NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Opiliones

Harvestmen (also known as daddy long-legs) are eight-legged invertebrate animals belonging to the order Opiliones (formerly Phalangida) in the class Arachnida, in the subphylum Chelicerata of the phylum Arthropoda. As of 2006, over 6,400 species of harvestmen have been discovered worldwide, although the real number of extant species may exceed 10,000 species^[1]. The order Opiliones can be divided in four suborders: Cyphophthalmi (Simon, 1879), Eupnoi (Hansen & Sørensen, 1904), Dyspnoi (Hansen & Sørensen, 1904) and Laniatores (Thorell, 1876). Well-preserved fossils have been found in the 400-million year old Rhynie cherts of Scotland, which look surprisingly modern, indicating that the basic structure of the harvestmen has not changed much since then. Phylogenetic position is disputed: their closest relatives may be the mites (Acari) or the Novogenuata. Daddy Long-legs (Kidari ajeossi) is a 2005 South Korean romance film. ... Invertebrate is an English word that describes any animal without a spinal column. ... Extant orders Acarina Amblypygi Araneae Opiliones Palpigradi Pseudoscorpionida Ricinulei Schizomida Solifugae Uropygi Wikispecies has information related to: Arachnida Arachnids are a class (Arachnida) of joint-legged invertebrate animals in the subphylum Chelicerata. ... Classes Arachnida- spiders, scorpions, etc. ... Subphyla and Classes Subphylum Trilobitomorpha Trilobita - trilobites (extinct) Subphylum Chelicerata Arachnida - spiders,scorpions, etc. ... 2006 is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Diversity 6 families, > 100 species Superfamilies Stylocelloidea Ogoveoidea Sironoidea The Cyphophthalmi are a suborder of harvestmen, with about 36 genera, and more than hundred described species. ... Diversity 6 families, > 1,700 species Superfamilies Caddoidea Phalangioidea The Eupnoi are a suborder of harvestmen, with more than 200 genera, and about 1,700 described species. ... Diversity 7 families, > 300 species Superfamilies Ischyropsalidoidea Nemastomatoidea Troguloidea The Dyspnoi are a suborder of harvestmen, with about 32 genera, and about 320 described species. ... Laniatores is the largest suborder of the arachnid order Opiliones with over 4,000 species worldwide. ... Rhynie chert is the name for fossiliferous material from a uniquely well-preserved layer in one site near the village of Rhynie, Aberdeenshire, Scotland. ... Families Tetranychidae - Spider mites Eriophyidae - Gall mites Sarcoptidae - Sarcoptic Mange mites The mites and ticks, order Acarina or Acari, belong to the Arachnida and are among the most diverse and successful of all the invertebrate groups, although some way behind the insects. ... Novogenuata is a clade of the arachnid subclass Dromopoda including the Scorpiones, Pseudoscorpiones and Solifugae and is considered by Shultz (1990) the sister group of the Opiliones. ...

In some places, harvestmen are known by the name "daddy longlegs", "granddaddy longlegs" or "wiggdaddy long legs" but this name can also refer to two other unrelated arthropods: the crane fly (Tipulidae) and the cellar spider (Pholcidae). Daddy longlegs is an ambiguous common name referring to several unrelated terrestrial arthropods which have in common extremely long slender legs. ... Genera Over 14,000 The crane flies are a family (Tipulidae) of insects resembling giant mosquitoes. ... Diversity 80 genera, 959 species Genera Spermaphora many others Check out the Daddy Long Legs at www. ...

Because they are an ubiquitous order, but species are often restricted to small regions due to their low dispersal rate, they are good models for biogeographic studies. Biogeography is the science which deals with patterns of species distribution and the processes that result in such patterns. ...

Physical description

These arachnids are known for their exceptionally long walking legs, compared to body size, although there are also short-legged species. The difference between harvestmen and spiders is that in harvestmen the two main body sections (the abdomen with ten segments and cephalothorax, or prosoma and opisthosoma) are nearly joined, so that they appear to be one oval structure; they also have no venom or silk glands. In more advanced species, the first five abdominal segments are often fused into a dorsal shield called the scutum, which is normally fused with the carapace. Sometimes this shield is only present in males. The two most posterior abdominal segments can be reduced or separated in the middle on the surface to form two plates lying next to each other. The second pair of legs are longer than the others and work as antennae. This can be hard to see in short-legged species. Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1363x1022, 250 KB) Summary Harvestman in a flower pod. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1363x1022, 250 KB) Summary Harvestman in a flower pod. ... Diversity 111 families, 40,000 species Suborders Mesothelae Mygalomorphae Araneomorphae See table of families Wikispecies has information related to: Spiders Spiders are predatory invertebrate animals that have two body segments, eight legs, no chewing mouth parts and no wings. ... The abdomen is a part of the body. ... The cephalothorax is an anatomical term used of arachnid and malacostracan arthropods for the first major body section. ... The cephalothorax is an anatomical term used of arachnid and malacostracan arthropods for the first major body section. ... The opisthosoma is the posterior portion of the arachnids body behind the prosoma. ... This oval, with only one axis of symmetry, resembles a chicken egg. ... Scutum (Latin for shield) is a small constellation. ... Antennae (singular antenna), are the paired appendages connecting to the first (and in crustaceans also to the second) segment of the head of the members of all subphyla of the arthropods except Chelicerata. ...

They have a single pair of eyes in the middle of their heads, oriented sideways, which cannot produce pictures. However, there are eyeless species (for example the Brazilian Caecobunus termitarium (Grassatores) from termite nests, Giupponia chagasi (Gonyleptidae) from caves, and all species of Guasiniidae)^[2]. Superfamilies See text for list. ... Families Mastotermitidae Kalotermitidae Termopsidae Hodotermitidae Rhinotermitidae Serritermitidae Termitidae Wikispecies has information related to: Isoptera Termites, known as white ants, are a group of social insects usually classified at the taxonomic rank of order Isoptera. ... Diversity 1 species Binomial name PÃ©rez & Kury, 2002 Giupponia is a monotypic genus of the harvestman family Gonyleptidae. ... Subfamilies See text for list. ... Genera See text for list. ...

Harvestmen have a pair of prosomatic scent glands that secrete a peculiar smelling fluid when disturbed, confirmed in some species to contain noxious quinones. Harvestmen do not have silk glands and do not possess venom glands, posing absolutely no danger to humans (see below). They do not have book lungs, and breathe through trachea only. Between the base of the fourth pair of legs and the abdomen a pair of spiracles are located, one opening on each side. In more active species, spiracles are also found upon the tibia of the legs. They have a gonopore on the ventral cephalothorax, and the copulation is direct as the male has a penis (while the female has an ovipositor). All species lay eggs. This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... 1,4-Benzoquinone, also cyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione, is a ketone, with formula C6H4O2. ... Spider silk is a fibre secreted by spiders. ... Chelicerae of a black wishbone (Nemesiidae) spider, a mygalomorph Spiders are widely known, and feared by some, for their including necrotic wounds, systemic toxicity, and in some cases, death. ... Diversity 4 suborders Suborders Cyphophthalmi Eupnoi Dyspnoi Laniatores Harvestmen (also known as daddy long-legs) are eight-legged invertebrate animals belonging to the order Opiliones (formerly Phalangida) in the class Arachnida, in the subphylum Chelicerata of the phylum Arthropoda. ... A book lung is a rudimentary type of lung found in arachnids, such as scorpions and spiders, and in horseshoe crabs. ... Many terrestrial arthropods have evolved a closed respiratory system composed of spiracles, tracheae, and tracheoles to transport metabolic gasses to and from tissue. ... Spiracles are small openings on the surface of animals that usually lead to respiratory systems. ... This article is about the vertebrate bone. ... A genital pore in some invertebrates and especially some insects. ... The cephalothorax is an anatomical term used of arachnid and malacostracan arthropods for the first major body section. ... A pair of lions copulating in the Maasai Mara, Kenya. ... The penis (plural penises, penes) is an external male sexual organ. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... In most birds and reptiles, an egg (Latin ovum) is the zygote, resulting from fertilization of the ovum. ...

The legs continue to twitch after they are detached. This is because there are pacemakers located in the ends of the first long segment (femur) of their legs. These pacemakers send signals via the nerves to the muscles to extend the leg and then the leg relaxes between signals. While some harvestman's legs will twitch for a minute, other kinds have been recorded to twitch for up to an hour. The twitching has been hypothesized as a means to keep the attention of a predator while the harvestman escapes.

Typical body length does not exceed 7 mm (about 5/16 inch), although the largest species Trogulus torosus (Trogulidae) can reach a length of 22 mm^[1]. However, leg span is much larger and can exceed 160 mm (over 6"). Most species live for a year. A millimetre (American spelling: millimeter), symbol mm is an SI unit of length that is equal to one thousandth of a metre. ... Diversity 7 genera, c. ...

Behavior

Many species are omnivorous, eating primarily small insects and all kinds of plant material and fungi; some are scavengers of the decays of any dead animal, bird dung and other fecal material. This broad range is quite unusual in arachnids, which are usually pure predators. Most hunting harvestmen ambush their prey, although active hunting is also found. Because their eyes cannot form images, they use their second pair of legs as antennae to explore their environment. Also unlike most other arachnids, harvestmen do not have a sucking stomach and a filtering mechanism, but ingest small particles of their food, thus making them vulnerable to internal parasites, such as gregarines.^[3] Omnivores are organisms that consume both plants and animals. ... Divisions Chytridiomycota Zygomycota Ascomycota Basidiomycota The Fungi (singular: fungus) are a large group of organisms ranked as a kingdom within the Domain Eukaryota. ... HERBIVORS Herbivory is a form of predation in which an organism known as an herbivore, consumes only autotrophs[1] such as plants, algae and photosynthesizing bacteria. ... Feces (also spelled faeces in British English, or fæces) are semi-solid waste products from the digestive tract expelled through the anus (or cloaca) during defecation. ... Orders Archigregarinorida Eugregarinorida Neogregarinorida The gregarines are a group of Apicomplexan protozoa, classified as the Gregarinasina or Gregarinea. ...

Although parthenogenetic species do occur, most harvestmen reproduce sexually. Mating involves direct copulation, rather than the deposition of a spermatophore. The males of some species offer a secretion from their chelicerae to the female before copulation. Sometimes the male guards the female after copulation, and in many species the males defend territories. The females lay eggs shortly after mating, or up to months later. Some species build nests for this purpose. A unique feature of harvestmen is that in some species the male is solely responsible for guarding the eggs. The eggs hatch after anything from 20 days to almost half a year. Harvestmen need from four to eight nymphal stages to reach maturity, with six the most common.^[4] It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Asexual reproduction. ... Sexual reproduction is a union that results in increasing genetic diversity of the offspring. ... Sevenspotted Lady Beetles mating In biology, mating is the pairing of opposite-sex or hermaphroditic internal fertilization animals for copulation and, in social animals, also to raise their offspring. ... A pair of lions copulating in the Maasai Mara, Kenya. ... A spermatophore is a capsule or mass created by males of various invertebrate species, containing spermatozoa and transferred in entirety to the female during sex. ... Types of chelicerae: jackknife (in green), scissor (in blue) and 3-segmented chelate (in red) The Chelicerae are mouth parts of the Chelicerata, an arthropod subphylum that includes arachnids, Merostomata (horseshoe crabs), and Pycnogonida (sea spiders). ...

They are mostly nocturnal and colored in hues of brown, although there are a number of diurnal species which have vivid patterns in yellow, green and black with varied reddish and blackish mottling and reticulation. A nocturnal animal is one that sleeps during the day and is active at night - the opposite of the human (diurnal) schedule. ... A diurnal animal (dÄ«-ÅrnÉ™l) is an animal that is active during the daytime and sleeps during the night. ...

To deal with predators such as birds, mammals, amphibians, and spiders, some species glue debris onto their body, and many play dead when disturbed. Many species can detach their legs, which keep on moving to confuse predators, especially long-legged species vibrate their body ("bobbing"), probably also to confuse. This is similar to the behavior of the similar looking but unrelated daddy longlegs spider, which wildly vibrates in its web when touched. Scent glands emit substances that can deter larger predators, but are also effective against ants.^[5] This snapping turtle is trying to make a meal of a Canada goose, but the goose is too wary. ... This page is a candidate to be moved to Wiktionary. ... Binomial name Pholcus phalangioides Fuesslin, 1775 The Daddy-Long-Legs Spider (Pholcus phalangioides) is a spider of the family Pholcidae. ...

Many species of harvestmen easily tolerate members of their own species, with aggregations of many individuals often found at protected sites near water. These aggregations can count up to 200 animals in the Laniatores, but more than 70,000 in certain Eupnoi. This behavior is likely a strategy against climatic odds, but also against predators, combining the effect of scent secretions, and reducing the probability of each individual of being eaten.^[6] Laniatores is the largest suborder of the arachnid order Opiliones with over 4,000 species worldwide. ... Diversity 6 families, > 1,700 species Superfamilies Caddoidea Phalangioidea The Eupnoi are a suborder of harvestmen, with more than 200 genera, and about 1,700 described species. ...

Endangered status

Some troglobitic Opiliones are considered endangered if their home caves are in or near cities where pollution and development of the land can alter the cave habitat. Others species are threatened by the invasion of non-native fire ants. Lechuguilla Cave, New Mexico A cave is a natural underground void large enough for a human to enter. ... Species More than 280 species and subspecies, see text For the species of fire ant common to the Southern U.S., see Red imported fire ant Fire ants, sometimes referred to as simply red ants, are stinging ants of which there are over 280 species worldwide. ...

All troglobitic species (of all animal taxa) are considered to be at least threatened in Brazil. There are four species of Opiliones in the Brazilian National List for endangered species, all of them cave-dwelling species. Giupponia chagasi Pérez & Kury, 2002, Iandumoema uai Pinto-da-Rocha, 1996, Pachylospeleus strinatii Šilhavý, 1974 and Spaeleoleptes spaeleus H. Soares, 1966. Diversity 1 species Binomial name PÃ©rez & Kury, 2002 Giupponia is a monotypic genus of the harvestman family Gonyleptidae. ...

Several Opiliones in Argentina appear to be vulnerable, if not endangered. These include Pachyloidellus fulvigranulatus (Mello-Leitão, 1930), which is found only on top of Cerro Uritorco, the highest peak in the Sierras Chicas chain (provincia de Cordoba) and Pachyloides borellii (Roewer, 1925) is in rainforest patches in North West Argentina which are in an area being dramatically destroyed by humans. The cave living Picunchenops spelaeus Maury, 1988 is apparently endangered through human action. So far no harvestman has been included in any kind of a Red List in Argentina and therefore they receive no protection. Mello-LeitÃ£o, 1920s CÃ¢ndido Firmino de Mello-LeitÃ£o, (July 17, 1886 â€“ December 14, 1948), was a Brazilian zoologist who is considered the founder of Arachnology in South America, publishing 198 papers on the taxonomy of Arachnida. ... The Uritorco, as seen from Capilla del Monte. ...

Maiorerus randoi Rambla, 1993 has only been found in one cave in the Canary Islands. It is included in the Catálogo Nacional de especies amenazadas (National catalog of threatened species) from the Spanish government. Anthem: ArrorrÃ³ Capital Las Palmas de Gran Canaria and Santa Cruz de Tenerife Official language(s) Spanish Area â€“ Total â€“ % of Spain Ranked 13th 7,447 kmÂ² 1. ...

Texella reddelli Goodnight & Goodnight, 1967 and Texella reyesi Ubick & Briggs, 1992 are listed as endangered species in the U.S.A. Both are from caves in central Texas. Texella cokendolpheri Ubick & Briggs, 1992 from a cave in central Texas and Calicina minor (Briggs & Hom 1966), Microcina edgewoodensis Briggs & Ubick 1989, Microcina homi Briggs & Ubick 1989, Microcina jungi Briggs & Ubick 1989, Microcina leei Briggs & Ubick 1989, Microcina lumi Briggs & Ubick 1989, and Microcina tiburona (Briggs & Hom 1966) from around springs and other restricted habitats of central California are being considered for listing as endangered species, but as yet receive no protection. Official language(s) No official language See languages of Texas Capital Austin Largest city Houston Largest metro area Dallasâ€“Fort Worth Metroplex Area Ranked 2nd - Total 261,797 sq mi (678,051 kmÂ²) - Width 773 miles (1,244 km) - Length 790 miles (1,270 km) - % water 2. ... Official language(s) English Capital Sacramento Largest city Los Angeles Largest metro area Greater Los Angeles Area Ranked 3rd - Total 158,302 sq mi (410,000 kmÂ²) - Width 250 miles (400 km) - Length 770 miles (1,240 km) - % water 4. ...

A venomous myth

An urban legend claims that the harvestman is the most venomous animal in the world, but its fangs are too small to bite a human and therefore is not dangerous. (The same myth applies to the cellar spider, which is also called a daddy longlegs)^[7]. This is untrue on several counts. None of the known species have venom glands or fangs, instead having chelicerae ^[8]. The size of its mouth varies by species, but even those with relatively large jaws hardly ever bite humans or other large creatures, even in self-defense. The few known cases of actual bites did not involve envenomation, and had no lasting effect.^[9] An urban legend or urban myth is similar to a modern folklore consisting of stories often thought to be factual by those circulating them. ... The Daddy long-legs spider, also called the cellar spider or house spider, is a true spider and not a harvestman. ... Types of chelicerae: jackknife (in green), scissor (in blue) and 3-segmented chelate (in red) The Chelicerae are mouth parts of the Chelicerata, an arthropod subphylum that includes arachnids, Merostomata (horseshoe crabs), and Pycnogonida (sea spiders). ...

Research

Harvestmen are a scientifically much neglected group. Description of new taxa has always been dependent on the activity of a few active taxonomists. Carl Friedrich Roewer described about a third (2,260) of today's known species from the 1910s to the 1950, and published the landmark systematic work Die Weberknechte der Erde (Harvestmen of the World) in 1923, with descriptions of all species known to that time. Other important taxonomists in this field include Eugène Simon, Tord Tamerlan Teodor Thorell, William Sørensen and Nathan Banks around the turn of the 20th century, and later Cândido Firmino de Mello-Leitão and Reginald Frederick Lawrence. Since 1980, study of the biology and ecology of harvestmen has intensified, especially in South America.^[1] Carl Friedrich Roewer (1881-1963) was a german arachnologist. ... EugÃ¨ne Simon (April 30, 1848 - November 17, 1924) was a French arachnologist. ... Tord Tamerlan Teodor Thorell (May 3, 1830 - December 22, 1901) was a Swedish arachnologist. ... For other persons of the same name, see Banks. ... Mello-LeitÃ£o, 1920s CÃ¢ndido Firmino de Mello-LeitÃ£o, (July 17, 1886 â€“ December 14, 1948), was a Brazilian zoologist who is considered the founder of Arachnology in South America, publishing 198 papers on the taxonomy of Arachnida. ... South America South America is a continent crossed by the equator, with most of its area in the Southern Hemisphere. ...

Phylogeny

Harvestmen are very old arachnids. Fossils from the Devonian, 400 million years ago, already show characteristics like tracheae and sexual organs, proving that the group has lived on land since that time. They are probably closely related to the scorpions, pseudoscorpions and solifuges; these four orders form the clade Dromopoda. The Opiliones have remained almost unchanged morphologically over a long period.^[10] Extant orders Acarina Amblypygi Araneae Opiliones Palpigradi Pseudoscorpionida Ricinulei Schizomida Solifugae Uropygi Wikispecies has information related to: Arachnida Arachnids are a class (Arachnida) of joint-legged invertebrate animals in the subphylum Chelicerata. ... Artists illustration of a Devonian scene. ... Superfamilies Pseudochactoidea Buthoidea Chaeriloidea Chactoidea Iuroidea Scorpionoidea See classification for families. ... A pseudoscorpion, (also known as a false scorpion or book scorpion), is an arachnid belonging to the order Pseudoscorpionida, also known as Pseudoscorpiones or Chelonethida. ... A Solifugid The order Solifugae is a group of arachnids, containing around 900 species. ... Orders Opiliones Pseudoscorpiones Scorpiones Solifugae Dromopoda is a subclass of the arachnids, including the Opiliones (harvestmen), Scorpions, Pseudoscorpions and Solifugae (camel spiders). The latter three are sometimes grouped as Novogenuata. ...

Systematics

Currently the harvestmen are divided into four suborders, containing circa 45 families and about 1,500 genera. The limits and relationships of most families and genera are not well understood, and there probably are as yet undescribed families. The tiny Cyphophthalmi are considered the oldest suborder and are distributed worldwide. The Eupnoi are also widely distributed and contain some of the best known harvestmen. The Dyspnoi, including some large species, inhabit mostly the northern hemisphere, while the species-rich Laniatores are found mostly in tropical regions of the southern hemisphere.^[1] Diversity 6 families, > 100 species Superfamilies Stylocelloidea Ogoveoidea Sironoidea The Cyphophthalmi are a suborder of harvestmen, with about 36 genera, and more than hundred described species. ... Diversity 6 families, > 1,700 species Superfamilies Caddoidea Phalangioidea The Eupnoi are a suborder of harvestmen, with more than 200 genera, and about 1,700 described species. ... Diversity 7 families, > 300 species Superfamilies Ischyropsalidoidea Nemastomatoidea Troguloidea The Dyspnoi are a suborder of harvestmen, with about 32 genera, and about 320 described species. ... Laniatores is the largest suborder of the arachnid order Opiliones with over 4,000 species worldwide. ...

The family Stygophalangiidae (1 species, Stygophalangium karamani) from underground waters in Macedonia is sometimes misplaced in the Phalangioidea. It is not a harvestman. Diversity 6 families, > 100 species Superfamilies Stylocelloidea Ogoveoidea Sironoidea The Cyphophthalmi are a suborder of harvestmen, with about 36 genera, and more than hundred described species. ... Diversity 3 genera, c. ... Diversity 1 genus, 3 species Species see text Synonyms Ogovia The Ogoveidae are a family of harvestmen with three described species in one genus, Ogovea, which is found in tropical rain forests of equatorial West Africa. ... Diversity 5 genera, 12 species Genera see text The Neogoveidae are a family of harvestmen with twelve described species in five genera. ... Diversity 11 genera, > 40 species The Pettalidae are a family of harvestmen with 52 described species and subspecies in eleven genera[1]. Several undescribed species are known or assumed in some genera. ... Diversity 8 genera, > 30 species Synonyms Sironides The Sironidae are a family of harvestmen with more than 30 described species. ... Diversity 1 genus, 13 species Species see text The Troglosironidae are a family of harvestmen with thirteen described species in a single genus, Troglosiro. ... Diversity 6 families, > 1,700 species Superfamilies Caddoidea Phalangioidea The Eupnoi are a suborder of harvestmen, with more than 200 genera, and about 1,700 described species. ... Diversity 6 genera, 21 species Genera see text Caddidae is a family of harvestmen with 15 known species, the only family of the Eupnoi superfamily Caddoidea. ... Diversity 6 genera, 21 species Genera see text Caddidae is a family of harvestmen with 15 known species, the only family of the Eupnoi superfamily Caddoidea. ... Families See text for list. ... Diversity 5 genera, 32 species Genera see text The Monoscutidae are a family of harvestmen with 32 known species that all occur in or near Australia and New Zealand. ... Diversity 8 genera, 15 species The Neopilionidae are a family of harvestmen with 15 known species. ... Diversity 4 subfamilies, ca. ... Diversity 5 subfamilies, ca. ... Diversity 7 families, > 300 species Superfamilies Ischyropsalidoidea Nemastomatoidea Troguloidea The Dyspnoi are a suborder of harvestmen, with about 32 genera, and about 320 described species. ... Diversity 2 genera, c. ... Diversity 7 genera, c. ... Laniatores is the largest suborder of the arachnid order Opiliones with over 4,000 species worldwide. ... Subfamilies Triaenonychinae Kaolinonychinae Nippononychinae Paranonychinae Sclerobuninae Soerensenellinae The Triaenonychidae are a family of harvestman with about 120 genera and more than 440 described species. ... Superfamilies See text for list. ... Families See text for list. ... Genera See text for list. ... Subfamilies See text for list. ... Families See text for list. ... Genera See text for list. ... Genera See text for list. ... Binomial name Oudemans, 1933 Stygophalangium karamani is a species of arachnid. ... Binomial name Oudemans, 1933 Stygophalangium karamani is a species of arachnid. ...

Footnotes

References

Contents

Physical description

Behavior

Endangered status

A venomous myth

Research

Phylogeny

Systematics

Footnotes

References

Further reading

External links

Contents

Physical description GA_googleFillSlot("encyclopedia_square");

Behavior

Endangered status

A venomous myth

Research

Phylogeny

Systematics

Footnotes

References

Further reading

External links

Physical description