, and held at that temperature for 40 minutes.^[16] The distilled vapors of oil, gas, and water are passed through a condenser and cooled with ice water into a graduated centrifuge tube. The oil yields achieved by other technologies are often reported as a percentage of the Fischer Assay oil yield.

Externally generated hot gas technologies

Externally generated hot gas technologies or indirectly heated technologies use heat, which is transferred by gases that are heated outside of the retort vessel. The main technologies are Petrosix, Union B, Paraho Indirect, and Superior Indirect processes.^[40]^[41] Like the internal combustion technologies, most of the externally-generated hot gas technologies process oil shale lumps in vertical shaft kilns, however the retort vapours are not diluted with combustion exhaust. The world’s largest surface oil shale pyrolysis reactor currently operating is the Petrosix in São Mateus do Sul, Paraná, Brazil. The 11-m diameter vertical shaft kiln is owned by Petrobras and has being operating since 1992 with high availlability. The company operates 2 retort, the largest of which processes 260 t/h of oil shale. The largest retort ever built used the Union B technology, developed by Unocal. The Union B processed 400 t/h of oil shale lumps heated by externally generated hot gas. However unlike all other vertical shaft kilns, the Union B pumped the oil shale into the bottom of the retort and hot gas entered at the top. Unocal operated the retort from 1986 to 1992 near Parachute, Colorado. The Paraho Indirect technology is similar to the Petrosix which is considered a highly reliable technology for use with U.S. oil shale.^[44] Petrosix is currently the worldâ€™s largest surface oil shale pyrolysis reactor with 11-m diameter vertical shaft kiln, operational since 1992. ... Flag of ParanÃ¡ See other Brazilian States Capital Curitiba Largest City Curitiba Area 199,544 kmÂ² Population - Total - Density 9,150,000 48 inh. ... Union Oil Company of California, dba Unocal was incorporated in California in 1890. ... Parachute is a town located in Garfield County, Colorado. ...

Reactive fluids technologies

Reactive fluids technologies are IGT Hytort (high-pressure H2), and Donor solvent processes.^[40] These technologies are more appropriate hydrogen-poor shales, such as the Eastern US Devonian shales, for which only a third of the organic carbon is typically converted to oil during conventional aboveground retorting. The hydrogen or hydrogen donor react with coke precursors and roughly double the yield of oil, depending on the details of the shale and process [R. Rex, J Janks, T. Knowlton, Cold Flow Model Testing of the Hytort Process Retort Design, 17th Oil Shale Symposium. Colo. Sch. Mines Press. pp. 17-36.]

Fluid Bed Reactor

Chattanooga Corp have developed an oil crude extraction method for oil shales, tar sands and other unconventional oil by a fluid bed rector and a associated hydrogen fired heater. At relatively low temperatures(1000 F)through thermal cracking and hydrogenation into hydrocarbon vapors and spent solids. The thermal cracking allows for hydrocarbon vapors to be extracted off the oil shale which is then extracted and scrubbed of solids. The vapor is then cooled, during this cooling condensate drops out of the gas, the remaining hydrogen, light hydrocarbon (HC) and acid gases are passed through an amine scrubbing system to remove hydrogen sulfide which is converted to elemental sulfur. The cleaned hydrogen and light hydrocarbon gases are then fed back into the system for compression or into the hydrogen heater which provide the heat for the fluid bed reactor. This almost closed loop allows for a very efficient process where nearly all the energy needs are provided by the source material and the end result is a valuable light condensate crude. The demonstration plant in Canada was able to produce 51 gal/ton of shale oil at an API gravity between 28-30. With hydrotreating ti would be possible to improve this to 38-40 API. Chattanooga Corp are currently looking at designs o produce a 60,000 b/d facility.^[53] Hydrogen sulfide (hydrogen sulphide in British English), H2S, is a colorless, toxic, flammable gas that is responsible for the foul odor of rotten eggs and flatulence. ...

In-situ

The in-situ technologies are usually classified as true in-situ processes (TIS) and modified in-situ processes (MIS). While true in-situ processes do not involve mining the shale, the modified in-situ involves prior to heating mining beneath the target oil shale deposit, and drilling and fracturing the target deposit above the mined area to create void space of 20 to 25 percent to improve the flow of gases and liquid fluids through the rock formation, and by that increasing the volumes and quality of the oil produced.^[44] The in-situ technologies could be also classified similarly to the ex-situ classification by the method of heating.

In-situ operations could potentially extract more oil from a given area of land than conventional oil shale mining and retorting, as the wells can reach much deeper than surface strip-mines can. With in-situ processing, the shale is fractured and heated underground to release gases and oils. Several companies have patented methods for in-situ retorting. However, most of these methods are still experimental.

Early In-Situ Methods

A variety of true in-situ processes were tried prior to the oil shale crash in the 1980s. Most notable are the Equity Oil process, which injected superheated steam in the permeable leached zone of Colorado’s Piceance Basin [P. M. Dougan, L. Dockter, “BX In Situ Oil Shale Project,” 14th Oil shale Symposium Proceedings, Colo. Sch. Mines Press, 1981, pp. 118-127], and the Geokinetics Process, which is a horizontal combustion retort in which permeability is formed by explosive uplift and rubblization. [C. E. Tyner, R. L. Parrish, B. H. Major, J. M. Lekas, “Sandia/Geokinetics Retort 23: A Horizontal In Situ Retorting Experiment, 15th Oil shale Symposium Proceedings, Colo. Sch. Mines Press, 1982, pp.370-384.] Little yield information is available from the Equity process, but the Geokinetics process generally recovered 40-50% of the Fischer assay oil.

Variations of the modified in-situ (MIS) process have been investigated by the US Bureau of Mines, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Occidental Petroleum, Rio Blanco Corporation, and Multi-Mineral Corporation. An early concept in the 1960s was to create a rubble chimney using a nuclear explosive.[D. B. Lombard and H. C. Carpenter, “Recovering Oil by Retorting a Nuclear Chimney in Oil Shale,” J. Petroleum Technology 19, 727-734 (1967)] This approach was abandoned for a variety of technical reasons. Subsequently, a variety of conventional mining and rubblization approaches were explored. The first MIS oil shale experiment was conducted by Occidental Petroleum in 1972 at Logan Wash.^[44] Oil yield was adversely affected by inefficient sweep of the rubblized zone due to nonuniform permeability. [M. L. Gregg and J. H. Campbell, “Sweep efficiency modeling of modified in-situ retorts” 13th Oil Shale Symposium Proceedings, Colo. Sch. Mines Press, 1980, pp. 87-100] A subsequent series of field experiments tried to improve permeability uniformity by different mining and blasting approaches. Occidental achieved 50-60 %FA oil yield in Retorts 7 and 8, depending on how it is calculated. [T. C. Bickel, “Data Acquisition and Analysis of Occidental Vertical Modified In Situ Retorts 7 and 8, Sandia Report SAND83-2649, 1984] Rio Blanco Corporation used a different mining and blasting approach that created a bed with close to 40% porosity. This enabled them to retort the chimney at a substantially faster rate and achieved higher oil yields—about 70% of Fischer assay. [K. L. Berry, R. L. Hutson, J. S. Sterrett and J. C. Knepper, “Modified In-Situ Retorting Results of Two Field Retorts, 15th Oil shale Symposium Proceedings, Colo. Sch. Mines Press, 1982, pp. 385-396] Multi-Mineral Corporation proposed a more complicated MIS process for Saline Zone oil shale that included recovery of nahcolite and Dawsonite minerals. Occidental Petroleum Corporation (Oxy) NYSE: OXY is an international petroleum exploration and development company headquartered in the Westwood district of Los Angeles. ... Year 1972 (MCMLXXII) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Shell's In-Situ Conversion Process (ICP)

The Shell Oil Company has been developing a new method since 2000 under the name the Mahogany Research Project in Colorado, some 200 miles (320 km) west of Denver. This is a true in-situ technology which uses conduction through a wall and reactive fluids (some embodiments) methods for the heating. This method is energy intensive though but favours well when compared to other heavy oil projects like the Tar sands. If a full field project was to be undertaken it is estimated that for every unit of energy consumer 3.5 units would be produced over the project life cycle. It also has the benefit that the hydrocarbons produced is much lighter than traditional crude. Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 Ã— 540 pixelsFull resolution (860 Ã— 580 pixel, file size: 396 KB, MIME type: image/png) From the US Bureau of Land Management, Shell EIA of their Oil Shale Project http://www. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 Ã— 540 pixelsFull resolution (860 Ã— 580 pixel, file size: 396 KB, MIME type: image/png) From the US Bureau of Land Management, Shell EIA of their Oil Shale Project http://www. ... The Shell emblem known as the Pecten Shell Oil Company (SOC) is the Houston, Texas based wholly-owned subsidiary of Royal Dutch Shell. ... The Mahogany Research Project is an initiative by the Shell Oil Company to procure oil from the geologically-termed Mahogany layer of oil shale rock in the Piceance Basin of Colorado. ... This article refers to the state capital of Colorado. ...

First a freeze wall is constructed to seal off groundwater by drilling 2000' wells, eight feet apart, around the perimeter of a 10 acre working zone, and then circulating with a super-chilled liquid to freeze the ground to -60^oF. This freeze wall is present as an environmental measure to prevent contamination of the groundwater. The working zone is then dewatered. Recovery wells are drilled on 40' spacing within the working zone. An electrical heating element is lowered into each well and allowed to heat the kerogen to 650 to 700^oF over a period of approximately four years, slowly converting it into oils and gases, which are then pumped to the surface. The company believes that it will be possible to recover in the region of 65-70% of the hydrocarbons in place. An operation producing 100,000 barrels a day would require a dedicated electrical generating capacity of 1.2 gigawatts. To maximize the functionality of the freeze walls, working zones will be developed, in succession, adjacent to each other. This in-situ method requires 100% surface disturbance, greatly increasing the footprint of extraction operations in comparison to conventional oil and gas drilling.^[54]

The current test sites are expected to produce in the region of 600 to 1,500 bopd

EGL Resources

EGL Resources proposes a method that combines horizontal wells, through which steam is passed, and vertical wells, which provide both vertical heat transfer through refluxing of generated oil and a means to collect and produce the oil. In contrast to the Equity process, the steam circulates through a closed loop, and no fluids are injected into the formation. Horizontal heat transfer from the vertical wells is similar to that in the Shell ICP, and a similar oil quality is expected. They are currently leasing a 160-acre tract in the Piceance Basin from the US Bureau of Land Management for their tests.^[55]

Chevron

Chevron Corporation and Los Alamos National Laboratory formed a joint research project in 2006 to develop oil shale. They have leased a 160 acre patch from the US Bureau of land management for their tests. They are investigating whether CO² can be injected into the formation at a raised temperature which will decompose the kerogen into conventional hydrocarbons. The CO² would be injected via conventionally drilled wells and then exposed to the formation via a series of horizontal fractures where it would circulate around. The hydrocarbons would then be produced also via conventional vertical oil wells. Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ...

This method is based upon research and trials carried out in the 1950s by Sinclair Oil and Gas company which developed a method using natural and induced fractures between vertical wells to produce the in-situ kerogen. Continental oil and the University of Akron also demonstrated and were issued patents that showed that CO² was a good carrier gas in helping recover the shale oil.^[55]

Petro Probe

Petro probe a subsidiary of Earth Science Search have listened a process involving injecting superheated air in to wells drilled into the oil shale. They are currently in negations with the process patent holder which once complete will allow them to begin a three stage test program to verify the process, the economics and the function ability of a complete working plant. The process involves injecting air which is super heated at the surface into wells drilled into the oil shale. The super-heater air then mixes and melts the in-situ shale oil which is transported back to the surface in the gas which is then cooled and the condensate drop out is collected. The produced gas is then in turned used to heat the air and is injected back with other waste products into the formation there by minimizing the environmental impact.^[53]

ExxonMobil Electrofrac

ExxonMobil has been involved in Oil Shale development since the 1960’s and is currently focused on in-situ developments for oil shale. They are concentrating on an in-situ method which heats the oil shale via an electrically conductive heating fluid which has been injected into the reservoir and heats the oil shale via a series of hydraulic fractures. The oil shale is produced by separate dedicated production wells. For other uses, see Exon (disambiguation). ...

It is thought that most likely method is to have horizontal wells which have been hydraulically fractured along the vertical axis. These wells are place in a parallel row with a second horizontal well intersecting them at their toe. This will allow the two different charges to be applied at either end. ExxonMobil is pursuing this method as they believe it provides a better method in which is reach into the surround oil shale and heat it up.

The Electrofrac method has been tested in laboratories and test sites are now currently being considered for a field trial.^[53]

Volumetric heating by radio waves technologies

The concept of volumetric heating by radio waves (radio frequency processing) of oil shale was developed at IITRI in the late 1970s. The concept was to heat modest volumes of shale over using vertical electrode arrays. Deeper large volumes could be processed at slower heating rates over a period. The technology was developed later by the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL), and by several other inventors. The LLNL concept based on the use of wells spaced at tens of meters to heat cubic kilometers of deep oil shale very slowly. The concept presumed a radio frequency at which the skin depth is many tens of meters, and thereby overcoming the thermal diffusion times needed for conductive heating.^[40]^[10] State Street Village, S.R. Crown Hall, Armour Main Building Illinois Institute of Technology (IIT) is a private Ph. ...

Other uses

Oil shale is or could be used for production of different products like specialty carbon fibers, adsorbent carbons, carbon black, cement, bricks, construction and decorative blocks, soil additives, fertilizers, rock wool insulating material, glass, and pharmaceutical products. However, oil shale usage for production of these products are still small or even in experimental stages only.^[16]^[37]

Some oil shales could be used for uranium and other rare chemical element production. In 1946-1952, a marine type of Dictyonema shale was used for uranium production in Sillamäe, Estonia, and in 1950-1989 alum shale was used in Sweden for the same purpose.^[16] Oil shale gas could be used as a substitute for natural gas, however at the current price level this is not economically feasible.^[56]^[31] General Name, Symbol, Number uranium, U, 92 Chemical series actinides Group, Period, Block n/a, 7, f Appearance silvery gray metallic; corrodes to a spalling black oxide coat in air Standard atomic weight 238. ... County Ida-Viru County Mayor Ain Kiviorg Area 10. ...

Economics

According to the survey conducted by the RAND, a surface retorting complex (mine, retorting plant, upgrading plant, supporting utilities, and spent shale reclamation) is unlikely to be profitable unless real crude oil prices are at least US$70 to US$95 per barrel.^[36] Once commercial plants are in operation and experience-based learning takes place, costs are expected to decline to US$35–US$48 per barrel after 12 years. After production of 1000 million barrels, costs are estimated to decline further to $30 – $40 per barrel.^[57] In 2005, Royal Dutch Shell announced that its in situ extraction technology deployed in Colorado could be competitive at prices over US$30 per barrel.^[58] However, it is possible that the real competitive price level will be higher as the costs for building an underground wall of frozen water to contain melted shale have significantly escalated.^[59] The extraction and processing of oil shales is directly linked to the oil price and the assumption that the price will remain at a certain level for some time to come. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 Ã— 600 pixel Image in higher resolution (1024 Ã— 768 pixel, file size: 21 KB, MIME type: image/png)Ten-day moving average of prices of NYMEX Light Sweet Crude, taken from data at the New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 Ã— 600 pixel Image in higher resolution (1024 Ã— 768 pixel, file size: 21 KB, MIME type: image/png)Ten-day moving average of prices of NYMEX Light Sweet Crude, taken from data at the New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology. ... Alternate meanings: See RAND (disambiguation) The RAND Corporation is an American think tank first formed to offer research and analysis to the U.S. military. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Royal Dutch Shell PLC is a multinational oil company (oil major) of British and Dutch origins. ...

At the full scale production, the production costs for one barrel of light crude oil of the Australia's Stuart plant were projected to be in the range of US$11.3 to $12.4 per barrel, including capital costs and operation costs at a 30 years projected lifetime. However, the project is suspended due environmental concerns.^[57]^[60] Israel's AFSK Hom Tov process, which produces oil from a mixture of oil refinery residue (in the form of bitumen) and oil shale, claims to be profitable at US$16-US$17 per barrel. This technology still being tested. A.F.S.K. Hom Tov is a spin-off of the A.F.S.K. Industries Group in Haifa, Israel. ...

The project of a new ATP retort planned by VKG Oil, is estimated to achieve break-even financial feasibility operating at 30% capacity, assuming a crude oil price of US$21 per barrel or higher. At 50% utilization, the project is economic at a price of US$18 per barrel, while at full capacity, it could be economic at price of US$13 per barrel.^[44]

Due to the low price of oil and other competitive fuels, oil shale production has ceased in Canada, Scotland, Sweden, France, Australia, Romania and South Africa, and has not taken off in the USA, Belarus, Jordan and Morocco.^[9] During the oil crisis of the 1970s, people thought that oil supplies were peaking, expected oil prices to be around seventy dollars a barrel for some time to come, and invested huge amounts of money in refining oil shale — money that they lost. Because of the huge losses last time around, there is considerable reluctance to invest in shale oil production. Investors are waiting to see if oil prices really will remain in high level and no hurry to develop oil shale. However, USA, Canada and Jordan are planning or already started with test projects, and Australia considers restarting oil shale production.^[9]^[33] The 1970s decade refers to the years from 1970 to 1979. ... In the context of Hubbert peak theory, peak oil is the date when the peak of the worlds petroleum (crude oil) production rate is reached. ... Oil price in 2003-2005 The price of light, sweet crude oil on NYMEX has been above $40/barrel since late July 2004. ...

A critical measure of the viability of oil shale is the ratio of energy used to produce the oil, compared to the energy returned (Energy Returned on Energy Invested - EROEI). Generally, the oil shale has to be mined, transported, retorted, and then disposed of, so at least 40% of the energy value is consumed in production. EROEI of the different oil shale deposits varies between 0.7-13.3.^[14] Royal Dutch Shell has reported a figure of EROEI about 3:1 on its recent in-situ development, Mahogany Research Project, which uses electric heating of the shale up to 500 degrees Fahrenheit (260 °C. This compares to a figure of typically 5:1 for conventional oil extraction. EROEI may be less important if alternate energy sources are used to fund the process. Petrobras, short for PetrÃ³leo Brasileiro S.A., is a government-owned Brazilian oil company headquartered in Rio de Janeiro. ... Petrosix is currently the worldâ€™s largest surface oil shale pyrolysis reactor with 11-m diameter vertical shaft kiln, operational since 1992. ... The Shell emblem known as the Pecten Shell Oil Company (SOC) is the Houston, Texas based wholly-owned subsidiary of Royal Dutch Shell. ... For other uses, see Exon (disambiguation). ... Chevron Corporation (NYSE: CVX) is one of the worlds largest global energy companies. ... The Fushun Mining Group is a state-owned coal and oil shale company in Fushun, Liaoning Province, China, which operates the largest shale oil plant in the world employing 80 Fushun-type retorts. ... Viru Keemia Grupp (VKG) is an Estonian holding group of chemical, energy and public utility companies. ... Eesti Energia AS is an Estonian state-owned energy company engaged in the production, transmission, distribution and sale of electric and thermal power, oil-shale mining, and construction and maintenance of energy systems. ... In physics and energy economics, EROEI (energy returned on energy invested), ERoEI, or EROI (energy returned on invested), is the ratio between the amount of energy expended to obtain a resource, compared with the amount of energy obtained from that resource. ... The Mahogany Research Project is an initiative by the Shell Oil Company to procure oil from the geologically-termed Mahogany layer of oil shale rock in the Piceance Basin of Colorado. ... The degree Celsius (Â°C) is a unit of temperature named after the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius (1701â€“1744), who first proposed a similar system in 1742. ... Renewable energy (sources) or RES includes all sources of energy that are captured from on-going natural processes, such as solar radiation, wind, water flow in streams (hydro power), photosynthesis (biomass) and geothermal heat flows. ...

Water is also needed to add hydrogen to the oil-shale oil before it can be shipped to a conventional oil refinery. The largest deposit of oil shale in the United States is in western Colorado (the Green River Shale deposits), a dry region with no surplus water. The oil shale can be ground into a slurry and transported via pipeline to a more suitable pre-refining location. Official language(s) English Capital Denver Largest city Denver Area Ranked 8th - Total 104,185 sq mi (269,837 kmÂ²) - Width 280 miles (451 km) - Length 380 miles (612 km) - % water 0. ... A slurry is in general a thick suspension of solids in a liquid and may be: Look up slurry in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

Several co-pyrolysis processes to increase efficiency of oil shale retorting have been proposed or tested. In Estonia, the co-pyrolysis of kukersite with renewable fuel (wood waste), as also with plastic and rubber wastes (tyres) has been tested.^[61] Co-pyrolysis of oil shale with high-density polyethylene (HDPE) has been tested also in Morocco and Turkey.^[62]^[63] Israel's AFSK Hom Tov co-pyrolysis oil shale with oil refinery residue (bitumen). Some tests involve co-pyrolysis of oil shale with lignite and cellulose wastes. Depending on reaction conditions the co-pyrolysis may lead to higher conversion ratio and thus lower production costs, and in some cases solves the problem of utilization of certain wastes.^[61] HDPE has SPI resin ID code 2 High-density polyethylene (HDPE) is a polyethylene thermoplastic made from petroleum. ...

Environmental considerations

Oil shale industry has a number of environmental impacts due to the energy intensive nature of extracting and processing. It can leave environmental footprints on the land, atmospherically and in the groundwater, if the risks are not managed correctly. Opposition to to one oil shale program as resulted in it being put on hold in Australia. ^[64] Surface-mining of oil shale deposits has all the environmental impacts of open-pit mining. ... Oil shale extraction refers to the process that converts kerogen, an immature form of hydrocarbon trapped in the oil shale, into a useable hydrocarbons in form of a petroleum-like shale oilâ€”a form of non-conventional oilâ€”and combustible shale gas. ...

Surface-mining of oil shale deposits has all the environmental impacts of open-pit mining. In addition, the combustion and thermal processing generate waste material, which must be disposed of, and atmospheric emissions, including carbon dioxide, a major greenhouse gas. Experimental in-situ conversion processes and carbon capture and storage technologies may reduce some of these concerns in future, but may raise others, such as the pollution of groundwater.^[65] El Chino, located near Silver City, New Mexico, is an open-pit copper mine Open-pit mining, or opencast mining, refers to a method of extracting rock or minerals from the earth by their removal from an open pit or borrow. ... Carbon dioxide is a chemical compound composed of one carbon and two oxygen atoms, and is in a gaseous state in the atmosphere of the Earth. ... Top: Increasing atmospheric CO2 levels as measured in the atmosphere and ice cores. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Carbon dioxide sink. ...

See also

Image File history File links Crystal_128_energy. ... Non-conventional oil is oil extracted using techniques other than the traditional oil well method. ... Athabasca Oil Sands Tar sands, also referred to as oil sands, bituminous sands, or (in Venezuela) extra-heavy oil, are a mixture of sand or clay, water, and extremely heavy crude oil. ... Future energy development, providing for the worlds future energy needs, currently faces great challenges. ... The hypothesis of abiogenic petroleum origin holds that natural petroleum was formed from deep carbon deposits, perhaps deposits dating to the formation of the Earth. ... The Mahogany Research Project is an initiative by the Shell Oil Company to procure oil from the geologically-termed Mahogany layer of oil shale rock in the Piceance Basin of Colorado. ... Bituminous coal Bituminous coal is a relatively hard coal containing a tar-like substance called bitumen. ... The Synthetic Liquid Fuels Program was a program run by the United States Bureau of Mines to create the technology to produce synthetic fuel from coal. ... Bituminous rocks are sedimentary rocks, usually shale, sandstone, limestone or dolostone, that contain traces of tar, bitumen, asphalt or petroleum. ... Coal oil is an oil used for illuminating purposes, also called lamp oil. ... The Green River Basin is the region surrounding the Green River in Wyoming, northern Colorado, and Utah. ... World power usage in terawatts (TW), 1980-2004. ... The Core Research Center is a facility run by the United States Geologic Survey, located in F bay in building 810 on the Denver Federal Center campus. ... The mitigation of peak oil concerns delaying the date and minimizing the impact of peak oil production from conventional oil wells. ...

Footnotes

^ WEC, p. 73
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^ ^a ^b Yin, Liang (7-9 November 2006). "Current status of oil shale industry in Fushun, China" (PDF). Retrieved on 2007-06-29.
^ ^a ^b WEC, p. 81-82
^ (February 2006). "Annual Energy Outlook 2006" (PDF). Energy Information Administration. Retrieved on 2007-06-22.
^ Andrews, Anthony (13 April 2006), Oil Shale: History, Incentives, and Policy, Congressional Research Service. Retrieved on 2007-06-25
^ (April 2006). "NPR's National Strategic Unconventional Resource Model" (PDF). United States Department of Energy. Retrieved on 2007-07-09.
^ Robert Rapier (2006-06-12). "Oil Shale Development Imminent". R-Squared Energy Blog. Retrieved on 2007-06-22.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Brendow, K. (2003). "Global oil shale issues and perspectives. Synthesis of the Symposium on Oil Shale. 18-19 November, Tallinn" (PDF). Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal 20 (1): 81-92. ISSN 0208-189X. Retrieved on 2007-07-21.
^ ^a ^b ^c A. K. Burnham (2003-08-20). "Slow Radio-Frequency Processing of Large Oil Shale Volumes to Produce Petroleum-like Shale Oil" (PDF). Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. UCRL-ID-155045 Retrieved on 2007-06-28.
^ Greenpeace Australia Pacific (2005-03-03). Climate-changing shale oil industry stopped. Retrieved on 2007-06-28.
^ WEC, p. 74
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Altun, N. E. (2006). "Oil Shales in the world and Turkey; reserves, current situation and future prospects: a review" (PDF). Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal 23 (3): 211-227. ISSN 0208-189X. Retrieved on 2007-06-16.
^ ^a ^b ^c Lee, Sunggyu (1990). Oil Shale Technology. CRC Press, 10. ISBN 0849346150. Retrieved on 2007-07-09.
^ Hutton, A.C. (1987), "Petrographic classification of oil shales", International Journal of Coal Geology 8: 203–231, ISSN 0166-5162
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r Dyni, John R.. "Geology and resources of some world oil-shale deposits. Scientific Investigations Report 2005–5294" (PDF). U.S. Department of the Interior. U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved on 2007-07-09.
^ J. J. Sweeney, A. K. Burnham, R. L. Braun, “A Model of Hydrocarbon Generation from Type I Kerogen: Application to Uinta Basin,” AAPG Bulletin 71, 967-985 (1987)
^ WEC, p. 77
^ WEC, p. 80
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^ WEC p. 88
^ WEC p. 91
^ WEC p. 84-85
^ WEC p. 83-84
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^ Russell, Paul L. (1990), Oil shales of the world, their origin, occurrence and exploitation (First ed.), Pergamon Press, ISBN 9780080372402, at 162-224
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k WEC, p. 75-77
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^ History of the company. Viru Keemia Grupp. Retrieved on 2007-07-21.
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^ What's in the Oil Shale and Tar Sands Leasing Programmatic EIS. Oil Shale and Tar Sands Leasing Programmatic EIS Information Center. Retrieved on 2007-07-10.
^ ^a ^b Bartis, James T. (2005). "Oil Shale Development in the United States. Prospects and Policy Issues. Prepared for the National Energy Technology Laboratory of the U.S. Department of Energy". The RAND Corporation. ISBN 978-0-8330-3848-7 Retrieved on 2007-06-29.
^ ^a ^b WEC, p 85-90
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^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Burnham, Alan K. & James R. McConaghy (16-18 October 2006), Comparison of the Acceptability of Various Oil Shale Processes, Golden: 26th Oil Shale Symposium, UCRL-CONF-226717. Retrieved on 2007-06-23
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^ Aboulkas, A.; K. El Harfi & A. El Bouadili et al. (2007), "Kinetics of co-pyrolysis of Tarfaya (Morocco) oil shale with high-density polyethylene", Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal 24 (1): 15-33, ISSN 0208-189X. Retrieved on 2007-06-16
^ Ozdemir, M.; A. Akar & A. Aydoğan et al. (7-9 November 2006), Copyrolysis of Goynuk oil shale andthermoplastics, Amman, Jordan. Retrieved on 2007-06-29
^ Greenpeace Australia Pacific (2005-03-03). Climate-changing shale oil industry stopped. Retrieved on 2007-06-28.
^ Jim Bartis, RAND Corporation (2006). "Unconventional Liquid Fuels Overview. 2006 Boston World Oil Conference" (PDF). Association for the Study of Peak Oil & Gas - USA. Retrieved on 2007-06-28.

class="preview" id="pv526"> November 7 is the 311th day of the year (312th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 54 days remaining. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is now the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 180th day of the year (181st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... The Energy Information Administration (EIA), as part of the U.S. Department of Energy, collects and disseminates data on energy reserves, production, consumption, distribution, prices, technology, and related international, economic, and financial matters. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is now the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 173rd day of the year (174th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... April 13 is the 103rd day of the year (104th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... The United States Department of Energy (DOE) is a Cabinet-level department of the United States government responsible for energy policy and nuclear safety. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is now the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 190th day of the year (191st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... is the 163rd day of the year (164th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is now the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 173rd day of the year (174th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is now the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 202nd day of the year (203rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 232nd day of the year (233rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is now the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 179th day of the year (180th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 62nd day of the year (63rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is now the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 179th day of the year (180th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is now the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 167th day of the year (168th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1990 (MCMXC) was a common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1990 Gregorian calendar). ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is now the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 190th day of the year (191st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1987 (MCMLXXXVII) was a common year starting on Thursday (link displays 1987 Gregorian calendar). ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is now the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 190th day of the year (191st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is now the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 167th day of the year (168th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1998 (MCMXCVIII) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1998 Gregorian calendar). ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is now the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 167th day of the year (168th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is now the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 168th day of the year (169th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1990 (MCMXC) was a common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1990 Gregorian calendar). ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... The Commission seat in Brussels The European Commission (formally the Commission of the European Communities) is the executive body of the European Union. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is now the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 180th day of the year (181st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is now the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 153rd day of the year (154th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Tallinn Technical University is the traditional English name of Tallinna Tehnikaülikool, which since 2003 is officially called Tallinn University of Technology. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is now the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 202nd day of the year (203rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Viru Keemia Grupp (VKG) is an Estonian holding group of chemical, energy and public utility companies. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is now the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 202nd day of the year (203rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is now the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 150th day of the year (151st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is now the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 191st day of the year (192nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is now the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 191st day of the year (192nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... The RAND Corporation is a nonprofit global policy think tank first formed to offer research and analysis to the United States armed forces. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is now the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 180th day of the year (181st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... November 7 is the 311th day of the year (312th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 54 days remaining. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is now the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 180th day of the year (181st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1980 (MCMLXXX) is a leap year starting on Tuesday. ... shelby was here 2004 (MMIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is now the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 174th day of the year (175th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... shelby was here 2004 (MMIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is now the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 174th day of the year (175th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is now the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... June 24 is the 175th day of the year (176th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 190 days remaining. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is now the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... June 24 is the 175th day of the year (176th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 190 days remaining. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is now the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... June 24 is the 175th day of the year (176th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 190 days remaining. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is now the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 181st day of the year (182nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is now the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 187th day of the year (188th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1976 (MCMLXXVI) was a leap year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is now the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 153rd day of the year (154th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is now the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 153rd day of the year (154th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is now the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... June 24 is the 175th day of the year (176th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 190 days remaining. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 62nd day of the year (63rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is now the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 179th day of the year (180th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... The RAND Corporation is a nonprofit global policy think tank first formed to offer research and analysis to the United States armed forces. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is now the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 179th day of the year (180th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

References

shelby was here 2004 (MMIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is now the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 201st day of the year (202nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

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