Operation Downfall was the overall Allied plan for the invasion of Japan near the end of World War II. The operation was cancelled when Japan surrendered following the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and the Soviet Union's declaration of war against Japan. A representation of the changes in territory controlled by Allies and Axis powers over the course of the war. ... Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tōjō Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000... The Japanese representatives on board USS Missouri during the surrender ceremonies on 2 September 1945. ... The mushroom cloud over Hiroshima after the dropping of Little Boy. ... For other uses, see Hiroshima (disambiguation). ... Nagasaki ) ( ) is the capital and the largest city of Nagasaki Prefecture in Japan. ...

Operation Downfall consisted of two parts — Operation Olympic and Operation Coronet. Set to begin in November 1945, Operation Olympic was intended to capture the southern third of the southernmost main Japanese island of Kyūshū, with the recently captured island of Okinawa to be used as a staging area. Later, in the spring of 1946, Operation Coronet was the planned invasion of the Kantō plain near Tokyo on the Japanese island of Honshū. Airbases on Kyūshū captured in Operation Olympic would allow land-based air support for Operation Coronet. This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Combatants  United States  United Kingdom  Canada  Australia  New Zealand Empire of Japan Commanders Simon B. Buckner â€  Joseph W. Stilwell Ray Spruance Mitsuru Ushijima â€  Isamu Cho â€  Strength 548,000 soldiers, 1,300 ships,  ? aircraft 100,000 regulars and militia,  ? ships,  ? aircraft Casualties 12,513 dead or missing, 38,916 wounded, 33... Okinawa Island (沖縄本島 Okinawa-hontō, the main island of Okinawa) is the largest of the Ryukyu Islands at the edge of the East China Sea, helping to define the seas boundary with the open Pacific Ocean. ... Kantō region, Japan. ... For other uses, see Tokyo (disambiguation). ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

Japan's geography made this invasion plan obvious to the Japanese as well, who were able to accurately deduce the Allied invasion plans and adjust their defense plans accordingly. The Japanese planned an all-out defense of Kyūshū, with little left in reserve for any subsequent defense operations. Casualty predictions varied widely but were extremely high for both sides: depending on the degree to which Japanese civilians resisted the invasion, estimates ran into the millions for American casualties^[1] and the tens of millions for Japanese casualties. Japan is an island nation in East Asia comprised of a large stratovolcanic archipelago extending along the Pacific coast of Asia. ... A representation of the changes in territory controlled by Allies and Axis powers over the course of the war. ...

A map outlining the Japanese and U.S. (but not other Allied) ground forces scheduled to take part in the battle for Japan. Two landings were planned:
(1) Olympic — the invasion of the southern island, Kyūshū,
(2) Coronet — the invasion of the main island, Honshū.

Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1260x970, 164 KB) Description: Operation Downfall - 1945 Source: www. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1260x970, 164 KB) Description: Operation Downfall - 1945 Source: www. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... The Japan campaign was a series of battles and engagements in and around the Japanese Home Islands, between Allied forces and Imperial Japanese forces during the Pacific campaign of World War II from around June, 1944 until September, 1945. ... There were many air raids on Japan by Allied aircraft during World War II. The Home Islands of the Empire of Japan were defended by the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service and the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service. ... The Volcano and Ryūkyū Islands campaign was a series of battles and engagements between Allied forces and Imperial Japanese forces during the Pacific campaign of World War II from around January, 1945 until June, 1945. ... B-29 bombers were used to drop hundreds of thousands of tons of explosives onto Japanese cities during the war. ... Operation Starvation was an American mining operation conducted in World War II by the Army Air Force, in which vital water routes and ports of Japan were mined by air in order to disrupt enemy shipping. ... Battle of Tokyo Bay Conflict World War II Date July 22-July 23, 1945 Place Tokyo Bay Result Decisive American victory {{Campaignbox Pacific Campaign }} The Battle of Tokyo Bay was a World War II anti-shipping raid in Tokyo Harbor on the night of July 22, 1945. ... The mushroom cloud over Hiroshima after the dropping of Little Boy. ... Kuril Islands Landing Operation (Курильская десантная операция in Russian) was the Soviet military operation aimed at conquering (in Soviet words liberating) the Kuril Islands from the Japanese in 1945. ...

Planning

Responsibility for planning Operation Downfall fell to the U.S. commanders: Fleet Admiral Chester Nimitz, General of the Army Douglas MacArthur and the Joint Chiefs of Staff — Fleet Admirals Ernest King and William D. Leahy, and Generals of the Army George Marshall and Hap Arnold (the latter had a background in the U.S. Army Air Forces).^[2] At the time, the development of the atomic bomb was a very closely guarded secret known only to a few top officials outside the Manhattan Project, and planning for the invasion of Japan did not take its existence into consideration. A Fleet Admiral in the United States Navy is an Admiral considered the equivalent of the United States Armys General of the Army. ... Chester William Nimitz (February 24, 1885 – February 20, 1966) was the Commander in Chief of Pacific Forces for the United States and Allied forces during World War II. He was the United States leading authority on submarines, as well as Chief of the Navys Bureau of Navigation in 1939. ... General of the Army is a military rank used in some countries of the world to denote a senior military leader, usually a General in command of a nations Army. ... This article is about the American general; for the municipality in the Philippines, see General MacArthur, Eastern Samar. ... Joint Chiefs of Staff of the United States of America symbol The Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) is a grouping comprising the Chiefs of service of each major branch of the armed services in the United States armed forces. ... Fleet Admiral Ernest Joseph King (November 23, 1878 – June 25, 1956) was Commander in Chief, United States Fleet and Chief of Naval Operations (COMINCH-CNO) during World War II. As COMINCH, he directed the United States Navys operations, planning, and administration and was a member of the Joint Chiefs... Fleet Admiral William Daniel Leahy (May 6, 1875 – July 20, 1959) was an American naval officer and the first U.S. military officer ever to hold the five-star rank in the U.S. armed forces. ... For other persons named George Marshall, see George Marshall (disambiguation). ... Henry Harley Arnold (June 25, 1886 - January 15, 1950), often referred to by the nickname Hap, was an American pilot, commander of the US Army Air Corps from 1938, commander of the US Army Air Forces from 1941 until 1945 and the first General of the Air Force in 1949. ... The United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) was the aviation component of the United States Army primarily during World War II. The title of Army Air Forces succeeded the prior name of Army Air Corps in June 1941 during preparation for expected combat in what came to be known as... The mushroom cloud of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, Japan, 1945, rose some 18 km (11 mi) above the epicenter. ... The Manhattan Project resulted in the creation of the first nuclear weapons, and the first-ever nuclear detonation, known as the Trinity test of July 16, 1945. ...

Throughout the Pacific War, and unlike the European theatre, the Allies were unable to agree on a single Commander-in-Chief (C-in-C). Allied command was divided into regions: by 1945, for example, Chester Nimitz was Allied C-in-C Pacific Ocean Areas, while Douglas MacArthur was Supreme Allied Commander, South West Pacific Area. A unified command was deemed necessary for an invasion of Japan. Inter-service squabbling over who it should be — the U.S. Navy wanted Nimitz, while the U.S. Army wanted MacArthur — was so serious that it threatened to derail planning. Ultimately, the Navy partially conceded, and MacArthur was to have total command of all forces, if circumstances made it necessary.^[3] For other uses, see Pacific War (disambiguation). ... Animation of the WWII European Theatre. ... Commander-in-Chief (in NATO-lingo often C-in-C or CINC pronounced sink) is the commander of all the military forces within a particular region or of all the military forces of a state. ... Pacific Ocean Areas was a major Allied military command during World War II. It was one of four major commands during the Pacific War, and one of two United States commands in the Pacific theatre of operations. ... South West Pacific Area (SWPA) was the name given to one of the four major Allied commands in the Pacific theatre of World War II, during 1942-45. ... Interservice rivalry is a military term referring to rivalries that can arise between different branches of a countrys armed forces, such as between a nations land forces (army) and naval forces. ...

Considerations

The primary considerations that the planners had to deal with were time and casualties — how they could force Japan's surrender as quickly as possible, with as few Allied casualties as possible. In 1943, the Joint Chiefs agreed that Japan should be forced to surrender not more than one year after Germany's surrender. They were inspired to do this after seeing the "Appreciation and Plan for the Defeat of Japan", a planning document produced by a joint British-American team that did not call for an invasion of the Japanese home islands until "1947 onwards".^[4] Prolonging the war to such an extent was considered dangerous for national morale. Victory in Europe Day (V-E Day) was May 8, 1945, the date when the Allies during the Second World War formally celebrated the defeat of Nazi Germany and the end of Adolf Hitlers Reich. ...

The U.S. Navy urged the use of blockade and airpower to bring about Japan's capitulation. They proposed operations to capture airbases in nearby Shanghai, China, and Korea, which would give the U.S. Army Air Forces a series of forward airbases from which to bombard Japan into submission.^[5] The U.S. Army, on the other hand, argued that such a strategy could "prolong the war indefinitely" and expend lives needlessly, and therefore that an invasion was necessary. They supported mounting a large-scale thrust directly against the Japanese homeland, with none of the side operations that the Navy had suggested. Ultimately, the Army's viewpoint won.^[6] USN redirects here. ... A blockade is any effort to prevent supplies, troops, information or aid from reaching an opposing force. ... Alternate meanings: See Shanghai (disambiguation) Shanghai (Chinese: 上海; pinyin: shàng hǎi; Shanghainese IPA: /zɑ̃ hɛ/) is Chinas largest city and is situated on the banks of the Chang Jiang delta. ... This article is about the Korean peninsula and civilization. ... The United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) was the aviation component of the United States Army primarily during World War II. The title of Army Air Forces succeeded the prior name of Army Air Corps in June 1941 during preparation for expected combat in what came to be known as... The United States Army is the largest and oldest branch of the armed forces of the United States. ...

Physically, Japan made an imposing target, with few beaches suitable for invasion. Only Kyūshū (the southernmost island of Japan) and the beaches of the Kantō plain (both southwest and southeast of Tokyo) made suitable invasion zones. The Allies decided to launch a two-stage invasion. Operation Olympic would attack southern Kyūshū. Airbases would be established, and those would give cover for Operation Coronet, the attack on Tokyo Bay. Kantō region, Japan. ... For other uses, see Tokyo (disambiguation). ... Tokyo Bay from space Tokyo Bay ) is a bay in the southern Kantō region of Japan. ...

Assumptions

While the geography of Japan was fixed, the U.S. military planners could only estimate the defending forces they would face. Based on intelligence available early in 1945, their assumptions included the following:^[7]

• "That operations in this area will be opposed not only by the available organized military forces of the Empire, but also by a fanatically hostile population."
• "That approximately three (3) hostile divisions will be disposed in Southern KYUSHU and an additional three (3) in Northern KYUSHU at initiation of the OLYMPIC operation."
• "That total hostile forces committed against KYUSHU operations will not exceed eight (8) to ten (10) divisions and that this level will be speedily attained."
• "That approximately twenty-one (21) hostile divisions, including depot divisions, will be on HONSHU at initiation of that operation Coronet and that fourteen (14) of these divisions may be employed in the KANTO PLAIN area."
• "That the enemy may withdraw his land-based air forces to the Asiatic Mainland for protection from our neutralizing attacks. That under such circumstances he can possibly amass from 2,000 to 2,500 planes in that area by exercise of rigid economy, and that this force can operate against KYUSHU landings by staging through homeland fields."

Olympic

Operation Olympic was to attack southern Japan.

Operation Olympic, the invasion of Kyūshū, was to begin on "X-Day", which was scheduled for November 1, 1945. The combined Allied naval armada would have been the largest ever assembled, including forty-two aircraft carriers, twenty-four battleships, and four hundred destroyers and destroyer escorts. Fourteen U.S. divisions were scheduled to take part in the initial landings. Using Okinawa as a staging base, the objective would have been to seize the southern portion of Kyūshū. This area would then be used as a further staging point to attack Honshū in Operation Coronet. Download high resolution version (753x1065, 245 KB)Operation Olympic, part of Operation Downfall Source: http://maps. ... Download high resolution version (753x1065, 245 KB)Operation Olympic, part of Operation Downfall Source: http://maps. ... is the 305th day of the year (306th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1945 (MCMXLV) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar). ... Four aircraft carriers, (bottom-to-top) Principe de Asturias, amphibious assault carrier USS Wasp, USS Forrestal and light V/STOL carrier HMS Invincible, showing size differences of late 20th century carriers An aircraft carrier is a warship designed to deploy and in most cases recover aircraft, acting as a sea... For other uses, see Battleship (disambiguation). ... USS McFaul underway in the Atlantic Ocean. ...

Olympic was also to include a deception plan, known as Operation Pastel. Pastel was designed to convince the Japanese that the Joint Chiefs had rejected the notion of a direct invasion and instead were going to attempt to encircle and bombard Japan. This would require capturing bases in Formosa, along the Chinese coast, and in the Yellow Sea area.^[8] This article or section includes a list of works cited but its sources remain unclear because it lacks in-text citations. ... During World War II, Operation Pastel was the deception plan scheduled to protect Operation Olympic, the planned invasion of southern Japan. ... Formosa is a place name which comes from Portuguese (*from Latin formosus, meaning beautiful). The following places bear the name: The island of Taiwan was historically known as Formosa, the name given by Portuguese sailors due to the beauty of its coasts. ... ...

The U.S. Twentieth Air Force was to have continued its role as the main Allied strategic bomber force used against the Japanese home islands. Tactical air support was to be the responsibility of the U.S. Far East Air Forces (FEAF) — a formation which was comprised of the Fifth, Thirteenth and Seventh Air Forces — during the preparation for the invasion. FEAF was responsible for attacking Japanese airfields and transportation arteries on Kyūshū and Southern Honshū (e.g.: the Kanmon Tunnel) and for attaining and maintaining air superiority over the beaches. Twentieth Air Force is a Numbered Air Force in Air Force Space Command (AFSPC). ... The city heart of Rotterdam after being terror bombed by Germany in 1940, the ruin of the (now restored) Laurens Kerk is the only building that reminds people of Rotterdams medieval architecture. ... Far East Air Force (FEAF) is was formed from the Philippine Army Air Corps on August 4, 1941. ... The Fifth Air Force (5AF), with headquarters currently located at Yokota Air Base,Japan, is one of very few numbered air forces of the United States Air Force never to have been based in the United States itself. ... Like the Fifth Air Force, the Thirteenth Air Force has never been stationed in the United States; it is also one of the oldest, continuously active, numbered air forces. ... The Seventh Air Force (7 AF) is a Numbered Air Force (NAF) under the Pacific Air Forces major command (MAJCOM) of the United States Air Force. ... The Kanmon Railway Tunnel (関門鉄道トンネル kanmon tetsudō tonneru) was the first undersea tunnel in Japan. ...

Before the main invasion, the offshore islands of Tanegashima, Yakushima, and the Koshikijima Islands were to be taken, starting on X-5.^[9] The invasion of Okinawa had demonstrated the value of establishing secure anchorages close at hand, for ships not needed off the landing beaches and for ships damaged by air attack. Yoshinobu Launch Complex (© JAXA) in Tanegashima Tanegashima (Japanese: 種子島) is an island lying to the south of Kyushu, south Japan, and is part of the Kagoshima Prefecture. ... Yakushima ) is an island of about 500km² and roughly 15 000 islanders to the south of Kyūshū in Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan. ... Koshikijima Islands (甑島列島 Koshikijima rettō) in the East China Sea are an island chain that belongs to the city of Satsumasendai, Kagoshima, Japan. ...

Kyūshū was to be invaded by U.S. Sixth Army at three points — Miyazaki, Ariake, and Kushikino. If a clock were drawn on a map of Kyūshū, these points would roughly correspond to 4, 5, and 7 o'clock, respectively. The 35 landing beaches were all named for automobiles: Austin, Buick, Cadillac through Stutz, Winton, and Zephyr.^[10] With one corps assigned to each landing, the invasion planners assumed that the Americans would outnumber the Japanese by roughly three to one. In early 1945 Miyazaki was virtually undefended, while Ariake with its nearby good harbor was heavily defended. Although Kushikino was weakly defended, its imposing terrain meant that the Marines who landed there would probably have the toughest time. Shoulder sleeve insignia of the U.S. Sixth Army. ... Miyazaki (宮崎市; -shi) is the capital city of Miyazaki Prefecture on Kyushu island of Japan. ... Ariake (有明町; -chou) is a town located in Soo District, Kagoshima, Japan. ... Kushikino (串木野市; -shi) is a city located in Kagoshima, Japan. ... The Austin Motor Company was a British manufacturer of automobiles that rose to be a major motorcar brand, the dominant partner after merger with Morris in 1952 but declining after absorption into the British Leyland Motor Corporation, and its subsequent troubles. ... Buick is a brand of automobile built in the United States, Canada, China and in Spain by General Motors Corporation. ... Cadillac is a brand of luxury automobile, part of the General Motors corporation, produced and mostly sold in the USA; outside of North America, they have been less successful. ... The Stutz Bearcat was an American luxury high-performance sports car made by the Stutz Motor Company. ... The Winton Motor Carriage Company of Cleveland, Ohio was a pioneer United States automobile manufacturer. ... Lincoln Zephyr Series HB 1937, USA The Lincoln Zephyr is a brand name of automobile from the Lincoln automobile division of the Ford Motor Company. ... A corps (plural same as singular; a word that migrated from the French language, pronounced IPA: (cor), but originating in the Latin corpus, corporis meaning body) is either a large military unit or formation, an administrative grouping of troops within an army with a common function (such as artillery or... The United States Marine Corps (USMC) is a branch of the United States military responsible for providing power projection from the sea,[1] utilizing the mobility of the U.S. Navy to rapidly deliver combined-arms task forces. ...

The invasion was not supposed to conquer the entire island, just the southernmost third of it — indicated by the dashed line on the map, "general limit of northern advance". Southern Kyūshū would offer a staging ground and a valuable airbase for Operation Coronet.

Operation Coronet was planned to take Tokyo.

Download high resolution version (759x1075, 317 KB)Operation Coronet, part of Operation Downfall Source: http://maps. ... Download high resolution version (759x1075, 317 KB)Operation Coronet, part of Operation Downfall Source: http://maps. ...

Coronet

Operation Coronet, the invasion of Honshū at the Tokyo Plain south of the capital, was to begin on "Y-Day", which was scheduled for March 1, 1946. Coronet would have been the largest amphibious operation of all time, with 25 divisions (including the floating reserve) earmarked for the initial operations. U.S. First Army would have invaded at Kujukuri Beach, on the Boso Peninsula, while U.S. Eighth Army invaded at Hiratsuka, on Sagami Bay. Both armies would then drive north and inland, meeting at Tokyo. This article does not cite any references or sources. ... is the 60th day of the year (61st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1946 (MCMXLVI) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full 1946 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Shoulder Sleeve Insignia of the U.S. First Army. ... Kujukuri Beach on a late summer afternoon KujÅ«kuri Beach (九十九里浜; -hama) is a beach located on the east bank of the Boso Peninsula in Chiba prefecture, Japan. ... Location Landsat image with high-resolution data from Space Shuttle. ... The Eighth US Army—often abbreviated EUSA—(the acronym EUSA was deemed unauthorized by LTG Charles Campbell in 2002) is the commanding formation of all US Army troops in South Korea. ... Hiratsuka (平塚市 Hiratsuka-shi) is a city located in Kanagawa, Japan. ... Sagami Bay (相模湾, Sagami-wan), also known as the Sagami Gulf or Sagami Sea, lies south of Kanagawa Prefecture in HonshÅ«, central Japan, with the Miura Peninsula to its east and the Izu Peninsula to its west. ...

Redeployment

See also: Orders of battle for Downfall

Olympic was to be mounted with resources already present in the Pacific, including the British Pacific Fleet, a Commonwealth formation that included at least a dozen aircraft carriers and several battleships. The Australian First Tactical Air Force took part in the Philippines campaign (1944–45). These would likely have augmented U.S. close air support units over Japan. The only major re-deployment for Olympic was Tiger Force, a Commonwealth long range heavy bomber unit, made up of more than 20 squadrons, scheduled to be transferred from RAF Bomber Command in Europe to airbases on Okinawa. The units slated to participate in Operation Downfall—the Allied invasions of Japan—as of about August 1945. ... The British Pacific Fleet (BPF) was a multinational Allied naval force which saw action against Japan during World War II. The fleet was comprised mainly of British Commonwealth naval vessels. ... The Commonwealth of Nations as of 2006 Headquarters Marlborough House, London, UK Official languages English Membership 53 sovereign states Leaders  -  Queen Elizabeth II  -  Secretary-General Don McKinnon (since 1 April 2000) Establishment  -  Balfour Declaration 18 November 1926   -  Statute of Westminster 11 December 1931   -  London Declaration 28 April 1949  Area  -  Total... The Australian First Tactical Air Force (1 TAF) was formed on October 25, 1944 by the Royal Australian Air Force to provide fighter and ground attack support to Allied ground and naval forces, fighting the Empire of Japan in the South West Pacific Area. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... An Apache attack helicopter provides close air support to United States Army soldiers patrolling the Tigris River southeast of Baghdad, Iraq during the Iraq War. ... Tiger Force was the name given to a World War II British Commonwealth long range heavy bomber force, formed in 1945, from squadrons serving with RAF Bomber Command in Europe, for proposed use against targets in Japan. ... The B-52 Stratofortress, a heavy bomber. ... Bomber Command badge RAF Bomber Command was the organisation that controlled the RAFs bomber forces. ... This article is about the prefecture. ...

If reinforcements had been needed for Olympic, they could have been provided from forces being assembled for Coronet, which would have needed the redeployment of substantial Allied forces from Europe, South Asia, Australasia, and elsewhere. These would have included the U.S. First Army (15 divisions) and the Eighth Air Force, which were in Europe. The redeployment was complicated by the simultaneous partial demobilization of the U.S. Army, which drastically reduced the divisions' combat effectiveness, by stripping them of their most experienced officers and men. Map of South Asia (see note on Kashmir). ... Australasia Australasia is a term variably used to describe a region of Oceania: Australia, New Zealand, and neighbouring islands in the Pacific Ocean. ... Shoulder Sleeve Insignia of the U.S. First Army. ... The Eighth Air Force was a World War II, United States Army Air Force unit, which carried out day-time bombing operations in western Europe from airfields in eastern England from 1942. ...

According to U.S. historian John Ray Skates:

American planners took no note [initially] of the possibility that [non-U.S.] Allied ground troops might participate in the invasion of the Kanto Plain. They published plans indicated that assault, followup, and reserve units would all come from U.S. forces. [However, as] the Coronet plans were being refined during the Summer of 1945, all the major Allied countries offered ground forces, and a debate developed at the highest levels of command over the size, mission, equipment, and support of these contingents.^[11]

It was decided that a Commonwealth Corps, initially made up of infantry divisions from the British Army, Australian Army, and Canadian Army would be used in Coronet. Reinforcements would have been available from those countries, as well as other parts of the Commonwealth. MacArthur rejected proposals to include an Indian Army division, because of differences in organization, composition, equipment, training, and doctrine.^[12] MacArthur also pushed for the corps to be organized along the lines of a U.S. Army corps, and to use predominantly U.S. equipment, in order to smooth out supply and logistics. A British officer, Lieutenant General Sir Charles Keightley, had been nominated to lead the Commonwealth Corps. Commonwealth Corps was the name given to a combined British Commonwealth army formation, to be formed for the proposed invasion of Japan, alongside United States forces in 1945-46. ... The British Army is the land armed forces branch of the British Armed Forces. ... The Australian Army is Australias military land force. ... Canadian Forces Land Force Command (LF) is responsible for army operations within the Canadian Armed Forces. ... A group of native Indian Muslim soldiers posing for volley firing orders. ...

Operation Ketsugō

Meanwhile, the Japanese had their own plans. Initially, they were concerned about an invasion during the summer of 1945. However, the Battle of Okinawa went on so long that they concluded the Allies would not be able to launch another operation before the typhoon season, during which the weather would be too risky for amphibious operations. Japanese intelligence predicted fairly closely where the invasion would take place: southern Kyūshū at Miyazaki, Ariake Bay, and/or the Satsuma Peninsula.^[13] Combatants  United States  United Kingdom  Canada  Australia  New Zealand Empire of Japan Commanders Simon B. Buckner â€  Joseph W. Stilwell Ray Spruance Mitsuru Ushijima â€  Isamu Cho â€  Strength 548,000 soldiers, 1,300 ships,  ? aircraft 100,000 regulars and militia,  ? ships,  ? aircraft Casualties 12,513 dead or missing, 38,916 wounded, 33... Cyclone Catarina, a rare South Atlantic tropical cyclone viewed from the International Space Station on March 26, 2004. ... Map of Miyazaki Prefecture. ... The Ariake Sea ) is a body of salt water surrounded by Fukuoka, Saga, Nagasaki, and Kumamoto Prefectures, all of which lie on the island of KyÅ«shÅ« in Japan. ... Landsat image The Satsuma Peninsula (薩摩半島 Satsuma-hantō) is a peninsula which projects south from the southwest part of Kyushu Island, Japan. ...

While Japan no longer had a realistic prospect of winning the war, it could perhaps raise the cost of conquering Japan too high for the Allies to accept, leading to some sort of armistice. The Japanese plan for defeating the invasion was called Operation Ketsugō (決号作戦, ketsugō sakusen^?) ("Operation Codename Decision"). A white flag is traditionally used to represent a truce. ...

Kamikaze

Admiral Matome Ugaki was recalled to Japan in February 1945 and given command of the Fifth Air Fleet on Kyūshū. The Fifth Air Fleet was assigned the task of kamikaze attacks against ships involved in the invasion of Okinawa, Operation Ten-Go and began training pilots and assembling aircraft for the defense of Kyūshū where the Allies were likely to invade next. Matome Ugaki (宇垣纏; 1890-August 14, 1945?) was a Japanese admiral during World War II, most notably serving at the Battle of Leyte Gulf. ... USS Bunker Hill was hit by Ogawa (see picture left) and another kamikaze near KyÅ«shÅ« on May 11, 1945. ... Combatants United States Empire of Japan Commanders Marc A. Mitscher Seiichi Ito â€  Strength 11 aircraft carriers 386 aircraft 1 battleship 1 light cruiser 8 destroyers Casualties 10 aircraft destroyed 12 dead 1 battleship sunk 1 light cruiser sunk 4 destroyers sunk 3,700 dead Volcano and Ryukyu Islands campaign Iwo...

The Japanese defense relied heavily on kamikaze planes. In addition to fighters and bombers, they reassigned almost all of their trainers for the mission, trying to make up in quantity what they lacked in quality. Their army and navy had more than 10,000 aircraft ready for use in July (and would have had somewhat more by October) and were planning to use almost all that could reach the invasion fleets. Ugaki also oversaw building of hundreds of small suicide boats that would also be used to attack any Allied ships that came near the shores of Kyūshū.

Fewer than 2,000 kamikaze planes launched attacks during the Battle of Okinawa, achieving approximately one hit per nine attacks. At Kyūshū, given the more favorable circumstances, they hoped to get one for six by overwhelming the U.S. defenses with large numbers of kamikaze attacks in a period of hours. The Japanese estimated that the planes would sink more than 400 ships; since they were training the pilots to target transports rather than carriers and destroyers, the casualties would be disproportionately greater than at Okinawa. One staff study estimated that the kamikazes could destroy a third to a half of the invasion force before its landings.^[14]

Naval forces

By August 1945, the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) had ceased to be an effective fighting force. The only Japanese major warships in fighting order were six aircraft carriers, four cruisers, and one battleship, none of which could be adequately fueled. The navy still had quite a large number of minor warships, but their use would also be limited by the lack of fuel. They could "sustain a force of twenty operational destroyers and perhaps forty submarines for a few days at sea."^[15] For Combined Fleet, please see that article. ...

The IJN also had about 100 Kōryū-class midget submarines, 250 smaller Kairyū-class midget submarines, and 1,000 Kaiten manned torpedoes. The Imperial Japanese Army had 800 Shin'yō suicide boats. A midget submarine is a small submarine, typically with one or two crew and no on-board living accommodation. ... The Kairyu (海龍 Sea Dragon) was a class of Kamikaze midget submarines designed in 1943-1944, and produced from the beginning of 1945. ... The Kaiten (Japanese:回天, translated Change the World or Reverse the Destiny) was a torpedo modified as a suicide weapon, and used by the Imperial Japanese Navy in the final stages of the Second World War. ... CGI image of two frogmen with Siebe Gorman CDBA rebreathers riding a human torpedo. ... Japanese Shinyo suicide boat, 1945 A Shinyo under way, being tested by an American soldier. ...

Ground forces

In any amphibious operation, the defender has two options for defensive strategy — strong defense of the beaches, or defense in depth. Early in the war (such as at Tarawa) the Japanese employed strong defenses on the beaches with little or no manpower in reserve. This tactic proved to be very vulnerable to pre-invasion shore bombardment. Later in the war, at Peleliu, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa, the Japanese switched strategy and dug in their forces in the most defensible terrain. Fighting evolved into long battles of attrition, with very high American casualties, but no hope of victory for the Japanese. Defence in depth is a military stategy sometimes also called elastic defence. ... Combatants  United States Empire of Japan Commanders Holland Smith Keiji Shibazaki  â€  Strength 35,000 troops 3,000 troops, 1,000 Japanese and 1,200 Korean laborers Casualties 1,001 killed 4,713 killed 17 Japanese and 129 Koreans captured Map of Tarawa Atoll Map of Betio, Tarawa Atoll The Battle... Naval gunfire support (NGFS) comprises the use of naval artillery to provide fire support support for amphibious assault troops. ... Combatants United States Empire of Japan Commanders William H. Rupertus, USMC Kunio Nakagawa Strength 2 divisions (1st Marine Division and the USA 81st Infantry Division) Approximately 11,000 men Casualties 2,336 killed and 8,450 wounded 10,695 killed, 202 captured The Battle of Peleliu, like the bloody World... Combatants  United States  Empire of Japan Commanders Holland Smith Tadamichi Kuribayashi â€  Strength 110,000 21,000 Casualties 8,226 dead 19,189 wounded,[1] 494 missing[1] Total: 27,909 20,703 dead,[1] 216 captured[1] Total: 20,919 The Battle of Iwo Jima was fought between the United... Combatants  United States  United Kingdom  Canada  Australia  New Zealand Empire of Japan Commanders Simon B. Buckner â€  Joseph W. Stilwell Ray Spruance Mitsuru Ushijima â€  Isamu Cho â€  Strength 548,000 soldiers, 1,300 ships,  ? aircraft 100,000 regulars and militia,  ? ships,  ? aircraft Casualties 12,513 dead or missing, 38,916 wounded, 33... Attrition means wearing down by friction or grinding and may refer to the following. ...

For the defense of Kyūshū, the Japanese took an intermediate posture, with the bulk of their defensive forces a few kilometres inland from the shore — back far enough to avoid complete exposure to naval gunnery, but close enough that the Americans could not establish a secure foothold before engaging them. The counteroffensive forces were still further back, prepared to move against whichever landing seemed to be the main effort.

In March 1945, there was only one combat division in Kyūshū. Over the next four months the Japanese Army transferred forces from Manchuria, Korea, and northern Japan, while raising other forces in place. By August, they had fourteen divisions and various smaller formations, including three tank brigades, for a total of 900,000 men.^[16] Although the Japanese were able to raise large numbers of new soldiers, equipping them was more diificult. By August, the Japanese Army had the equivalent of 65 divisions in the homeland but only enough equipment for 40 and only enough ammunition for 30.^[17] This article does not cite any references or sources. ... This article is about the Korean peninsula and civilization. ...

The Japanese did not formally decide to stake everything on the outcome of the Battle of Kyūshū, but they concentrated their assets to such a degree that there would be little left in reserve. By one estimate, the forces in Kyūshū had 40% of all the ammunition in the Home Islands.^[18]

In addition, the Japanese had organized the Patriotic Citizens Fighting Corps — which included all healthy men aged 15–60 and women 17–40 — to perform combat support, and ultimately combat jobs. Weapons, training, and uniforms were generally lacking: some men were armed with nothing better than muzzle-loading muskets, longbows, or bamboo spears; nevertheless, they were expected to make do with what they had.^[19] Muskets and bayonets aboard the frigate Grand Turk. ... Lemonwood, purpleheart and hickory longbow, 45 lbf draw force. ...

One mobilized high school girl, Yukiko Kasai, found herself issued an awl and told, "Even killing one American soldier will do. … You must aim for the abdomen."^[20]

Scratch awl A scratch awl is a woodworking layout tool. ... The abdomen is a part of the body. ...

Allied reevaluation of Olympic

Air threat

U.S. military intelligence initially estimated the number of Japanese aircraft to be around 2,500.^[21] The Okinawa experience was bad — almost two fatalities and a similar number wounded per sortie — and Kyūshū was likely to be worse. To attack the ships off Okinawa, planes had to fly long distances over open water; to attack the ships off Kyūshū, they could fly overland and then short distances out to the landing fleets. Gradually, intelligence learned that the Japanese were devoting all their aircraft to the kamikaze mission and taking effective measures to conserve them until the battle. An Army estimate in May was 3,391 planes; in June, 4,862; in August, 5,911. A Navy estimate, abandoning any distinction between training and combat aircraft, in July was 8,750; in August, 10,290.^[22] Sortie is a term for deployment of one military aircraft or a ship for the purposes of a specific mission, whether alone, or with other aircraft or vessels. ...

The Allies made preparations, adding more fighter squadrons to the carriers in place of torpedo- and dive-bombers, and converting B-17s into airborne radar pickets — the ancestors of the AWACS. Nimitz came up with a plan for a pre-invasion feint, sending a fleet to the invasion beaches a couple of weeks before the real invasion, to lure out the Japanese on their one-way flights, who would then find — instead of the valuable, vulnerable transports — ships loaded with anti-aircraft guns from stem to stern. A torpedo bomber is a bomber aircraft designed primarily to attack ships with torpedoes, but they could also carry out conventional bombings. ... A dive bomber is a bomber aircraft that dives directly at its targets in order to provide greater accuracy. ... The Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress is an American four-engine heavy bomber aircraft developed for the US Army Air Corps (USAAC). ... US Air Force E-3 Sentry AWACS aircraft is prepared for flight in November 1997 Cockpit of RAF E-3 Sentry undergoing upgrades Airborne Warning and Control System (AWACS) is a radar-based electronic system designed to carry out airborne surveillance, and C3 (command, control and communications) functions for both...

The main defense against Japanese air attacks would have come from the massive fighter forces that were being assembled in the Ryukyu Islands. U.S. Army Fifth and Seventh Air Force and U.S. Marine air units had moved into the islands immediately after the invasion, and air strength had been increasing in preparation for the all-out assault on Japan. In preparation for the invasion, an air campaign against Japanese airfields and transportation arteries had commenced before the Japanese surrender. Location of Ryukyu Islands The Ryukyu Islands, in Japanese called the Nansei Islands ) are a chain of Japanese islands in the western Pacific Ocean at the eastern limit of the East China Sea. ...

Ground threat

Through April, May, and June, Allied intelligence followed the buildup of Japanese ground forces, including five divisions added to Kyūshū, with great interest but some complacency, still projecting that in November the total for Kyūshū would be about 350,000 servicemen. That changed in July, with the discovery of four new divisions and indications of more to come. By August, the count was up to 600,000, and Magic cryptanalysis had identified nine divisions in southern Kyūshū — three times the expected number: in fact, this was still a serious underestimate of Japanese strength; see above. Estimated troop strength in early July was 350,000,^[23] rising to 545,000 in early August.^[24] In World War II, Magic was the United States codename for intelligence derived from the cryptanalysis of PURPLE, a Japanese foreign office cipher. ...

The intelligence revelations about Japanese preparations on Kyushu emerging in mid-July transmitted powerful shock waves both in the Pacific and in Washington. On 29 July, [MacArthur's intelligence chief, Maj. Gen. Charles A.] Willoughby … noted first that the April estimate allowed for the Japanese capability to deploy six divisions on Kyushu, with the potential to deploy ten. "These [six] divisions have since made their appearance, as predicted," he observed, "and the end is not in sight." If not checked, this threatened "to grow to [the] point where we attack on a ratio of one (1) to one (1) which is not the recipe for victory."^[25]

The buildup of Japanese troops on Kyūshū led American war planners, most importantly General George Marshall, to consider drastic changes to Olympic, or replacing it with a different plan for invasion. is the 210th day of the year (211th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Major General Charles Andrew Willoughby (March 8, 1892-October 25th, 1972) was a Major General in the U.S. Army, serving as General Douglas MacArthurs Chief of Intelligence during most of WWII and the Korean Conflict. ...

Chemical weapons

Because of its predictable wind patterns and several other factors, Japan was particularly vulnerable to gas attack. Such attacks would neutralize the Japanese tendency to fight from caves — caves would only increase the soldiers' exposure to gas. Chemical warfare is warfare (and associated military operations) using the toxic properties of chemical substances to kill, injure or incapacitate an enemy. ...

Although chemical warfare had been outlawed by the Geneva Protocol, neither the United States nor Japan were signatories at the time. While the United States had promised never to initiate gas warfare, Japan had used gas against the Chinese earlier in the war.^[26] The Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare, usually called the Geneva Protocol, is a treaty prohibiting the use of chemical and biological weapons. ... Japanese war crimes occurred during the period of Japanese imperialism. ...

"Fear of Japanese retaliation [to chemical weapon use] lessened because by the end of the war Japan's ability to deliver gas by air or long-range guns had all but disappeared. In 1944 Ultra revealed that the Japanese doubted their ability to retaliate against United States use of gas. 'Every precaution must be taken not to give the enemy cause for a pretext to use gas,' the commanders were warned. So fearful were the Japanese leaders that they planned to ignore isolated tactical use of gas in the home islands by the US forces because they feared escalation."^[27] Ultra (sometimes capitalized ULTRA) was the name used by the British for intelligence resulting from decryption of German communications in World War II. The term eventually became the standard designation in both Britain and the United States for all intelligence from high-level cryptanalytic sources. ...

Nuclear weapons

On Marshall's orders, Major-General John E. Hull looked into the tactical use of nuclear weapons for the invasion of the Japanese home islands (even after dropping two strategic atomic bombs on Japan, Marshall did not think that the Japanese would capitulate immediately). Colonel Lyle E. Seeman reported that at least seven bombs would be available by X-Day, which could be dropped on defending forces. Seeman advised that American troops not enter an area hit by a bomb for "at least 48 hours"; the risk of fallout was not well understood, and that short amount of time would have resulted in substantial radiation exposure for the American troops.^[28] General John Edwin Hull (May 26, 1895 in Greenfield, Ohio - June 10, 1975) was a U.S. Army general, former Vice Chief of Staff of the U.S. Army, commanded Far East Command from 1953-1955 and the U.S. Army, Pacific from 1948-1949. ... The mushroom cloud of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, Japan, 1945, rose some 18 kilometers (11 mi) above the hypocenter A nuclear weapon derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions of fusion or fission. ... Fallout is the residual radiation hazard from a nuclear explosion, so named because it falls out of the atmosphere into which it is spread during the explosion. ...

Alternative targets

The Joint Staff planners, taking note of the extent to which the Japanese had concentrated on Kyūshū at the expense of the rest of Japan, considered alternate places to invade, including the island of Shikoku, or northern Honshū at Sendai or Ominato — or skipping the preliminary invasion and going directly at Tokyo.^[29] Attacking northern Honshū would have the advantage of a much weaker defense but at the cost of giving up air support (except the B-29s) from Okinawa. This article is about the island. ... Sendai ) is the capital city of Miyagi Prefecture, Japan, and the largest city in the Tōhoku (northeast) region. ... Mutsu (むつ市; -shi) is a city located in Aomori in Tohoku region of Japan. ... The Boeing B-29 Superfortress was a four-engine heavy bomber propeller aircraft flown by the United States Army Air Forces in World War II and other military organizations afterwards. ... This article is about the prefecture. ...

Prospects for Olympic

General Douglas MacArthur dismissed any need to change his plans. "I am certain that the Japanese air potential reported to you as accumulating to counter our OLYMPIC operation is greatly exaggerated. … As to the movement of ground forces… I do not credit… the heavy strengths reported to you in southern Kyushu. … In my opinion, there should not be the slightest thought of changing the OLYMPIC operation."^[30] However Admiral Ernest King, the CNO, was prepared to officially oppose proceeding with the invasion, with Admiral Nimitz's concurrence, which would have set off a major dispute within the United States government.

At this juncture, the key interaction would likely have been between Marshall and Truman. There is strong evidence that Marshall remained committed to an invasion as late as 15 August. … But tempering Marshall's personal commitment to invasion would have been his comprehension that civilian sanction in general, and Truman's in particular, was unlikely for a costly invasion that no longer enjoyed consensus support from the armed services.^[31]

Unbeknownst to the Americans, the Soviets were preparing to follow up their invasions of Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands with an invasion of the weakly defended island of Hokkaidō by the end of August, which would have put pressure on the Allies to do something sooner than November. On August 15, the Japanese agreed to surrender, rendering the whole question of invasion moot.^[32] is the 227th day of the year (228th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Sakhalin (Russian: , IPA: ; Japanese: 樺太 ) or サハリン )); Chinese: 庫頁; also Saghalien, is a large elongated island in the North Pacific, lying between 45°50 and 54°24 N. It is part of Russia and is its largest island, administered as part of Sakhalin Oblast. ... Location of Kuril Islands in the Western Pacific. ...   literally North Sea Circuit, Ainu: Mosir), formerly known as Ezo, Yezo, Yeso, or Yesso, is Japans second largest island and the largest of its 47 prefectural-level subdivisions. ... is the 227th day of the year (228th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

Estimated casualties

Because the U.S. military planners assumed "that operations in this area will be opposed not only by the available organized military forces of the Empire, but also by a fanatically hostile population",^[7] high casualties were thought to be inevitable, but nobody knew with certainty how high. Several people made estimates, but they varied widely in numbers, assumptions, and purposes — which included advocating for and against the invasion — afterwards, they were reused to argue for and against the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The mushroom cloud over Hiroshima after the dropping of Little Boy. ...

Casualty estimates were based on the experience of the preceding campaigns, drawing different lessons:

• In a study done by the Joint Chiefs of Staff in April, the figures of 7.45 casualties/1,000 man-days and 1.78 fatalities/1,000 man-days were developed. This implied that a 90-day Olympic campaign would cost 456,000 casualties, including 109,000 dead or missing. If Coronet took another 90 days, the combined cost would be 1,200,000 casualties, with 267,000 fatalities.^[33]
• A study done by Adm. Nimitz's staff in May estimated 49,000 casualties in the first 30 days, including 5,000 at sea.^[34] A study done by General MacArthur's staff in June estimated 23,000 in the first 30 days and 125,000 after 120 days.^[35] When these figures were questioned by General Marshall, MacArthur submitted a revised estimate of 105,000, in part by deducting wounded men able to return to duty.^[36]
• In a conference with President Truman on June 18, Marshall, taking the Battle of Luzon as the best model for Olympic, thought the Americans would suffer 31,000 casualties in the first 30 days (and ultimately 20% of Japanese casualties, which implied a total of 70,000 casualties).^[37] Adm. Leahy, more impressed by the Battle of Okinawa, thought the American forces would suffer a 35% casualty rate (implying an ultimate toll of 268,000).^[38] Admiral King thought that casualties in the first 30 days would fall between Luzon and Okinawa, i.e., between 31,000 and 41,000.^[39]

Of these estimates, only Nimitz's included losses of the forces at sea, though kamikazes had inflicted 1.78 fatalities per kamikaze pilot in the Battle of Okinawa,^[40] and troop transports off Kyūshū would have been much more exposed. For the victim of Mt. ... is the 169th day of the year (170th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Combatants United States 44px Philippines Japan The Battle of Luzon, on the island of Luzon, home to the Filipino capital Manila, saw the showdown between Japanese commander Tomoyuki Yamashita and General Douglas MacArthur on December 15, 1944. ...

• A study done for Secretary of War Henry Stimson's staff by William Shockley estimated that conquering Japan would cost 1.7 to 4 million American casualties, including 400,000 to 800,000 fatalities, and five to ten million Japanese fatalities. The key assumption was large-scale participation by civilians in the defense of Japan.^[1]

Outside the government, well-informed civilians were also making guesses. Kyle Palmer, war correspondent for the Los Angeles Times, said half a million to a million Americans would die by the end of the war. Herbert Hoover, in memorandums submitted to Truman and Stimson, also estimated 500,000 to 1,000,000 fatalities, and were believed to be conservative estimates; but it is not known if Hoover discussed these specific figures in his meetings with Truman. The chief of the Army Operations division thought them "entirely too high" under "our present plan of campaign."^[41] The Secretary of War was a member of the United States Presidents Cabinet, beginning with George Washingtons administration. ... Henry L. Stimson Henry Lewis Stimson (September 21, 1867 - October 20, 1950) was an American politician. ... William Bradford Shockley (February 13, 1910 – August 12, 1989) was a British-born American physicist and inventor. ... This just IN !!!:paris hiltons new dog. ... Herbert Clark Hoover (August 10, 1874 – October 20, 1964), the thirty-first President of the United States (1929–1933), was a world-famous mining engineer and humanitarian administrator. ...

For context, the Battle of Normandy had cost 63,000 casualties in the first 48 days; and the Battle of Okinawa ran up 72,000 casualties over about 82 days, of whom 18,900 were killed or missing. Several thousand soldiers who died indirectly whether from wounds or other causes at a later date are not included. The entire war cost the United States a total of just over a million casualties, with 400,000 fatalities.-1... Combatants  United States  United Kingdom  Canada  Australia  New Zealand Empire of Japan Commanders Simon B. Buckner â€  Joseph W. Stilwell Ray Spruance Mitsuru Ushijima â€  Isamu Cho â€  Strength 548,000 soldiers, 1,300 ships,  ? aircraft 100,000 regulars and militia,  ? ships,  ? aircraft Casualties 12,513 dead or missing, 38,916 wounded, 33...

Nearly 500,000 Purple Heart medals were manufactured in anticipation of the casualties resulting from the invasion of Japan. To the present date, all the American military casualties of the sixty years following the end of World War II — including the Korean and Vietnam Wars — have not exceeded that number. In 2003, there were still 120,000 of these Purple Heart medals in stock.^[42] There are so many in surplus that combat units in Iraq and Afghanistan are able to keep Purple Hearts on-hand for immediate award to wounded soldiers on the field.^[42] For other meanings see Purple Heart (disambiguation). ... Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tōjō Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000... Combatants Republic of Vietnam United States Republic of Korea Thailand Australia New Zealand The Philippines National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam Democratic Republic of Vietnam People’s Republic of China Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea Strength US 1,000,000 South Korea 300,000 Australia 48,000... Year 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Notes

Richard K. Sutherland (November 27, 1893 - June 25, 1966) was a Lieutenant General of the US Army and General MacArthurs Chief of Staff during World War II. He served with the American Expeditionary Force during World War I. The Japanese Surrender At the Japanese surrender in Tokyo Bay on... May 28 is the 148th day of the year (149th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1945 (MCMXLV) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar). ... is the 338th day of the year (339th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 335th day of the year (336th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 338th day of the year (339th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

References

• Allen, Thomas B., and Polmar, Norman, Code-Name Downfall. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995. ISBN 0-684-80406-9.
• Feifer, George. The Battle of Okinawa: The Blood and the Bomb. Guilford, Connecticut: The Lyons Press, 2001. ISBN 1-58574-215-5.
• Frank, Richard B.. Downfall: The End of the Imperial Japanese Empire. New York: Random House, 1999. ISBN 0-679-41424-X (hc), ISBN 0-14-100146-1 (2001 tpb).
• Skates, John Ray, The Invasion of Japan: Alternative to the Bomb. Columbia, S.C.: University of South Carolina Press, 1994. ISBN 0-87249-972-3.
• Thomas, Evan, The Last Kamikaze, World War II Magazine, p28, March 2007

Richard B. Frank (born 1947 in Kansas) is an American lawyer and military historian. ...

External links

• Allen, Thomas B., "Operation Downfall". Houghton Mifflin Reader's Companion to Military History.
• Bauer, K. Jack, "Operation Downfall: Olympic, Coronet; World War II in the Pacific, The Invasion of Japan". ww2pacific.com.
• Bauer, Jack & Coox, Alvin D., "OLYMPIC VS KETSU-GO"; Marine Corps Gazette, August 1965, Vol. 49, No. 8.
• Giangreco, Dennis M., "Casualty Projections for the U.S. Invasions of Japan, 1945–1946: Planning and Policy Implications"; Journal of Military History (July 1997)
• Giangreco, Dennis M., Transcript of "Operation Downfall: US Plans and Japanese Counter-measures". US Army Command and General Staff College, 16 February 1998. (Presentation on Downfall)
• Hoyt, Austin, American Experience: Victory in the Pacific; PBS documentary.
• Japanese Monograph No. 23, "Waiting for the invasion" (notes on Japanese preparations for an American invasion)
• MacEachin, Douglas J., "The Final Months of the War With Japan: Signals Intelligence, U.S. Invasion Planning, and the A-Bomb Decision"; CIA Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1998.
• Pearlman, Michael D., "Unconditional Surrender, Demobilization, and the Atomic Bomb"; Combat Studies Institute, U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, 1996.
• White, H.V., "The Japanese Plans for the Defense of Kyushu"; 31 December 1945. (PDF)