In general religious use, ordination is the process by which one is consecrated (set apart for the undivided administration of various religious rites). The ordination of women is a controversial issue in religions where either the office of ordination, or the role that an ordained person fulfills, has traditionally been restricted to men because of cultural or theological prohibitions. Ordination is the process in which clergy become authorized by their religious denomination and/or seminary to perform religious rituals and ceremonies. ... To consecrate an inanimate object is to dedicate it in a ritual to a special purpose, usually religious. ...

Across Christianity, there is significant evidence that women took leading roles in the early church, including the office of bishop. However, the ordination of women soon disappeared. Since then, women have been excluded for centuries from becoming office-bearers and preachers.^[1] This only began to change in the mid-nineteenth century (see Some beginning dates for ordination of women below). In general religious use, ordination is the process by which one is consecrated (set apart for the undivided administration of various religious rites). ...

In Roman Catholicism, Orthodoxy and Anglicanism, ordination is distinguished from religious or consecrated life and is the means by which one is included in one of the priestly orders: bishop, priest, or deacon. The Roman Catholic and Orthodox priesthood is limited to men, and some Anglican dioceses do not permit women clergy. “Catholic Church” redirects here. ... ... Anglicanism commonly refers to the beliefs and practices of the Anglican Communion, the churches that are in full communion with the see of Canterbury. ... Within the Roman Catholic Church, the Consecrated Life, referred to also as the Religious Life, is a way of Christian living by those who have made the prescribed public religious profession and vow that is recognized in Church Law. ...

In Protestant Christian denominations that do not have a priesthood, ordination is understood more generally as the acceptance of one for pastoral work. About half of all American Protestant denominations ordain women, and about 30% of all seminary students (and in some seminaries over half) are female.^[2] Protestantism is a general grouping of denominations within Christianity. ... For other uses, see Christian (disambiguation). ... Look up denomination in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

Orthodox Judaism does not permit women to become rabbis (instead, the women in leadership positions are often Rebbetzin, wives of a rabbi), but female rabbis have begun to appear in recent years among more liberal Jewish movements, especially the Reconstructionist, Renewal, Reform, and Humanistic denominations. This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... For the town in Italy, see Rabbi, Italy. ... Rebbetzin (in Yiddish, or Rabbanit in Hebrew) is the title used for the wife of (usually) an Orthodox, or Haredi, and Hasidic rabbi. ... Reconstructionist Judaism is a modern American-based Jewish movement, based on the ideas of the late Mordecai Kaplan, that views Judaism as a progressively evolving civilization. ... Jewish Renewal is a new religious movement in Judaism which endeavors to reinvigorate modern Judaism with mystical, Hasidic, musical and meditative practices. ... Reform Judaism can refer to (1) the largest denomination of American Jews and its sibling movements in other countries, (2) a branch of Judaism in the United Kingdom, and (3) the historical predecessor of the American movement that originated in 19th-century Germany. ... Humanistic Judaism is a movement within Judaism that emphasizes Jewish culture and history - rather than belief in God - as the sources of Jewish identity. ...

Muslims do not formally ordain religious leaders. The imam serves as a spiritual leader and religious authority. Most strands of Islam permit women to lead female-only congregations in prayer (one of the meanings of the word imam), but restrict their roles in mixed sex congregations. There is a recent movement to extend women's roles in spiritual leadership. There is also a collection of Hadith called Sahih Muslim A Muslim (Arabic: مسلم, Persian: Mosalman or Mosalmon Urdu: مسلمان, Turkish: Müslüman, Albanian: Mysliman, Bosnian: Musliman) is an adherent of the religion of Islam. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... For people named Islam, see Islam (name). ...

Within Buddhism, the legitimacy of ordaining women as bhikkhuni (nuns) has become a significant topic of discussion in some areas in recent years. It is widely accepted that the Buddha created an order of bhikkhuni, but the tradition of ordaining women has died out in some Buddhist traditions, such as Theravada Buddhism, while remaining strong in others, such as Chinese Buddhism. A silhouette of a Buddha statue at Ayutthaya, Thailand. ... High-ranking Chinese bhikkunis in an alms round. ... Media:Example. ... Theravada (Pali; Sanskrit: Sthaviravada) is one of the eighteen (or twenty) Nikāya schools that formed early in the history of Buddhism. ... This article explores how Buddhism, a Indian origin, has affected and been affected by Chinese culture, politics, literature and philosophy. ...

Christianity

Roman Catholic Church

See also:Priesthood (Catholic Church)

Priesthood in the Catholic Church is the second of the three orders of ordained ministry, Bishop, Priest and Deacon. ...

Doctrinal Position

The official position of the Roman Catholic Church, as expressed in the current canon law and the Catechism of the Catholic Church, is that: "Only a baptized man (vir) validly receives sacred ordination."^[3] Insofar as priestly and episcopal ordination are concerned, the Church teaches that this requirement is a matter of divine law, and thus doctrinal.^[4] The requirement that only males can receive ordination to the permanent diaconate has not been promulgated as doctrinal by the Church's magisterium, though it is clearly at least a requirement according to canon law.^[5][6] In asserting this position, the Church cites her own doctrinal tradition, and scriptural texts.^[7] In recent years, responding to questions about the matter, the Church has issued a number of documents repeating the same position.^[8] In 1994, Pope John Paul II declared the question closed in his letter Ordinatio Sacerdotalis, stating: "Wherefore, in order that all doubt may be removed regarding a matter of great importance…I declare that the Church has no authority whatsoever to confer priestly ordination on women and that this judgment is to be definitively held by all the Church's faithful."^[9] “Catholic Church” redirects here. ... Canon Law is the ecclesiastical law of the Roman Catholic Church. ... The Catechism of the Catholic Church, or CCC, is an official exposition of the teachings of the Catholic Church, first published in French in 1992 by the authority of Pope John Paul II.[1] Subsequently, in 1997, a Latin text was issued which is now the official text of reference... Coat of Arms of Pope John Paul II. The Letter M is for Mary, the mother of Jesus, to whom he held strong devotion Pope John Paul II (Latin: , Italian: Giovanni Paolo II, Polish: Jan PaweÅ‚ II) born   []; 18 May 1920 – 2 April 2005) reigned as the 264th Pope of... Ordinatio Sacerdotalis (Latin for On Ordination to the Priesthood) is a Roman Catholic papal encyclical or apostolic letter discussing the Roman Catholic Churchs position on the reservation of priestly ordination to men alone. ...

In 1995, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith issued a clarification, explaining that Ordinatio Sacerdotalis, though "itself not infallible, witnesses to the infallibility of the teaching of a doctrine already possessed by the Church.... This doctrine belongs to the deposit of the faith of the Church. It should be emphasized that the definitive and infallible nature of this teaching of the Church did not arise with the publication of the Letter Ordinatio Sacerdotalis."^[10] Instead, it was "founded on the written Word of God, and from the beginning constantly preserved and applied in the tradition of the Church, it has been set forth infallibly by the ordinary and universal magisterium," and for these reasons it "requires definitive assent."^[11] The Infallibility of the Church is the belief that the Holy Spirit will not allow the Church to err in its belief or teaching under certain circumstances. ...

The Church teaching on the restriction of its ordination to men that masculinity was integral to the personhood of both Jesus and the men he called as apostles.^[12] The Roman Catholic Church sees maleness and femaleness as two different ways of expressing common humanity.^[13] Contrary to the common phrase "gender roles," which implies that the phenomenon of the sexes is a mere surface phenomenon, an accident, the Roman Catholic Church teaches that there is an ontological (essential) difference between humanity expressed as male humanity and humanity expressed as female humanity.^[14] While many functions are interchangeable between men and women, some are not, because maleness and femaleness are not interchangeable. Just as water is necessary for a valid baptism, and wheaten bread and grape wine are necessary for a valid Eucharist (not because of their superiority over other materials, but because they are what Jesus used or authorized), only men can be validly ordained, regardless of any issues of equality.^[15] Gender in common usage refers to the sexual distinction between male and female. ... This article is about Jesus of Nazareth. ... Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations · Other religions Ecumenism · Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas · Luther Calvin · Wesley Arius · Marcion of Sinope Archbishop of Canterbury · Catholic Pope Coptic Pope · Ecumenical Patriarch Christianity Portal This box:      For other... “Catholic Church” redirects here. ... A bagpiper in Scottish military clan-uniform. ... For other uses, see Phenomena (disambiguation). ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Accidental property. ... “Catholic Church” redirects here. ... For other uses, see Essence (disambiguation). ... Impact from a water drop causes an upward rebound jet surrounded by circular capillary waves. ... Baptism in early Christian art. ... Species T. aestivum T. boeoticum T. dicoccoides T. dicoccon T. durum T. monococcum T. spelta T. sphaerococcum T. timopheevii References:   ITIS 42236 2002-09-22 Wheat Wheat For the indie rock group, see Wheat (band). ... For other uses, see Bread (disambiguation). ... It has been suggested that Veraison be merged into this article or section. ... For other uses, see Wine (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Eucharist (disambiguation). ...

Pope John Paul II, in Ordinatio Sacerdotalis, explained the Roman Catholic understanding that the priesthood is a special role specially set out by Jesus when he chose twelve men out of his group of male and female followers. John Paul notes that Jesus chose the Twelve (cf. Mk 3:13–14; Jn 6:70) after a night in prayer (cf. Lk 6:12) and that the Apostles themselves were careful in the choice of their successors. The priesthood is "specifically and intimately associated in the mission of the Incarnate Word himself (cf. Mt 10:1, 7–8; 28:16–20; Mk 3:13–16; 16:14–15)." Coat of Arms of Pope John Paul II. The Letter M is for Mary, the mother of Jesus, to whom he held strong devotion Pope John Paul II (Latin: , Italian: Giovanni Paolo II, Polish: Jan PaweÅ‚ II) born   []; 18 May 1920 – 2 April 2005) reigned as the 264th Pope of... Ordinatio Sacerdotalis (Latin for On Ordination to the Priesthood) is a Roman Catholic papal encyclical or apostolic letter discussing the Roman Catholic Churchs position on the reservation of priestly ordination to men alone. ... This article is about Jesus of Nazareth. ... Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations · Other religions Ecumenism · Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas · Luther Calvin · Wesley Arius · Marcion of Sinope Archbishop of Canterbury · Catholic Pope Coptic Pope · Ecumenical Patriarch Christianity Portal This box:      For other...

Pope Paul VI, quoted by Pope John Paul II in Ordinatio Sacerdotalis, wrote, "[The Church] holds that it is not admissible to ordain women to the priesthood, for very fundamental reasons. These reasons include: the example recorded in the Sacred Scriptures of Christ choosing his Apostles only from among men; the constant practice of the Church, which has imitated Christ in choosing only men; and her living teaching authority which has consistently held that the exclusion of women from the priesthood is in accordance with God's plan for his Church." This article cites very few or no references or sources. ... Coat of Arms of Pope John Paul II. The Letter M is for Mary, the mother of Jesus, to whom he held strong devotion Pope John Paul II (Latin: , Italian: Giovanni Paolo II, Polish: Jan PaweÅ‚ II) born   []; 18 May 1920 – 2 April 2005) reigned as the 264th Pope of... Ordinatio Sacerdotalis (Latin for On Ordination to the Priesthood) is a Roman Catholic papal encyclical or apostolic letter discussing the Roman Catholic Churchs position on the reservation of priestly ordination to men alone. ... This page is about the title, office or what is known in Christian theology as the Divine Person. ...

Concerning the "constant practice of the Church," in antiquity the Church Fathers Irenaeus,^[16] Tertullian,^[17] Hippolytus,^[18] Epiphanius,^[19] John Chrysostom,^[20] and Augustine^[21] all wrote that the ordination of women was impossible. The Synod of Laodicea prohibited ordaining women to the Presbyterate.^[22]

Deaconesses and Female Deacons

The ordination of females to the diaconate is a matter of some controversy among Roman Catholic historians and theologians. At issue are two distinct but interrelated questions: whether some deaconesses in the early Church received true sacramental ordination, or whether all were merely so called for functional or honorific purposes; and, whether the prohibition against ordaining women to the diaconate is also a matter of unchangeable divine law, or potentially changeable ecclesiastical law. If some deaconesses did receive true sacramental ordination, then the current prohibition would be ecclesiastical rather than divine law. If not, then it could be either ecclesiastical or divine.

It can be verified that the term deaconesses was employed in antiquity; the word, like "deacon," comes from the Greek word diakonos (διάκονος), meaning "one who serves." Deaconesses mainly assisted the priest in receiving women into the Church for baptism by full immersion (which is still practiced by the Eastern Catholic Churches and by some parishes in the Western or Latin rite as well), and did not perform any of the duties associated with male deacons. In this sense "deaconess" implied a title of honour and respect. Whether or not "deaconess" in some instances implied sacramental ordination is disputed. Deaconess (and also deacon) comes from a Greek word diakonos (διακονος). This Greek word means a servant or helper and occurs frequently in the Christian New Testament of the Bible and is sometimes applied to Christ himself. ... The Eastern Catholic Churches are autonomous particular Churches in full communion with the Pope of Rome. ... The Latin Rite is one of the 23 sui iuris particular Churches within the Catholic Church. ...

The Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith wrote in 1977 that the historical nature of deaconesses was "a question that must be taken up fully by direct study of the texts, without preconceived ideas."^[23] The position that deaconesses received true sacramental ordination (in certain times and places) is given by Roger Gryson,^[24] and the position that deaconesses never received true sacramental ordination is given by Aimé Georges Martimort.^[25] Both Gryson and Martimort argued from the same historical evidence, which is mixed. For example, the ecumenical First Council of Nicaea (A.D. 325) stated that deaconesses: "do not receive any imposition of hands, so that they are in all respects to be numbered among the laity."^[26] However, 126 years later, the ecumenical Council of Chalcedon (A.D. 451) decreed: "A woman shall not receive the laying on of hands as a deaconess under forty years of age, and then only after searching examination."^[27] Martimort argues that the "laying on of hands" in the latter case referred only to a special blessing. Against this, "Gryson argues that the use of the verb cheirotonein and of the substantive cheirothesia clearly indicate that deaconesses were ordained by the laying on of hands."^[28]

Until rather recently, the theologians and canonists who addressed the question almost unanimously considered the exclusion of women from ordination, including to the diaconate, as having a divine origin and therefore remaining absolute. Only in recent decades have any theologians or canonists entertained the theory that the prohibition of women from the ordained diaconate was a matter of merely ecclesiastical, rather than divine law.^[29] This renewed theological assessment was spurred on by the Second Vatican Council's revival of the permanent diaconate, which lifted the question from a purely theoretical matter to one with immensely practical consequences.^[30] Based on the theory that some deaconesses received the sacrament of Holy Orders, and based on the fact that some writers in the Middle Ages exhibited a certain hesitancy concerning the ordination of women stemming from knowledge that there had been deaconesses in antiquity,^[31] there have been modern-day proposals to ordain female permanent deacons, who would perform the same functions as male deacons.^[32] The Second Ecumenical Council of the Vatican, or Vatican II, was the twenty-first Ecumenical Council of the Roman Catholic Church. ...

Ordination and Equality

The Roman Catholic Church states that the hierarchical structure that includes the ordained ministerial priesthood is ordered to benefit the holiness of the entire body of the faithful, and not to ensure the salvation of the ordained minister.^[33] There is no additional benefit in terms of automatic holiness that comes about through ordination. Ordination is not required for salvation, nor does it effect salvation in the one ordained. In other words, a priest can go to Hell just as easily as a layperson. Likewise, sainthood is equally open to men and women, lay or ordained. For example, the Blessed Virgin Mary is venerated as the Queen of all Saints. Furthermore, there are female Doctors of the Church. A hierarchy (in Greek: , derived from — hieros, sacred, and — arkho, rule) is a system of ranking and organizing things or people, where each element of the system (except for the top element) is a subordinate to a single other element. ... For other uses, see Salvation (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Hell (disambiguation). ... In traditional Christian iconography, Saints are often depicted as having halos. ... “Our Lady” redirects here. ... In Roman Catholicism, a Doctor of the Church (Latin doctor, teacher, from Latin docere, to teach) is a saint from whose writings the whole Christian Church is held to have derived great advantage and to whom eminent learning and great sanctity have been attributed by a proclamation of a pope...

Pope John Paul II wrote, in Mulieris Dignitatem: "In calling only men as his Apostles, Christ acted in a completely free and sovereign manner. In doing so, he exercised the same freedom with which, in all his behaviour, he emphasized the dignity and the vocation of women, without conforming to the prevailing customs and to the traditions sanctioned by the legislation of the time."

In Ordinatio Sacerdotalis, John Paul wrote: "the fact that the Blessed Virgin Mary, Mother of God and Mother of the Church, received neither the mission proper to the Apostles nor the ministerial priesthood clearly shows that the non-admission of women to priestly ordination cannot mean that women are of lesser dignity, nor can it be construed as discrimination against them. Rather, it is to be seen as the faithful observance of a plan to be ascribed to the wisdom of the Lord of the universe." Ordinatio Sacerdotalis (Latin for On Ordination to the Priesthood) is a Roman Catholic papal encyclical or apostolic letter discussing the Roman Catholic Churchs position on the reservation of priestly ordination to men alone. ... “Our Lady” redirects here. ... Russian Orthodox Icon of the Theotokos Theotokos is a Greek word that means God-bearer or Mother of God. It is a title assigned by the early Christian Church to Mary, the mother of Jesus, at the Third Ecumenical Council held at Ephesus in 431. ...

The Roman Catholic Church does not regard the priest as the only possible prayer leader, and prayer may be led by a woman. For example, outside the context of a Mass and in the absence of a priest or deacon, laypersons (both men and women) "are to be entrusted with the care of these [Sunday] celebrations."^[34] This includes leading the prayers, ministry of the word, and the giving of holy communion (previously consecrated by a priest).^[35] Also during these assemblies, in the absence of an ordained minister, a layperson may request God's blessing on the congregation, provided that the layperson does not use words proper to a priest or deacon, and omits rites that are too readily associated with the Mass.^[36] Mary Magdalene in prayer. ... For an explanation of the specific reforms of the Second Vatican Council, see Mass of Paul VI. For the Mass of the Council of Trent, see Tridentine Mass. ... For other uses, see Eucharist (disambiguation). ...

Women are also able to live the Consecrated Life as a nun or abbess, and throughout the history of the Church it has not been uncommon for an abbess to head a dual monastery, i.e., a community of men and women. Monasticism (from Greek: monachos — a solitary person) is the religious practice in which one renounces worldly pursuits in order to fully devote ones life to spiritual work. ... For other uses, see Nun (disambiguation). ... An Abbess (Latin abbatissa, fem. ...

Positions dissenting against the official view

Arguments for the Catholic ordination of women are manifold.^[37] One argument is based on equality. Some sacramental theologians have argued that ordaining men but not women creates two classes of baptism, contradicting Saint Paul's statement that all are equal in Christ.^[38] This argument does not give credence to the distinction between equal dignity and different services within the Church. Baptism in early Christian art. ... Paul of Tarsus (b. ... This page is about the title, office or what is known in Christian theology as the Divine Person. ...

Another argument is based on the theological position that there is a fundamental unity between the different levels (deacon, priest, and bishop) of the sacrament of Holy Orders, as taught by the Second Vatican Council.^[39] So, if history shows that the deaconesses known to have existed in the Early Church had actually received the sacrament of ordination, then because of the fundamental unity of Holy Orders, women can also be ordained as priests and bishops.^[40] (This same argument is sometimes used in reverse, against the historical possibility that deaconesses received sacramental ordination.)^[41]

Whatever argument is used in favor of the priestly ordination of women, there is the problem of reconciling this position with Ordinatio Sacerdotalis. Based on the clarifications from the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, the official point of view is that Ordinatio Sacerdotalis, without itself being ex cathedra,^[42] authoritatively and bindingly teaches that: (1) the Church cannot ordain women as priests due to divine law; and that (2) this doctrine has been set forth infallibly by the ordinary and universal magisterium. The dissenting view is that, according to section 25 of the Second Council's Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, Lumen Gentium, the "ordinary and universal magisterium" is exercised by "the Pope in union with the bishops". In other words, it is an instance of the Pope 'publicising' what he and the other bishops, as the ordinary and universal magisterium' have already consistently taught through the ages. Lumen Gentium, the Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, is one of the principal documents of the Second Vatican Council. ...

Since the encyclical Humani Generis, it is well known that the Roman Pontiff can, by his own authority, settle a theological question via a fallible papal teaching that is nonetheless sufficiently authoritative to end all debate on the matter, at least under Church law.^[43] This is clearly what has occurred with Ordinatio Sacerdotalis in regard to point (1).^[44] (Although, in fact, the position taken by Pius XII in Humani Generis was overturned by Vatican II.^{[citation needed]}) Thus, theological debate on whether women can be ordained as priests is no longer seen as permitted for Catholics, and the arguments in favor of ordaining women to the priesthood in this section are termed a "dissenting position." However, several noted dogmatic theologians have questioned how this same debate-ending authority can apply to point (2), which is a matter not of faith or morals, but a factual matter relative to teachings promulgated by all the bishops of the Catholic Church over her two thousand year history.^[45] These dogmatic theologians find it especially problematic that, concerning this point, Ordinatio Sacerdotalis gives no indication of what historical facts are sufficient to ensure infallibility by the ordinary and universal Magisterium, nor any indication of how those historical facts were verified. Because of these issues it is argued that, if it were indeed possible for the Church to ordain women to the priesthood, this would not contradict the Church's dogma regarding infallible teachings.

Some supporters of women's ordination have claimed that there have been ordained priests and bishops in antiquity.^[46] The official Church position on this is that "a few heretical sects in the first centuries, especially Gnostic ones, entrusted the exercise of the priestly ministry to women: this innovation was immediately noted and condemned by the Fathers who considered it as unacceptable in the Church."^[47] In response to that position, some supporters of women's ordination take the position that those sects weren't heretical, but, rather, orthodox. [4] This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations · Other religions Ecumenism · Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas · Luther Calvin · Wesley Arius · Marcion of Sinope Archbishop of Canterbury · Catholic Pope Coptic Pope · Ecumenical Patriarch Christianity Portal This box:      This article...

Some arguable evidence that not all ordinations in the Catholic tradition have been those of males exists. For example, the Pope Gelasius I apparently condemned the practice of women officiating at altars; inscriptions near Tropea in Calabria refer to "presbytera," which could be interpreted as a woman priest or as a wife of a male priest [5]. Furthermore, a sarcophagus from Dalmatia is inscribed with the date 425 and records that a grave in the Salona burial-ground was bought from presbytera Flavia Vitalia: selling burial plots was at one time a duty of presbyters [6]. There have been some 15 records so far found of women being ordained in antiquity by Christians; while the Vatican insists those are ordinations by heretical groups, the Women's Ordination Conference contends that those were orthodox Christian groups. [7] There is also the church of Santa Praxedis, where Theodora Episcopa — Bishop Theodora, with the word for "bishop" in feminine form — appears in an image with two female saints and Mary. That church's pastor alleges that the church was built in honor of Pope Pascal I's mother by her son, who graced her with the title "Episcopa" due to her being the mother of a Pope. However, Theodora wears a coif in the image, suggesting that she is an unmarried woman. [8]

Setting aside these theological considerations, advocates for the ordination of women have pointed to vocations declining in Europe and North America and have made the utilitarian argument that women must be ordained in order to have enough priests to administer the Sacraments in those areas. Supporting this argument, they made public the story of a Czech woman Ludmila Javorová, who in the 1990s came forward to say that she and four or five other women had been ordained by the late Bishop Felix Maria Davídek in the 1970s, to serve as priests in the underground Catholic Church in Czechoslovakia. Javorová ceased to practice as a priest.^[48][49][50] A vocation is an occupation, either professional or voluntary, that is seen to those who carry it out as offering more than simply financial reward. ... Utilitarianism is a suggested theoretical framework for morality, law and politics, based on quantitative maximisation of some definition of utility for society or humanity. ... In Christian belief and practice, a sacrament is a rite that mediates divine grace, constituting a sacred mystery. ... Ludmila Javorová (born 1932, Brno) is a Czech Roman Catholic woman, who worked in the underground church during the time of communist rule in Czechoslovakia. ... Felix Maria Davídek (January 21, 1921–18 August 1988) was a bishop of the Catholic Church. ...

There is at least one organization that calls itself "Roman Catholic" that ordains women at the present time, Roman Catholic Womenpriests [9]even though several independent Catholic jurisidctions have been ordaining women in the United States since approximately the late 1990s. There are several others calling for the Roman Catholic Church to ordain women, such as Circles [10], Brothers and Sisters in Christ [11], Catholic Women's Ordination [12], and Corpus [13], along with others. While there have been excommunications connected to Roman Catholic Womenpriests, that has not deterred that organization from continuing to ordain women. Official Roman Catholic Church sources claim that the Roman Catholic Womenpriests organization has freely decided to separate from the Roman Catholic Church. However, the RC Womenpriests organization sources say they still associate with the Roman Catholic Church and are working to change it. Roman Catholic Womenpriests (RCWP) is an international and controversial initiative associated with the Roman Catholic Church. ... Independent Catholic Churches are, by and large, very small Churches, some of them consisting of one congregation, that claim valid Apostolic Succession of their bishops, though these are often dismissed in mainstream Catholic, Orthodox and Anglican circles as episcopi vagantes (wandering bishops). // The actual beginnings of the independent Catholic Churches...

Eastern Orthodox

The Eastern Orthodox churches follows a similar line of reasoning as the Roman Catholic Church with respect to ordination of priests. Eastern Orthodoxy (also called Greek Orthodoxy and Russian Orthodoxy) is a Christian tradition which represents the majority of Eastern Christianity. ...

Regarding deaconesses, Professor Evangelos Theodorou argued that female deacons were actually ordained in antiquity [14]. Bishop Kallistos Ware wrote:^[51]

The order of deaconesses seems definitely to have been considered an "ordained" ministry during early centuries in at any rate the Christian East. ... Some Orthodox writers regard deaconesses as having been a "lay" ministry. There are strong reasons for rejecting this view. In the Byzantine rite the liturgical office for the laying-on of hands for the deaconess is exactly parallel to that for the deacon; and so on the principle lex orandi, lex credendi — the Church's worshipping practice is a sure indication of its faith — it follows that the deaconesses receives, as does the deacon, a genuine sacramental ordination: not just a χειροθεσια but a χειροτονια. Lex orandi—lex credendi refers to the relationship between worship and belief which is a fundamental character of Anglicanism. ...

On October 8, 2004, the Holy Synod of the Orthodox Church of Greece voted [15] for a restricted restoration of the female diaconate. is the 281st day of the year (282nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2004 (MMIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

There is a strong monastic tradition, pursued by both men and women in the Orthodox churches, where monks and nuns lead identical spiritual lives. Unlike Roman Catholic religious life, which has myriad traditions, both contemplative and active (see Benedictine monks, Franciscan friars, Jesuits), that of Eastern Orthodoxy has remained exclusively ascetic and monastic. The longest lasting of the western Catholic monastic orders, the Benedictine Order traces its origins to the adoption of the monastic life by St. ... The Order of Friars Minor and other Franciscan movements are disciples of Saint Francis of Assisi. ... The Society of Jesus (Latin: Societas Iesu), commonly known as the Jesuits, is a Roman Catholic religious order. ... The word ascetic derives from the ancient Greek term askesis (practice, training or exercise). ... Monasticism (from Greek: monachos — a solitary person) is the religious practice in which one renounces worldly pursuits in order to fully devote ones life to spiritual work. ...

Anglican Communion

The Anglican hierarchy disagrees with the Roman Catholic hierarchy on whether women can be ordained as priests. The majority of Anglican provinces ordain women as both deacons and priests; however, only a few provinces have consecrated women as bishops (although the number of provinces where women bishops are canonically possible is much greater). U.S. Episcopal churches ordain women as both priests and bishops. The breakdown within the Anglican communion (and United Churches in full communion) as of February 2004 can be seen in the following table:

Some provinces within the Anglican Communion, such as the Episcopal Church in the United States of America (ECUSA), the Anglican Church of New Zealand, and the Anglican Church of Canada, ordain women as deacons, priests and bishops. Several other provinces (such as the Church of Ireland, and the Scottish Episcopal Church) have removed canonical bars to women bishops — but have not yet consecrated any. Anglican Church in New Zealand and Polynesia The Anglican Church in New Zealand and Polynesia is a church of the Anglican Communion serving New Zealand, Fiji, Tonga, Samoa, and the Cook Islands. ... For other uses, see Central America (disambiguation). ... The Church of North India has united various denominations and missions and orders in India. ... The neutrality of this article is disputed. ... The Anglican Church of Southern Africa (formerly the Church of the Province of Southern Africa) is the Anglican province in the southern part of Africa, including dioceses in Angola, Lesotho, Mozambique, Namibia, Saint Helena, South Africa and Swaziland. ... The Church of England logo since 1998 The Church of England is the officially established Christian church[1] in England, and acts as the mother and senior branch of the worldwide Anglican Communion, as well as a founding member of the Porvoo Communion. ... Founded in 1889 there are at present over 100 parish and mission churches with roughly 50,000 members in the Anglican Church of Korea. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... Flag of the Church in Wales The Church in Wales (Welsh: Yr Eglwys Yng Nghymru) is a member Church of the Anglican Communion, consisting of six dioceses in Wales. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... The Episcopal Church in Jerusalem and the Middle East is a province of the Anglican Communion stretching from Iran in the east to Algeria in the west, and Cyprus in the north to Somalia in the south. ... The Church of the Province of Melanesia, usually called the Church of Melanesia or COM, is the Anglican Province in the Melanesian countries of Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, and New Caledonia. ... The Church of the Province of South East Asia was formed in 1996 and consists of the dioceses of Kuching, Sabah, Singapore and West Malaysia. ... An ecclesiastical province is a unit of religious government existing in certain Christian churches. ... Main article: Anglicanism The Anglican Communion is a world-wide affiliation of Anglican Churches. ... This article is about the Episcopal Church in the United States. ... Anglican Church in New Zealand and Polynesia The Anglican Church in New Zealand and Polynesia is a church of the Anglican Communion serving New Zealand, Fiji, Tonga, Samoa, and the Cook Islands. ... Anglican Church of Canada The Anglican Church of Canada (the ACC) is the Canadian branch of the Anglican Communion. ... Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations · Other religions Ecumenism · Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas · Luther Calvin · Wesley Arius · Marcion of Sinope Archbishop of Canterbury · Catholic Pope Coptic Pope · Ecumenical Patriarch Christianity Portal This box:      This article... The Church of Ireland (Irish: ) is an autonomous province of the Anglican Communion, operating seamlessly across the border between the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland. ... The neutrality of this article is disputed. ...

Other provinces ordain women as deacons and priests but not as bishops — this has been the stance of the Church of England for some years and also remains that of the Anglican Church of Australia. Some provinces ordain women to the diaconate only. Other provinces, including several African churches, ordain only men. The Church of England logo since 1998 The Church of England is the officially established Christian church[1] in England, and acts as the mother and senior branch of the worldwide Anglican Communion, as well as a founding member of the Porvoo Communion. ... Arms of the Anglican Church of Australia The Anglican Church of Australia, a member church of the Anglican Communion, was previously officially known as the Church of England in Australia and Tasmania (renamed in 1981). ... A world map showing the continent of Africa Africa is the worlds second-largest and second most-populous continent, after Asia. ...

The first woman ordained to the priesthood in the Anglican Communion was Florence Li Tim-Oi, who was ordained on 25 January 1944 by the bishop of Hong Kong. It was thirty years before the practice became widespread. Florence Li Tim-Oi (5 May 1907; Hong Kong – 26 February 1992; Toronto) was the first female priest to be ordained in the Anglican Communion. ... is the 25th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1944 (MCMXLIV) was a leap year starting on Saturday. ...

In 1974, eleven women were ordained to the priesthood in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, by three retired ECUSA bishops. Four more women were ordained in 1975 in Washington D.C. These ordinations were ruled "irregular" because they had been done without the authorization of ECUSA's General Convention. Two years later, General Convention authorized the ordination of women to the priesthood and the episcopate. The first woman bishop in the Communion was Penny Jamieson of Anglican Church in New Zealand who was ordained Bishop of Dunedin in 1989. A few months later the African American activist Barbara Clementine Harris, was ordained bishop suffragan of Massachusetts. The first female primate (or senior bishop of a national church) is Katharine Jefferts Schori, who was elected presiding bishop of the Episcopal Church USA at its 2006 General Convention, and began her nine year term as Presiding Bishop and Primate on November 1, 2006. By late 2007 the Episcopal church had elected 14 women to serve as bishops. Nickname: City of Brotherly Love, Philly, the Quaker City Motto: Philadelphia maneto (Let brotherly love continue) Location in Pennsylvania Coordinates: Country United States State Pennsylvania County Philadelphia Founded October 27, 1682 Incorporated October 25, 1701 Mayor John F. Street (D) Area    - City 369. ... The General Convention of The Episcopal Church takes place every three years, and it the way legislation is passed in the Episcopal Church. ... The Right Reverend Barbara Clementine Harris (born 12 June 1930 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) was the first woman ordained a bishop in the Anglican Communion and in any branch of Christianity that believes in Apostolic succession. ... A bishop is an ordained person who holds a specific position of authority in any of a number of Christian churches. ... The Episcopal Diocese of Massachusetts is one of the nine original Dioceses of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America. ... Primate (from the Latin Primus, first) is a title or rank bestowed on some bishops in certain Christian churches. ... The term national church is usually a reference to a church organization in Christianity that claims pastoral jurisdiction over a nation. ... Katharine Jefferts Schori, D.D., Ph. ...

The Church of England authorized the ordination of woman priests in 1992 and began ordaining them in 1994. This was the premise of the television programme The Vicar of Dibley. The nearly simultaneous publication by the Vatican of the Encyclical Veritatis Splendor, which argued that truth was immutable however unpalatable, was a coincidence which was not lost on many traditionalist Anglicans, who converted to Catholicism in droves. On 11 July 2005 the General Synod of the Church of England, in York, voted to "set in train" the process of removing the legal obstacles preventing women from becoming bishops; debate on formal legislation was scheduled for February 2006 the process is currently underway but is not progressing swiftly due to problems in providing appropriate mechanisms for the protection of those who cannot accept this development — it is unlikely that there will be women-bishops in the Church of England for several years. The Church of England logo since 1998 The Church of England is the officially established Christian church[1] in England, and acts as the mother and senior branch of the worldwide Anglican Communion, as well as a founding member of the Porvoo Communion. ... A television program (US), television programme (UK) or simply television show is a segment of programming in television broadcasting. ... The Vicar of Dibley is a British sitcom created by Richard Curtis and written for its lead actress, Dawn French, by Curtis and Paul Mayhew-Archer, with contributions from Kit Hesketh-Harvey. ... Veritatis Splendor (Latin: The Splendor of Truth) is the name of an encyclical by Pope John Paul II. It expresses the position of the Catholic Church regarding fundamentals of the Churchs role in moral teaching. ... is the 192nd day of the year (193rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... The General Synod is the title of the governing body of some church organizations. ... York shown within England Coordinates: , Sovereign state Constituent country Region Yorkshire and the Humber Ceremonial county North Yorkshire Admin HQ York City Centre Founded 71 City Status 71 Government  - Type Unitary Authority, City  - Governing body City of York Council  - Leadership: Leader & Executive  - Executive: Liberal Democrat  - MPs: Hugh Bayley (L) John...

Ordination of women has been a controversial issue throughout the Communion. The Continuing Anglican Movement was started in 1977 after women began to be ordained in ECUSA. However, by 2007, twenty-three of the thirty eight provinces of the Anglican Communion ordained women as priests, and eleven of those had removed all bars to women serving as bishops. The Continuing Anglican Movement is a group of Christian churches which follow the Anglican tradition but which split from one or another province of the Anglican Communion because of their rejection of perceived orthodoxy. ...

Within provinces which permit the ordination of women, there are some dioceses which do not, or which ordain women only to the diaconate (such as the Diocese of Sydney in the Anglican Church of Australia, and the dioceses of Quincy, Illinois, the diocese of San Joaquin in California, and Fort Worth, Texas, in the USA). The Church of England has instituted "flying bishops" to cater to parishes who do not wish to be under the supervision of bishops who have participated in the ordination of women. The Diocese of Sydney in the Anglican Church of Australia is unusual in Western Anglicanism in that the majority of the diocese is Evangelical and low church in nature, and committed to Reformed and Calvinist theology. ... Arms of the Anglican Church of Australia The Anglican Church of Australia, a member church of the Anglican Communion, was previously officially known as the Church of England in Australia and Tasmania (renamed in 1981). ... The Diocese of Quincy, in the Episcopal Church in the United States of America, is located in the western portion of central Illinois. ... Official language(s) English[1] Capital Springfield Largest city Chicago Largest metro area Chicago Metropolitan Area Area  Ranked 25th  - Total 57,918 sq mi (149,998 km²)  - Width 210 miles (340 km)  - Length 390 miles (629 km)  - % water 4. ... The Episcopal Diocese of Fort Worth, headquartered in Fort Worth, Texas, came into being after a 1983 split from the Episcopal Diocese of Dallas. ... Official language(s) No official language See languages of Texas Capital Austin Largest city Houston Largest metro area Dallas–Fort Worth–Arlington Area  Ranked 2nd  - Total 261,797 sq mi (678,051 km²)  - Width 773 miles (1,244 km)  - Length 790 miles (1,270 km)  - % water 2. ... ...

Protestant churches

A key theological doctrine for most Protestants is the priesthood of all believers. The notion of a priesthood reserved to a select few is seen as an Old Testament concept, inappropriate for Christians. Prayer belongs equally to all believing women and men. Theology finds its scholars pursuing the understanding of and providing reasoned discourse of religion, spirituality and God or the gods. ... The priesthood of all believers is a Christian doctrine based on several passages of the New Testament. ... Note: Judaism commonly uses the term Tanakh to refer to its canon, which corresponds to the Protestant Old Testament. ...

However, most (although not all) Protestant denominations still ordain church leaders, who have the task of equipping all believers in their Christian service (Ephesians 4:11–13). These leaders (variously styled elders, pastors or ministers) are seen to have a distinct role in teaching, pastoral leadership and the administration of sacraments. Traditionally these roles were male preserves, but over the last century, an increasing number of denominations have begun ordaining women. In Christian belief and practice, a sacrament is a rite that mediates divine grace, constituting a sacred mystery. ...

The debate over women's eligibility for such offices normally centers around interpretation of certain Biblical passages relating to teaching and leadership roles. This is because Protestant churches usually view the Bible as the primary authority in church debates, even over established traditions (the doctrine of sola scriptura). Thus the Church is free to change her stance, if the change is deemed in accordance with the Bible. The main passages in this debate include Galatians 3.28, 1st Corinthians 11.2–16, 14.34–35 and 1st Timothy 2.11–14. Increasingly, supporters of women in ministry also make appeals to evidence from the New Testament that is taken to suggest that women did exercise ministries in the apostolic Church (e.g., Acts 21:9,18:18; Romans 16:3–4,16:1–2, Romans 16:7; 1st Corinthians 16:19, and Philippians 4:2–3). Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations Ecumenism · Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas · Luther Calvin · Wesley Arius · Marcion of Sinope Pope · Archbishop of Canterbury Patriarch of Constantinople Christianity Portal This box:      This article is about theological concept. ... The Epistle to the Galatians is a book of the New Testament. ... The First Epistle to the Corinthians is a book of the Bible in the New Testament. ... The three Pastoral Epistles are books of the canonic New Testament: the First Epistle to Timothy (1 Timothy) the Second Epistle to Timothy (2 Timothy), and the Epistle to Titus. ... The Acts of the Apostles is a book of the Bible, which now stands fifth in the New Testament. ... The Epistle to the Romans is one of the letters of the New Testament canon of the Christian Bible. ... The Epistle to Philippians is a book included in the New Testament of the Christian Bible. ...

Examples of specific churches' ordination practices

• Baptist Churches

• The Baptist Churches' in Germany and Switzerland (Bund Evangelisch-Freikirchlicher Gemeinden, Bund Schweizer Baptistengemeinden) ordain women.^[52]
• The Southern Baptist Convention does not ordain women.
• Baptist groups in the United States that do ordain women include American Baptist Churches USA, North American Baptist Conference, Alliance of Baptists, Cooperative Baptist Fellowship (CBF) and Progressive National Baptist Convention.

• The Christian Community. Women have been ordained since its inception in 1922 in Switzerland, and can also hold leadership positions.
• Christian Connection Church. An early relative of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) and the United Church of Christ, this body ordained women as early as 1810. Among them were Nancy Gove Cram, who worked as a missionary with the Oneida Indians by 1812, and Abigail Roberts (a lay preacher and missionary), who helped establish many churches in New Jersey. Others included Ann Rexford, Sarah Hedges and Sally Thompson.
• The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Though Mormon women are not directly given the Priesthood, they indirectly play a role in their husbands' priesthood. Men must be married in order to serve as a bishop, and their wives play a crucial role in their calling. Women can hold any position in the church that does not require the priesthood.
• The Church of Scotland

• Women were commissioned as deacons from 1935, and allowed to preach from 1949.
• In 1963 Mary Levison petitioned the General Assembly for ordination.
• Woman elders were introduced in 1966 and women ministers in 1968.
• The first female Moderator of the General Assembly was Dr Alison Elliot in 2004.

Main article: Ordination of women in the Church of Scotland

• The Cumberland Presbyterian Church. In 1888 Louisa Woosley was licensed to preach. She was ordained in 1889. She wrote Shall Woman Preach.
• The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA). The church bodies that formed the ELCA in 1988 began ordaining women in 1970 when the Lutheran Church in America ordained the Rev Elizabeth Platz. The ordination of women is now non-controversial within the ELCA.
• The Lutheran Church—Missouri Synod (LCMS), which is the second largest Lutheran body in the United States, does not ordain women.
• The Lutheran Evangelical Protestant Church (GCEPC) has ordained women since its inception in the year 2000. Ordination of women is not a controversial issue in the LEPC/GCEPC. Women are ordained/consecrated at all levels including deacon,priest, and bishop in the LEPC/GCEPC.
• The Independent Old Catholic Church of America (IOCCA), ordains women.
• The Evangelical Lutheran Church of Latvia reversed its earlier (1975) decision to ordain women as pastors. Since 1993, under the leadership of Archbishop Janis Vanags, it no longer does so.
• The Lutheran, United and Reformed Churches in Germany (EKD) ordain women and have women as bishops.
• The Independent Evangelical-Lutheran Church in Germany does not ordain women.
• The Lutheran state Churches in Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Norway and Iceland ordain women and these Lutheran churches in Europe have women as bishops already. However, while the Church of Sweden was the first Lutheran church to ordain female pastors in 1958, there is still considerable debate in this church as to the legitimacy of the ordination of women into the pastoral office. In fact, in 2003 the Missionsprovinsen (Mission Province) was formed within the Church of Sweden to support those who oppose the ordination of women and other developments seen as theologically problematic.
• The Moravian Church^[53]
• Many Old Catholic Churches within the Utrecht Union in Germany, Switzerland, Austria and Netherlands ordain women, but two churches have left the union because they do not do so. Other Old Catholic Churches do not ordain women, but accept this in other Old Catholic Churches of the Union. These are not to be confused with the Roman Catholic Church which does not ordain women (see above).
• The Pentecostal church in Germany allows ordination of women.^[54]
• The Presbyterian Church (USA). In 1893, Edith Livingston Peake was appointed Presbyterian Evangelist by First United Presbyterian of San Francisco.^[55] Between 1907 and 1920 five more women became ministers.^[56] The Presbyterian Church (USA) began ordaining elders in the 1960s, and ministers of Word and sacrament in the late twentieth century. By 2001, the numbers of men and women holding office were almost equal.^[57]
• The Presbyterian Church in America does not ordain women.^[58] In 1997, the PCA even broke its fraternal relationship with The Christian Reformed Church over this issue.^[59]
• The Orthodox Presbyterian Churches do not ordain women.^[60]
• The Reformed Churches in Switzerland and in the Netherlands ordain women.
• The Salvation Army ordains women.
• The Charismatic Church of God ordains women as Missionaries, Evangelists, and Pastors.
• The United Church of Canada. Divided during the 1930s by this issue inherited from the churches it brought together, the United Church ordained its first woman minister, Lydia Gruchy, in 1936.^[61]
• The United Church of Christ. Antoinette Brown was ordained as a minister by a Congregationalist Church in 1853, though this was not recognized by her denomination.^[62] She later became a Unitarian. Women's ordination is now non-controversial in the United Church of Christ.
• The United Methodist Church does ordain women. In 1880, Anna Howard Shaw was ordained by the Methodist Protestant Church; Ella Niswonger was ordained in 1889 by the United Brethren Church. Both denominations later merged into the United Methodist Church. In 1956, the Methodist Church in America granted ordination and full clergy rights to women. Since that time, women have been ordained full elders (pastors) in the denomination, and 21 have been elevated to the episcopacy. The first woman elected and consecrated Bishop within the United Methodist Church (and, indeed, the first woman elected bishop of any mainline Christian church) was Marjorie Matthews in 1980. Leontine T. Kelly, in 1984, was the first African-American woman elevated to the episcopacy in any mainline denomination. In Germany Rosemarie Wenner is since 2005 leading bishop in the United Methodist Church.
• The United Reformed Church in Great Britain ordains women.
• The Unitarian Universalist Association. The Unitarian Universalist Association has a long history of welcoming women to the ministry, reaching back to 1963 and its predecessor, the Universalist Church. In 1999, it became the first major religion in the US with women outnumbering men in the clergy.
• The Universalist Church. Olympia Brown became the first woman to be ordained as a minister in 1863, as an ordained Universalist minister.
• The Seventh-day Adventist Church officially does not ordain women. Recent votes at the worldwide General Conference Sessions turned down a proposal to allow ordination of women. There was a strong polarization between nations, with Western countries generally voting in support and other countries generally voting against. A further proposal to allow local choice was also turned down. In practice, there are numerous women working as ministers and in leadership positions. The most influential co-founder of the church, Ellen G. White, was a woman.

Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations · Other religions Ecumenism · Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas · Luther Calvin · Wesley Arius · Marcion of Sinope Archbishop of Canterbury · Catholic Pope Coptic Pope · Ecumenical Patriarch Christianity Portal This box:      Baptist is... The Southern Baptist Convention (SBC) is a United States-based cooperative ministry agency serving Baptist churches around the world. ... ABCUSA American Baptist Churches USA (ABCUSA) is a group of Baptist churches within the United States; headquartered in Valley Forge, Pennsylvania. ... North American Baptist Conference (NABC) - an association of Baptists in the United States and Canada of German ethnic heritage. ... The Alliance of Baptists is a fellowship of Baptist churches and individuals. ... Cooperative Baptist Fellowship, Inc. ... The Progressive National Baptist Convention (PNBC) is a convention of African-American Baptists emphasizing civil rights and social justice. ... The Christian Community (German: Die Christengemeinschaft) is a worldwide Movement for Religious Renewal. ... The Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), often abbreviated as the Disciples of Christ or Christian Church, is a denomination of Christian Restorationism that grew out of the Restoration Movement founded by Thomas Campbell and Alexander Campbell of Pennsylvania and West Virginia (then Virginia) and Barton W. Stone of Kentucky. ... Disambiguation: This article is about the United States denomination known as United Church of Christ. ... For other uses, see Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (disambiguation). ... The status of women in Mormonism has been a source of public debate since before the death of Joseph Smith, Jr. ... In the Latter Day Saint movement, priesthood is considered to be the power and authority of God, including the authority to act as a leader in the church and to perform ordinances (sacraments), and the apostolic power to perform miracles. ... Bishop is the highest priesthood office of the Aaronic priesthood in the Latter Day Saint movement. ... The Church of Scotland (CofS; Scottish Gaelic: ), known informally by its pre-Union Scots name, The Kirk, is the national church of Scotland. ... The Church of Scotland was one of the first national churches to accept the Ordination of women. ... Replica of the log house in Dickson County, Tenn. ... Louisa Woosley c. ... Shall Woman Preach is the name of a 1891 book by Louisa Mariah Layman Woosley, the first ordained US Presbyterian woman (and second woman of any denomination). ... The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) is a mainline Protestant denomination headquartered in Chicago, Illinois. ... The Lutheran Church in America (LCA) was a U.S. Lutheran church body that existed from 1962 to 1987. ... The Rev Elizabeth Platz The Rev Elizabeth Alvina Platz was the first woman in North America ordained by a Lutheran church body. ... “LCMS” redirects here. ... Lutheranism is a major branch of Protestant Christianity that identifies with the teachings of the sixteenth-century German reformer Martin Luther. ... The Lutheran Evangelical Protestant Church (LEPC) is a mainline Protestant[[1]] denomination under the General Conference of Evangelical Protestant Churches (GCEPC). ... The Evangelical Lutheran Church of Latvia (LELB) is a Lutheran Protestant church in Latvia. ... The Lutheran movement is a group of denominations of Protestant Christianity by the original definition. ... Look up United in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... The Reformed churches are a group of Protestant denominations historically related by a similar Zwinglian or Calvinist system of doctrine but organizationally independent. ... The Evangelical Church in Germany (German Evangelische Kirche in Deutschland, abbreviated as EKD) is a federation of 24 Lutheran, Reformed and United churches in their respective regions. ... The Independent Evangelical-Lutheran Church (German: Selbständige Evangelisch-Lutherische Kirche, or SELK) is a confessional Lutheran church body of Germany which is in fellowship with the Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod of North America, and a member of the International Lutheran Council (ILC). ... The Lutheran movement is a group of denominations of Protestant Christianity by the original definition. ... Missionsprovinsen (the Mission Province) is a contact network for confessional Lutheran christians inside the Church of Sweden, and somewhat also inside Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland. ... A Moravian is a Protestant belonging to a religious movement that originated in Moravia, Czech Republic. ... The Old Catholic Church is a community of Christian churches. ... The Union of Utrecht is a federation of Old Catholic Churches, not in communion with Rome, that seceded from the Roman Catholic Church over the issue of Papal infallibility. ... Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations · Other religions Ecumenism · Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas · Luther Calvin · Wesley Arius · Marcion of Sinope Archbishop of Canterbury · Catholic Pope Coptic Pope · Ecumenical Patriarch Christianity Portal This box:      Pentecostal can... Emblem of the PC(USA) The Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) or PC(USA) is a mainline Protestant Christian denomination in the United States. ... Emblem of the PC(USA) The Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) or PC(USA) is a mainline Protestant Christian denomination in the United States. ... The Presbyterian Church in America (PCA) is a Protestant denomination, the second largest Presbyterian church body in the United States after the Presbyterian Church (USA). ... The Reformed churches are a group of Protestant denominations historically related by a similar Zwinglian or Calvinist system of doctrine but organizationally independent. ... Shield of The Salvation Army The Salvation Army is a non-military evangelical Christian organisation. ... Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations Ecumenism · Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas · Luther Calvin · Wesley Arius · Marcion of Sinope Pope · Archbishop of Canterbury Patriarch of Constantinople Christianity Portal This box:      The Charismatic Church of God is... The United Church of Canada (French: lÉglise Unie du Canada) is Canadas second largest church (after the Roman Catholic Church), and its largest Protestant denomination. ... Disambiguation: This article is about the United States denomination known as United Church of Christ. ... Antoinette Brown, later Antoinette Brown Blackwell (May 20, 1825 - November 5, 1921), was the first female to be ordained as a minister in the United States, when she was called to be the pastor of the Congregational church in South Butler, New York in 1853. ... Historic Unitarianism believed in the oneness of God as opposed to traditional Christian belief in the Trinity (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit). ... The United Methodist Church is the largest Methodist denomination. ... Anna Howard Shaw, (February 14, 1847 – July 2, 1919) was a leading United States civil rights leader; a physician; and the first female Methodist minister in the United States (1880). ... The Methodist Protestant Church was officially formed in 1828 as a church that was Wesleyan in doctrine, but rejected the episcopacy. ... The Church of the United Brethren in Christ is an evangelical Christian denomination based in Huntington, Indiana. ... Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations · Other religions Ecumenism · Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas · Luther Calvin · Wesley Arius · Marcion of Sinope Archbishop of Canterbury · Catholic Pope Coptic Pope · Ecumenical Patriarch Christianity Portal This box:      Catholic deacon... A religious elder (in Greek, πρεσβυτερος [presbyteros]) is valued for his or her wisdom, in part for their age, on the grounds that the older one is then the more one is likely to know. ... Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations · Other religions Ecumenism · Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas · Luther Calvin · Wesley Arius · Marcion of Sinope Archbishop of Canterbury · Catholic Pope Coptic Pope · Ecumenical Patriarch Christianity Portal This box:      This article... Leontine Turpeau Current Kelly is a retired American Bishop of the United Methodist Church. ... Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations · Other religions Ecumenism · Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas · Luther Calvin · Wesley Arius · Marcion of Sinope Archbishop of Canterbury · Catholic Pope Coptic Pope · Ecumenical Patriarch Christianity Portal This box:      This article... Rosemarie Wenner (*July 1, 1955 in Eppingen, Heilbronn) is the current Presiding Bishop of the United Methodist Church in Germany. ... Logo of The United Reformed Church The United Reformed Church (URC) is a Christian denomination (church) in the United Kingdom. ... Unitarian Universalist Association (UUA), in full the Unitarian Universalist Association of Congregations in North America, is a liberal religious association of Unitarian Universalist congregations formed by the consolidation in 1961 of the American Unitarian Association and the Universalist Church of America. ... The Universalist Church of America was a free association of Universalist congregations in the United States (plus four congregations in Canada) until 1961, when it merged with the American Unitarian Association to form the Unitarian Universalist Association. ... The Universalist Church of America was a free association of Universalist congregations in the United States (plus four congregations in Canada) until 1961, when it merged with the American Unitarian Association to form the Unitarian Universalist Association. ... Olympia Brown (January 5, 1835 – October 23, 1926) was a famous Womens suffragist. ... In comparative religion, a universalist religion is one that holds itself true for all people; it thus allows all to join, regardless of ethnicity. ... The Seventh-day Adventist (abbreviated Adventist[1]) Church is a Christian denomination which is distinguished by its observance of Saturday, the seventh day of the week, as the Sabbath. ... The General Conference Session is the official world meeting of the General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists. ... Ellen Gould White (née Harmon) (November 26, 1827 – July 16, 1915) born to Robert and Eunice Harmon, was a Christian American leader whose prophetic ministry was instrumental in founding the Sabbatarian Adventist movement that led to the rise of the Seventh-day Adventist Church. ...

Women as bishops

Some Protestant and Anglican churches have allowed women to become bishops:^[63]

• 1980: United Methodist Church
• 1989: Anglican Church of New Zealand
• 1989: Episcopal Church in the U.S.
• 1992: Maria Jepsen Evangelical Lutheran Church in Germany
• 1996: Lutheran Church in Sweden
• 1997: Anglican Church of Canada
• 1998: Moravian Church in America
• 1998: Presbyterian Church in Guatemala
• 1999: Czechoslovak Hussite Church
• 2000: African Methodist Episcopal Church
• 2003: Nancy K. Drew The Lutheran Evangelical Protestant Church (GCEPC)USA
• Unknown: Evangelical Lutheran Church of Denmark
• Unknown: Protestant Churches in German Lutheran, Reformed and United churches (EKD)
• Unknown: Protestant Church of the Netherlands
• Unknown:Lutheran State Church in Norway
• Unknown:Lutheran State Church in Denmark

Maria Jepsen (born January 19, 1945, Bad Segeberg) is the current bishop of Hamburg in the North Elbian Evangelical Church. ... The Lutheran Evangelical Protestant Church (LEPC) is a mainline Protestant[[1]] denomination under the General Conference of Evangelical Protestant Churches (GCEPC). ...

Judaism

See also Role of women in Judaism

Jewish tradition and law does not presume that women have more or less of an aptitude or moral standing required of rabbis. However, it has been the longstanding practice that only men become rabbis. This practice continues to this day within the Orthodox and Hasidic communities but has been revised within non-Orthodox organizations. Reform Judaism created its first woman rabbi in 1972, Reconstructionist Judaism in 1974, and Conservative Judaism in 1985, and women in these movements are now routinely granted semicha on an equal basis with men.^{[citation needed]} The role of women in Judaism is determined by the Hebrew Bible, Talmud (oral law), tradition and by non-religious cultural factors. ... For the town in Italy, see Rabbi, Italy. ... Orthodox Judaism is the formulation of Judaism that adheres to a relatively strict interpretation and application of the laws and ethics first canonised in the Talmudic texts (Oral Torah) and as subsequently developed and applied by the later authorities known as the Gaonim, Rishonim, and Acharonim. ... Reform Judaism can refer to (1) the largest denomination of American Jews and its sibling movements in other countries, (2) a branch of Judaism in the United Kingdom, and (3) the historical predecessor of the American movement that originated in 19th-century Germany. ... Reconstructionist Judaism is a modern American-based Jewish movement, based on the ideas of the late Mordecai Kaplan, that views Judaism as a progressively evolving civilization. ... This article is about Conservative (Masorti) Judaism in the United States. ... Semicha (Hebrew: ‎, leaning [of the hands]), also semichut (Hebrew: ‎, ordination), or semicha lerabbanut (Hebrew: ‎, rabbinical ordination) is derived from a Hebrew word which means to rely on or to be authorized. It generally refers to the ordination of a rabbi within Judaism. ...

The issue of allowing women to become rabbis is not under active debate within the Orthodox community, though there is widespread agreement that women may often be consulted on matters of Jewish religious law.^{[citation needed]} There are reports that a small number of Orthodox yeshivas have unofficially granted semicha to women,^{[citation needed]} but the prevailing consensus among Orthodox leaders (as well as a small number of Conservative Jewish communities) is that it is not appropriate for women to become rabbis. This article is about the Jewish male educational system. ...

The idea that women could eventually be ordained as rabbis sparks widespread opposition among the Orthodox rabbinate. Norman Lamm, one of the leaders of Modern Orthodoxy and Rosh Yeshiva of the Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary, totally opposes giving semicha to women. "It shakes the boundaries of tradition, and I would never allow it." (Helmreich, 1997) Writing in an article in the Jewish Observer, Moshe Y'chiail Friedman states that Orthodox Judaism prohibits women from being given semicha and serving as rabbis. He holds that the trend towards this goal is driven by sociology, and not halakha.^{[citation needed]} For the Ecuadorian artist, see Manuel Rendón Seminario. ... Sociology (from Latin: socius, companion; and the suffix -ology, the study of, from Greek λόγος, lógos, knowledge) is an academic and applied discipline that studies society and human social interaction. ... Halakha (Hebrew: הלכה; also transliterated as Halakhah, Halacha, Halakhot and Halachah with pronunciation emphasis on the third syllable, kha), is the collective corpus of Jewish religious law, including biblical law (the 613 mitzvot) and later talmudic and rabbinic law as well as customs and traditions. ...

Some beginning dates for ordination of women

Formal discrimination against women in positions of authority has been gradually eliminated in Western societies except in many conservative religious institutions.

A partial list with the approximate dates of either the approval of female ordination in principle or the ordination of their first women clergy by Christian and Jewish faith groups appears below:^[64]

• Early 1800s: A fundamental belief of the [Society of Friends-http://www.religioustolerance.org/quaker.htm] (Quakers) has always been the existence of an element of God's spirit in every human soul. Thus all persons are considered to have inherent and equal worth, independent of their gender. This led naturally to an opposition to sexism, and an acceptance of female ministers. In 1660, Margaret Fell (1614–1702) published a famous pamphlet to justify equal roles for men and women in the denomination. It was titled: "Women's Speaking Justified, Proved and Allowed of by the Scriptures, All Such as Speak by the Spirit and Power of the Lord Jesus And How Women Were the First That Preached the Tidings of the Resurrection of Jesus, and Were Sent by Christ's Own Command Before He Ascended to the Father (John 20:17). In the U.S., in contrast with almost every other organized religion, the Society of Friends (Quakers) has allowed women to serve as ministers since the early 1800s.
• 1853: Antoinette Brown was ordained by the Congregationalist Church. However, her ordination was not recognized by the denomination. She quit the church and later became a Unitarian. The Congregationalists later merged with others to create the United Church of Christ.
• 1863: Olympia Brown was ordained by the Universalist denomination in 1863, in spite of a last-moment case of cold feet by her seminary which feared adverse publicity. After a decade and a half of service as a full-time minister, she became a part-time minister in order to devote more time to the fight for women's rights and universal suffrage. In 1961, the Universalists and Unitarians joined to form the [Unitarian Universalist Association-http://www.religioustolerance.org/u-u.htm] (UUA). The UUA became the first large denomination to have a majority of female ministers. In 1999, female ministers outnumbered their male counterpart 431 to 422.
• 1865: Salvation Army is founded and has always ordained both men and women. However, there were initially rules that prohibited a woman from marrying a man who had a lower rank.
• 1880: Anna Howard Shaw was the first woman ordained in the Methodist Protestant Church, which later merged with other denominations to form the United Methodist Church.
• 1888: Fidelia Gillette may have been the first ordained woman in Canada. She served the Universalist congregation in Bloomfield, Ontario, during 1888 and 1889. She was presumably ordained in 1888 or earlier.
• 1889: The Nolin Presbytery of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church ordained Louisa Woosley.
• 1889: Ella Niswonger was the first woman ordained in the United Brethren church, which later merged with other denominations to form the United Methodist Church.
• 1892: Anna Hanscombe is believed to be the first woman ordained by the parent bodies which formed the Church of the Nazarene in 1919.
• 1909: The Church of God (Cleveland TN) began ordaining women in 1909.
• 1911: Ann Allebach was the first Mennonite woman to be ordained. This occurred at the First Mennonite Church of Philadelphia.
• 1914: Assemblies of God was founded and ordained its first woman clergy
• 1917: The Congregationalist Church (England and Wales) ordained their first woman. Its successor is the United Reformed Church. They now consider it sufficient grounds for refusing ministry training if a potential candidate is not in favor of the ordination of women.
• 1920's: Some Baptist denominations.
• 1920's: United Reformed Church in the UK
• 1922: The Jewish Reform movement's Central Conference of American Rabbis stated that "Woman cannot justly be denied the privilege of ordination."
• 1922: The Annual Conference of the Church of the Brethren granted women the right to be licensed into the ministry, but not to be ordained with the same status as men.
• 1930: A predecessor church of the Presbyterian Church (USA) ordained its first female as an elder
• 1935: Regina Jonas was ordained privately by a German rabbi.
• 1936: United Church of Canada.
• 1942 or 1943?: Anglican communion, Hong Kong. Florence Li Tim Oi was ordained on an emergency basis.
• 1947: Czechoslovak Hussite Church
• 1948: Evangelical Lutheran Church of Denmark
• 1949: Old Catholic Church (in the U.S.)
• 1956: A predecessor church of the Presbyterian Church (USA) ordained its first woman minister.
• 1956: Maud K. Jensen was the first woman to receive full clergy rights and conference membership in the Methodist Church.
• 1958: Women ministers in the Church of the Brethren were given full ordination with the same status as men.
• 1960: Evangelical Lutheran Church in Sweden
• 1967: Presbyterian Church in Canada
• 1971: Anglican communion, Hong Kong. Joyce Bennett and Jane Hwang were the first regularly ordained priests.
• 1972: Reform Judaism
• 1972: Swedenborgian Church
• 1972: Sally Priesand became the first woman rabbi to be ordained by a theological seminary. She was ordained in the Reform tradition.
• 1970's: Evangelical Lutheran Church in America
• 1974: Methodist Church in the UK
• 1974: Sandy Eisenberg Sasso became the first woman rabbi to be ordained within the Jewish Reconstructionist movement.
• 1976: Episcopal Church (11 women were ordained in Philadelphia before church laws were changed to permit ordination)
• 1976: Anglican Church in Canada ordained six female priests.
• 1976: The Rev. Pamela McGee was the first female ordained to the Lutheran ministry in Canada.
• 1977: Anglican Church of New Zealand ordained five female priests.
• 1979: The Reformed Church in America. Women had been admitted to the offices of deacon and elder in 1972.
• 1983: An Anglican woman was ordained in Kenya
• 1983: Three Anglican women were ordained in Uganda.
• 1984: The Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints authorized the ordination of women. This is the second largest Mormon denomination; it is now called The Community of Christ.
• 1985: According to the New York Times for 1985-FEB-14: "After years of debate, the worldwide governing body of Conservative Judaism has decided to admit women as rabbis. The group, the Rabbinical Assembly, plans to announce its decision at a news conference...at the Jewish Theological Seminary..." Amy Eilberg became the first female rabbi.
• 1985: The first women deacons were ordained by the Scottish Episcopal Church.
• 1988: Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland
• 1988: Episcopal Church chooses Barbara Harris as first female bishop.
• 1990: Anglican women are ordained in Ireland.
• 1992: Church of England
• 1992: Anglican Church of South Africa
• 1994: The first women priests were ordained by the Scottish Episcopal Church.
• 1995: Seventh-day Adventists. Sligo Seventh-day Adventist Church in Takoma Park VA ordained three women in violation of the denomination's rules.
• 1995: The Christian Reformed Church voted to allow women ministers, elders, and evangelists. In 1998-NOV, the North American Presbyterian and Reformed Council (NAPARC) suspended the CRC's membership because of this decision.
• 1998: General Assembly of the Nippon Sei Ko Kai (Anglican Church in Japan)
• 1998: Guatemalan Presbyterian Synod
• 1998: Old Catholic Church in the Netherlands
• 1998: Some Orthodox Jewish congregations started to employ female "congregational interns." Although these 'interns' do not lead worship services, they perform some tasks usually reserved for rabbis, such as preaching, teaching, and consulting on Jewish legal matters.
• 1999: Independent Presbyterian Church of Brazil (ordination as either clergy or elders)
• 2000: The Baptist Union of Scotland voted to allow their churches to either allow or prohibit the ordination of women.
• 2000: The Mombasa diocese of the Anglican Church of Kenya.
• 2000: The Church of Pakistan ordained its first women deacons. It is a united church which dates back to the 1970 local merger of Anglicans, Methodists, Presbyterians, Lutherans and other Protestants.
• 2005 The Lutheran Evangelical Protestant Church,(LEPC)(GCEPC) in the USA elects Nancy Kinard Drew first female Presiding Bishop.
• 2006: The Episcopal Church elects Katharine Jefferts Schori first woman Presiding Bishop, or Primate.

The Lutheran Evangelical Protestant Church (LEPC) is a mainline Protestant[[1]] denomination under the General Conference of Evangelical Protestant Churches (GCEPC). ...

Islam

From introduction to article Women as imams. See entire article, and Women in Islam, for more detail.

Although Muslims do not formally ordain religious leaders, the imam serves as a spiritual leader and religious authority. There is a current controversy among Muslims on the circumstances in which women may act as imams — that is, lead a congregation in salat (prayer). Three of the four Sunni schools, as well as many Shia, agree that a woman may lead a congregation consisting of women alone in prayer, although the Maliki school does not allow this. According to all currently existing traditional schools of Islam, a woman cannot lead a mixed gender congregation in salat (prayer). Some schools make exceptions for Tarawih (optional Ramadan prayers) or for a congregation consisting only of close relatives. Certain medieval scholars — including Al-Tabari (838–932), Abu Thawr (764–854), Al-Muzani (791–878), and Ibn Arabi (1165–1240) — considered the practice permissible at least for optional (nafila) prayers; however, their views are not accepted by any major surviving group. There is a current controversy among Muslims on the circumstances in which women may act as imams—that is, lead a congregation in salat (prayer). ... This article or section seems to contain too many quotations for an encyclopedia entry. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Image of a woman on the Pioneer plaque sent to outer space. ... Salat redirects here. ... Sunni Islam (Arabic سنّة) is the largest denomination of Islam. ... Shiʻa Islam (Arabic شيعى follower; English has traditionally used Shiite) makes up the second largest sect of believers in Islam, constituting about 30%–35% of all Muslim. ... This page deals with Islamic thought. ... For people named Islam, see Islam (name). ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Tarawih (تراويح) is an Arabic phrase referring to extra prayers given at night in the Islamic month of Ramadan. ... This article is about Islamic religious observances in the month of Ramadan. ... The name al-Tabari means simply from Tabaristan, thus more than one Muslim scholar is known by this designation: Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari, Ali the scholar from Tabiristan (838-870 A.D.) was the writer of a medical encyclopedia and the teacher of the scholar physician Zakariya al... For the Maliki scholar, see Ibn al-Arabi. ...

Some Muslims in recent years have reactivated the debate, arguing that the spirit of the Qur'an and the letter of a disputed hadith indicate that women should be able to lead mixed congregations as well as single-sex ones, and that the prohibition of this developed as a result of sexism in the medieval environment, not as a part of true Islam. paki The Qur’ān [1] (Arabic: ;, literally the recitation; also sometimes transliterated as Quran, Koran, or Al-Quran) is the central religious text of Islam. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... This box:      The sign of the headquarters of the National Association Opposed To Woman Suffrage Sexism is commonly considered to be discrimination and/or hatred against people based on their sex rather than their individual merits, but can also refer to any and all systemic differentiations based on the sex...

Buddhism

The ordination of women is currently and historically practiced in some Buddhist regions, such East Asia and Taiwan, and not in others, such as India and Sri Lanka.

The tradition of the ordained monastic community (sangha) began with Buddha, who established orders of Bhikkhu (monks) and later, after an initial reluctance, of Bhikkuni (nuns). The stories, sayings and deeds of some of the distinguished Bhikkhuni of early Buddhism are recorded in many places in the Pali Canon, most notably in the Therigatha. However, not only did the Buddha lay down more rules of discipline for the bhikkhuni (311 compared to the bhikkhu's 227), he also made it more difficult for them to be ordained. Sangha (संघ saṃgha) is a word in Pali or Sanskrit that can be translated roughly as association or assembly or community. It is commonly used in several senses to refer to Buddhist or Jain groups. ... Media:Example. ... A Buddhist Monk in Sri Lanka In Pāli, a bhikkhu (male) or bhikkhuni (female) is a fully ordained Buddhist monk. ... Standard edition of the Thai Pali Canon The Pali Canon is the standard scripture collection of the Theravada Buddhist tradition. ... The Therigatha, often translated as Verses of the Elder Nuns (Pāli: thera elder (feminine) + gatha verse), is a collection of short poems supposedly recited by early members of the Buddhist sangha. ...

The tradition flourished for centuries throughout South and East Asia, but appears to have died out in the Theravada traditions of India and Sri Lanka in the 11th century C.E. However, the Mahayana tradition, particularly in Taiwan and Hong Kong, has retained the practice, where nuns are called 'Bhikṣuṇī' (the Sanskrit equivalent of the Pali 'Bhikkhuni'). Nuns are also found in Korea and Vietnam. Theravada (Pāli: theravāda; Sanskrit: स्थविरवाद sthaviravāda; literally, the Way of the Elders) is the oldest surviving Buddhist school, and for many centuries has been the predominant religion of Sri Lanka (about 70% of the population[1]) and most of continental Southeast Asia (Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand). ... Relief image of the bodhisattva Kuan Yin from Mt. ... Sanskrit ( , for short ) is a classical language of India, a liturgical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, and Jainism, and one of the 23 official languages of India. ... Pāli is a Middle Indo-Aryan dialect or prakrit. ... This article is about the Korean peninsula and civilization. ...

There have been some attempts in recent years to revive the tradition of women in the sangha within Theravada Buddhism in Thailand, India and Sri Lanka, with many women ordained in Sri Lanka since the late 1990s. The International Congress on Buddhist Women's Role in the Sangha: Bhikshuni Vinaya and Ordination Lineages, taking place in Germany, on July 18–20, 2007, is a turning point in reviving the Bhikkhuni lineage. The International Congress on Buddhist Womens Role in the Sangha: Bhikshuni Vinaya and Ordination Lineages is an historic event. ...

Thailand

See also Buddhism in Thailand

In 1928, the Supreme Patriarch of Thailand, responding to the attempted ordination of two women, issued an edict that monks must not ordain women. The two women were reportedly arrested and jailed briefly. In a more recent challenge to the Thai sangha's ban on women, Dhammananda Bhikkhuni, previously a professor of Buddhist philosophy known as Dr Chatsumarn Kabilsingh, was controversially ordained as a nun in Sri Lanka in 2003. Despite some support inside the religious hierarchy, the sangha remains fiercely opposed to the ordination of women. Buddhism in Thailand is largely of the Theravada school. ... For information on the patriarchs of the Western religions, see Patriarch. ... Dhammananda is a Buddhist monk. ... High-ranking Chinese bhikkunis in an alms round. ... Sangha (संघ saṃgha) is a word in Pali or Sanskrit that can be translated roughly as association or assembly or community. It is commonly used in several senses to refer to Buddhist or Jain groups. ...

Tibetan Tradition

The 2007 International Congress on Buddhist Women's Role in the Sangha, with the support of H. H. XIVth Dalai Lama, is expected to reinstate the Gelongma (skt. Bikshuni, tib. Gelongma) lineage, having been lost, in India and Tibet, for centuries^{[citation needed]}. It is currently only possible for women to take Rabjungma ('entering') and Getshülma ('novice') ordinations in Tibetan tradition. Gelongma ordination requires the presence of ten fully ordained people keeping the exact same vows (men's and women's vows differ slightly). Because 10 Gelongmas are required in order to ordain a new Gelongma^{[citation needed]}, the effort to reinstate the Gelongma tradition has taken a long time. The International Congress on Buddhist Womens Role in the Sangha: Bhikshuni Vinaya and Ordination Lineages is an historic event. ... Tenzin Gyatso (born 6 July 1935) is the fourteenth and current Dalai Lama. ... Gelongma (feminine term) or Gelong (masculine term) is the Tibetan word for a fully ordained monastic observing the entire vinaya. ...

It is permissible for a Tibetan nun to receive Bikshuni ordination from another living tradition, e.g., in Vietnam. Based on this, Western nuns ordained in Tibetan tradition, like Venerable Thubten Chodron, took full ordination in another tradition, in order to revive 'Gelongma' ordination^{[citation needed]}. The same socio-cultural reasons that make it difficult for women to be nuns will still present challenges to the first Tibetan Gelongmas. Venerable Thubten Chodron is an American Tibetan Buddhist nun and a central figure in reinstating the Bhikshuni (tib. ...

Tenrikyo

Tenrikyo was founded by a woman.^[65] Tenrikyo Headquarters, Tenri Tenrikyo (天理教; Tenrikyō, lit. ...

Shinto

While the priesthood was traditionally male in Shinto, ordination of women as Shinto priests has arisen after the abolition of State Shinto in the aftermath of WWII. [16] A torii at Itsukushima Shrine Shinto (神道 Shintō) (sometimes called Shintoism) is a native religion of Japan and was once its state religion. ...

See also

• Christian views of women
• Deaconess
• Episcopa Theodora
• Feminist theology
• List of women priests
• Mariavite Church
• Role of women in Judaism
• Stained-glass ceiling
• Women as imams
• Women as theological figures
• Women in Buddhism

Christian views of women vary considerably today and have varied even more throughout the last two millennia, evolving along with or counter to the societies in which Christians have lived. ... Deaconess (and also deacon) comes from a Greek word diakonos (διακονος). This Greek word means a servant or helper and occurs frequently in the Christian New Testament of the Bible and is sometimes applied to Christ himself. ... Episcopa Theodora Episcopa Theodora is the inscription on a 9th century mosaic in the St. ... Feminist theology is a movement, generally in the Western religious traditions (mostly Christianity and Judaism), to reconsider the traditions, practices, scriptures, and theologies of those religions from a feminist perspective. ... List of women priests-In many denominations the ordination of women is a new phenomenon. ... The Mariavite Church is an independent Catholic and Christian church that emerged from the Roman Catholic Church of Poland at the turn of the 20th century. ... The role of women in Judaism is determined by the Hebrew Bible, Talmud (oral law), tradition and by non-religious cultural factors. ... The Stained-Glass Ceiling is a sociological phenomenon in religious communities similar to the concept of the glass ceiling. This concept revolves around the apparent difficulty for women who seek to gain a role within church leadership. ... There is a current controversy among Muslims on the circumstances in which women may act as imams—that is, lead a congregation in salat (prayer). ... Women as theological figures, have played a significant role in the development of various religions and religious hierarchies. ... This article serves as an overview of many sub-topics concerning Women in Buddhism, including: Women in Early Buddhism Women in Modern Buddhism Women as Buddhist Teachers Buddhist Ordination of Women Cultural Roles of Women in Buddhism International Congress on Buddhist Womens Role in the Sangha, July 2007, in...

References

Ordinatio Sacerdotalis (Latin for On Ordination to the Priesthood) is a Roman Catholic papal encyclical or apostolic letter discussing the Roman Catholic Churchs position on the reservation of priestly ordination to men alone. ... On the Detection and Overthrow of the So-Called Gnosis, commonly called Against Heresies (Latin: Adversus haereses), is a five volume work written by St. ...

Further reading

• Canon Law Society of America. The Canonical Implications of Ordaining Women to the Permanent Diaconate, 1995. ISBN 0–943616–71–9.
• Davies, J. G. "Deacons, Deaconesses, and Minor Orders in the Patristic Period," Journal of Ecclesiastical History, 1963, v. 14, p. 1–23.
• Elsen, Ute E. Women Officeholders in Early Christianity: Epigraphical and Literary Studies, Liturgical Press, 2000. ISBN 0–8146–5950–0.
• Gryson, Roger. The Ministry of Women in the Early Church, Liturgical Press, 1976. ISBN 0–8146–0899-X. Translation of: Le ministère des femmes dans l'Église ancienne, J. Duculot, 1972.
• LaPorte, Jean. The Role of Women in Early Christianity, Edwin Mellen Press, 1982. ISBN 0–88946–549–5.
• Madigan, Kevin, and Carolyn Osiek. Ordained Women in the Early Church: A Documentary History, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005. ISBN 0–8018–7932–9.
• Martimort, Aimé Georges, Deaconesses: An Historical Study, Ignatius Press, 1986, ISBN 0–89870–114–7. Translation of: Les Diaconesses: Essai Historique, Edizioni Liturgiche, 1982.
• Miller, Patricia Cox. Women in Early Christianity: Translations from Greek Texts, Catholic University of America Press, 2005. ISBN 0–8132–1417–3.
• Wijngaards, John. Women Deacons in the Early Church: Historical Texts and Contemporary Debates, Herder & Herder, 2002, 2006. ISBN 0–8245–2393–8.
• Zagano, Phyllis. Holy Saturday: An Argument for the Restoration of the Female Diaconate in the Catholic Church, Herder & Herder, 2000. ISBN 978–0824518325.
• Zagano, Phyllis. "Catholic Women Deacons: Present Tense," Worship 77:5 (September 2003) 386–408.

External links

General

• Women as Clergy: When some faith groups started to ordain women — including many Christian and Jewish Faith Groups. — 'For' ordination of women.
• episcopa — women bishops Photo blog about women bishops in Christian churches.

Christian

Evangelical — For

• Christians for Biblical Equality — Egalitarian Evangelical perspective on gender issues

Evangelical — Against

• Council of Biblical Manhood and Womanhood — Complementarian Evangelical perspective on gender issues
• (See also Presbyterian churches — Against, below)

Presbyterian churches — For

• Women Elders — From a Presbyterian Church (USA) site
• Celebrating the anniversary of the recognition of women's call to ordained ministry

Presbyterian churches — Against

• "Report of the Committee on Hermeneutics of Women in Ordained Office" submitted to the 54th GA of the Orthodox Presbyterian Church (1987) (.html)
• "Report on Women in Office" submitted to the 55th GA of the Orthodox Presbyterian Church (1988) (.html)
• Position Paper Approved by the General Synod of the Associate Reformed Presbyterian Church (.pdf)
• Rev. Rich Lusk, "Ministry, Women, and Liturgy," May 2000 (.pdf)
• Rev. James B. Jordan, "Liturgical Man, Liturgical Woman (Part 1)," Rite Reasons No. 86, May 2004 (.htm)
• Rev. James B. Jordan, "Liturgical Man, Liturgical Woman (Part 2)," Rite Reasons No. 87, June 2004 (.htm)

Roman Catholic and Anglo-Catholic — For

• Womenpriests.org Website advocating the ordination of women to the Roman Catholic priesthood.
• Phyllis Zagano, "Grant Her Your Spirit" — America, Vol. 192 No. 4, February 7, 2005.

Roman Catholic and Anglo-Catholic — Against

• Forward in Faith — Anglo-Catholic Anglicans in Opposition to Women in the Priesthood

Roman Catholic and Anglo-Catholic — Balanced

• article on Deaconesses from Zenit News Agency.

Eastern Orthodox — For Zenit News Agency is an international news agency. ...

• Valerie A. Karras, "Women in the Eastern Church" — St. Nina Quarterly, v. 1, n. 1.
• Teva Regule, "An Interview with Bishop Kallistos Ware" — St. Nina Quarterly, v. 1, n. 3.
• Kyriaki Karidoyanes FitzGerald, "Orthodox Women and Pastoral Praxis" — St. Nina Quarterly, v. 3, n. 2.

Buddhist

• Ordination of women — Buddhism
• Challenge to Thai Sangha's ban on women — Christian Science monitor
• "1st International Congress on Buddhist Women's Role in the Sangha: Bhikshuni Vinaya and Ordination Lineages," Hamburg 2007