Krishna and Radha are shown playing chaturanga on an 8x8 Ashtāpada.

This article contains Indic text. Without rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes or other symbols instead of Indic characters; or irregular vowel positioning and a lack of conjuncts.

The prevailing academic consensus is that chess originated in India, from a game called Chaturanga.^[1][2] The Indian army contained four groups namely hasty-asva-nauka-padata which translates as "elephant, horse, ship, foot soldiers."^[3] The dynamics of the game revolve around the role of the general, the cavalry, the runners and the elephants. The king has to be well protected and the flanks of the army are guarded by elephants which may also be moved to a more frontal position during the progression of the battle.^[4] Indian military strategy has been faithfully rendered in the game of chess.^[4] In India the game was meant as a simulation for battle.^[3] Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... This article is about the Hindu deity. ... A Rajastani style painting of Sri Radha Radha (Devanagari: राधा) is a famous female personality from Hindu, (Vedic) tradition, also known as Radharani, prefixed with the respectful term Srimati by devout followers. ... Chaturanga. ... Image File history File links Example. ... The Brahmic family is a family of abugidas (writing systems) used in South Asia, Southeast Asia, Tibet, Mongolia, Manchuria. ... Chess is a recreational and competitive game for two players. ... Chaturanga. ... This does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... French Republican Guard - May 8, 2005 celebrations Cavalry (from French cavalerie) were soldiers or warriors who fought mounted on horseback in combat. ... The large and growing jargon of poker includes many terms. ... Genera and Species Loxodonta Loxodonta cyclotis Loxodonta africana Elephas Elephas maximus Elephas antiquus † Elephas beyeri † Elephas celebensis † Elephas cypriotes † Elephas ekorensis † Elephas falconeri † Elephas iolensis † Elephas planifrons † Elephas platycephalus † Elephas recki † Stegodon † Mammuthus † Elephantidae (the elephants) is a family of pachyderm, and the only remaining family in the order Proboscidea...

The words for chess in Middle Persian and Arabic are chatrang and shatranj respectively. These terms are derived from chaturanga in Sanskrit, which literally translates into army of four divisions.^[3] This game was introduced to the Near East from India and became a part of the princely or courtly education of Persian nobility.^[3] The earliest Persian reference to chess is found in the Middle Persian book Karnamak-i Artaxshir-i Papakan, which was written between the 3rd to 7th century. This ancient Persian text refers to Shah Ardashir I, who ruled from 224–241, as a master of the game. However, Karnamak contains many fables and legends, and this only establishes the popularity of chatrang at the time of its composition. Pahlavi is a term that refers: (1) to a script used in Iran derived from the Aramaic script, and (2) more broadly, to Middle Persian, the Middle Iranian language written in this script. ... Arabic can mean: From or related to Arabia From or related to the Arabs The Arabic language; see also Arabic grammar The Arabic alphabet, used for expressing the languages of Arabic, Persian, Malay ( Jawi), Kurdish, Panjabi, Pashto, Sindhi and Urdu, among others. ... The Sanskrit language ( , for short ) is a classical language of India, a liturgical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, and Jainism, and one of the 23 official languages of India. ... The Near East is a term commonly used by archaeologists, geographers and historians, less commonly by journalists and commentators, to refer to the region encompassing Anatolia (the Asian portion of modern Turkey), the Levant (modern Israel/Palestine, the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, Jordan, Syria and Lebanon), Georgia, Armenia, and... Look up Persian in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Pahlavi is a term that refers: (1) to a script used in Iran derived from the Aramaic script, and (2) more broadly, to Middle Persian, the Middle Iranian language written in this script. ... The Kârnâmag î Ardashîr î Babagân or Book of the Deeds of Ardashir, Son of Babag, is a mythological Persian Phalavi tale written sometime during the Sassanid dynasty. ... Silver coin of Ardashir I with a fire altar on its verso (British Museum London). ... Events Shah Artashir I wins Persian independence from Parthia and establishes the Sassanid dynasty. ... Events Shapur I of Persia succeeds Ardashir I Births Deaths Ardashir I, first ruler of the Sassanids Categories: 241 ...

Origins of chess pieces

Chess-like pieces

Ever since the earliest times, and especially with regards to the most ancient of preliterate societies, chess-like pieces — isolated from whatever boards they could have been played on — were only simple figurines cut from stone, or made from clay and fired. As some researchers have come to believe, some tokens represented goods or merchandise in transit; including them in a caravan made the trading trip that much more legitimate, and may have invested in them a degree of talismanic luck. Trading partners relied upon the tokens as representatives of the real thing: a cube could represent a crate, a tiny horse figure could represent a horse, and a pod on a stalk could represent a bushel of grain. Insofar as ancient commerce goes, this sort of thing has immense practicality when it comes to balancing one's ledgers, and indicating whether partial shipments are meant to be completed with future shipments. No less important is the matter of exacting tribute from a subject people, and keeping track of how much tribute has been arrived at. This becomes all the more important in an economic network having no common currency, and where debts are satisfied with payments in kind. A rare Dresden porcelain figurine Figurine is a diminutive form of the word figure, and generally refers to a small human-made statue that represents a human (or deity or animal). ... Look up talisman in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

Chess pieces as talismans

An argument can also be advanced that chess pieces hewn from stone were miniature versions of totems, useful for representing and predicting the conflict of divine forces in nature or society. As did many other ancient people, the Romans kept little wood statues — lares et penates — by them in their houses and at work for good luck and good health, and considered spiritual power to be present in them, and emanate from them, wherever they were placed. Totem poles are carved from great trees, most often Western Redcedar, along the Pacific coast of North America. ... Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew from a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula circa the 9th century BC to a massive empire straddling the Mediterranean Sea. ... Lares (pl. ...

Chess pieces as objects of art

It was not until significant advancements in technology were made that little stone figures were placed on a rectangular grid, and used for some game pieces, that chess came close to being invented. The existence of sets of miniature figures could well have made the invention of chesslike games inevitable, and a mere matter of time.

Early history

The board of the Indian Chaturanga

Many of the early works on chess gave a legendary history of the invention of chess, often associating it with Nard (a game of the tables variety like backgammon). However, only limited credence can be given to these. Even as early as the tenth century Zakaria Yahya commented on the chess myths, "It is said to have been played by Aristotle, by Yafet Ibn Nuh (Japhet son of Noah), by Sam ben Nuh (Shem), by Solomon for the loss of his son, and even by Adam when he grieved for Abel." In one case the invention of chess was attributed to Moses (by the rabbi Abraham ibn Ezra in 1130). Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Nard can be used to mean the following things: Nard, the ancient Persian board game Nard, the flower and its fragrant oil. ... Tables is a generic name given to a class of board games similar to Backgammon. ... Backgammon is a board game for two players in which pieces are moved according to the roll of dice. ... Aristotle (Greek: AristotélÄ“s) (384 BC – 322 BC) was a Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. ... Japheth (יֶפֶת / יָפֶת Enlarge, Standard Hebrew Yéfet / Yáfet, Tiberian Hebrew Yép̄eṯ / Yāp̄eṯ) is one of the sons of Noah in the Bible. ... Japheth (יֶפֶת / יָפֶת Enlarge, Standard Hebrew Yéfet / Yáfet, Tiberian Hebrew Yép̄eṯ / Yāp̄eṯ) is one of the sons of Noah in the Bible. ... Noahs Ark, Französischer Meister (The French Master), Magyar Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest. ... Shem (שֵׁם renown; prosperity; name, Standard Hebrew Å em, Tiberian Hebrew Å Ä“m; Greek Σημ, SÄ“m; ) was one of the sons of Noah in the Bible who adhered to the Noahide Laws. ... Artists depiction of Solomos court (Ingobertus, c. ... Michelangelos Creation of Adam, from the Sistine Chapel. ... In the Book of Genesis, Abel (Hebrew הֶבֶל / הָבֶל, Standard Hebrew Hével / Hável, Tiberian Hebrew Héḇel / Hāḇel; Arabic هابيل HābÄ«l) was the second son of Adam. ... Moses with the Tablets, 1659, by Rembrandt This article is about the Biblical figure. ... Rabbi Abraham Ben Meir Ibn Ezra (also known as Ibn Ezra, or Abenezra) (1092 or 1093-1167), was one of the most distinguished Jewish men of letters and writers of the Middle Ages. ... Events February 13 - Innocent II is elected pope An antipope schism occurs when Roger II of Sicily supports Anacletus II as pope instead of Innocent II. Innocent flees to France and Anacletus crowns Roger King. ...

India

In Sanskrit, "Chaturanga" literally means "having four limbs (or parts)" and in epic poetry often means "army". The game reflects fourfold division of the ancient Indian army. Besides the king and his counsellor or general in the center, the army consisted of the following units: The Sanskrit language ( , for short ) is a classical language of India, a liturgical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and one of the 23 official languages of India. ... The epic is a broadly defined genre of narrative poetry, characterized by great length, multiple settings, large numbers of characters, or long span of time involved. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... This does not adequately cite its references or sources. ...

• Infantry represented by a line of advancing pawns.
• Thundering war elephants near the center of the army.
  • Later, this rather weak piece was thought not to be a suitable representation for the power of the real elephant in war in India. This caused a change of move and of name, and often in India nowadays the rook is called the elephant and the bishop is called the camel. (Note: The name Camel is also used for a fairy chess piece with a different move, a (3,1) leaper.)
• Mounted cavalry represented by the horse with a move that facilitated flanking.
• Chariots on the wings which move quickly but linearly and became the rook in Europe, but a ship as chess moved north into Russia.

Captain Cox and Professor Forbes put forth a theory (the Cox-Forbes theory), that chess originated from the four-handed version of chaturanga, which was called chaturaji. The Archaeological Survey of India notes that the resemblance between various terracotta gamesmen from Lothal and modern chessmen may place the origins of Chaturanga earlier to the period of the Indus valley civilization. This evidence gives the appearance of chess having its origins in one of the Harappan games.^[5] Infantry of the Royal Irish Rifles during the Battle of the Somme in World War I. Infantry are soldiers who fight primarily on foot with small arms in organized military units, though they may be transported to the battlefield by horses, ships, automobiles, skis, bicycles, or other means. ... The elephants thick hides made them difficult to injure or kill and the high position made them favored by commanding officers War elephants were important, although not widespread, weapons in ancient military history. ... A rook (♖ ♜,borrowed from Persian رخ rokh, Sanskrit roth, chariot) is a piece in the strategy board game of chess. ... A bishop (♗♝) is a piece in the board game of chess. ... For other uses, see Camel (disambiguation). ... A fairy chess piece or unorthodox chess piece is a chess piece not used in conventional chess, but used in certain chess variants and some chess problems. ... French Republican Guard - May 8, 2005 celebrations Cavalry (from French cavalerie) were soldiers or warriors who fought mounted on horseback in combat. ... Binomial name Equus caballus Linnaeus, 1758 The horse (Equus caballus, sometimes seen as a subspecies of the Wild Horse, Equus ferus caballus) is a large odd-toed ungulate mammal, one of ten modern species of the genus Equus. ... Flank is a word which might mean any of several different things: A flank is the side of either a horse or a military unit. ... Hittite chariot (drawing of an Egyptian relief) Approximate historical map of the spread of the chariot, 2000–500 BC. A chariot is a two-wheeled, horse-drawn vehicle. ... A rook (♖ ♜,borrowed from Persian رخ rokh, Sanskrit roth, chariot) is a piece in the strategy board game of chess. ... Italian Full rigged ship Amerigo Vespucci in New York Harbor, 1976 A ship is a large watercraft capable of offshore navigation. ... Duncan Forbes (April 28, 1798 - August 17, 1868) was a British linguist. ... The Cox-Forbes theory is a theory on the evolution of chess put forward by Captain Hiram Cox and extended by Professor Duncan Forbes. ... Chaturaji, starting position. ... Archaeological Survey of India is an Indian government agency under the Department of Culture that is responsible about archaeological studies and preservation of cultural monuments. ... Ancient Lothal as envisaged by the Archaeological Survey of India. ... The // (c. ...

China

As a strategy board game played in China, chess is believed to have been derived from the Indian Chaturanga. The object of the Chinese variation is similar to Chaturanga, i.e. to capture the opponent's king, sometimes known as general.^[6]

Chinese chess also borrows elements from an earlier game of Go, which was known to the Chinese people before chess arrived from India. Owing to the influence of Go, Chinese Chess is played on a 9x10 board with 90 points, rather than 64 squares. Chinese chess pieces may be flat and may resemble those used in checkers.^[6] Go is a strategic East Asian board game for two players. ... ‹ The template below (Expand) is being considered for deletion. ... starting position on a 10×10 draughts board Draughts, also known as checkers, is a group of mental sport board games between two players which involve diagonal moves of uniform pieces and mandatory captures by jumping over the enemys pieces. ...

A theory, championed by David H. Li, contends that chess arose from Xiangqi or a predecessor thereof, existing in China since the 2nd century BC.^[7] David H. Li, born 1928 in Ningbo, China, moved to the United States of America in 1949. ... Xiangqi (Chinese: ; pinyin: ; Wade-Giles: hsiang4-chi2;  ), is a two-player strategic Chinese board game in the same family as Western chess, chaturanga, shogi and janggi. ... (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) The 2nd century BC started on January 1, 200 BC and ended on December 31, 101 BC. // Coin of Antiochus IV. Reverse shows Apollo seated on an omphalos. ...

According to Li, literary sources indicate that xiàngqí may have been played as early as the 2nd century BC. The oldest surviving remnant of ancient Chinese Liubo (or Liu po) dates to circa 1500 BC. Nevertheless, Liubo, though sometimes considered a battle game, was played with dice. According to a hypothesis by David H. Li, general Han Xin drew on Liubo to develop a Chinese form of chess in the winter of 204 BC-203 BC.^[7] Xiangqi (Chinese: 象棋; pinyin: ; Wade-Giles: hsiang-chi; (  listen)), is a Chinese game in a family of strategic board games of which Western chess, Japanese shogi, and the more similar Korean janggi are also members. ... Liubo (or Liu bo or Liu po as alternates) is an ancient Chinese board game. ... Centuries: 17th century BC - 16th century BC - 15th century BC Decades: 1550s BC 1540s BC 1530s BC 1520s BC 1510s BC - 1500s BC - 1490s BC 1480s BC 1470s BC 1460s BC 1450s BC The element Mercury has been discovered in Egyptian tombs dating from this decade. ... David H. Li, born 1928 in Ningbo, China, moved to the United States of America in 1949. ... Han Xin (Simplified Chinese:韩信;Traditional Chinese:韓信; pinyin: Hán Xìn) (?-196 BC), aka Marquess of Huaiyin (淮陰侯), was a capable Chinese general under Liu Bang. ... Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC - 200s BC - 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC Years: 209 BC 208 BC 207 BC 206 BC 205 BC - 204 BC - 203 BC 202 BC... Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC - 200s BC - 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC Years: 208 BC 207 BC 206 BC 205 BC 204 BC - 203 BC - 202 BC 201 BC...

Middle East

A Persian youth playing chess with two suitors. Chess may have been played in Persia as early as the 3rd century.

The Karnamak-i Ardeshir-i Papakan, a Pahlavi epical treatise about the founder of the Sassanid Persian Empire, mentions the game of chatrang as one of the accomplishments of the legendary hero, Ardashir I, founder of the Empire. Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Motto Esteqlāl, āzādÄ«, jomhÅ«rÄ«-ye eslāmÄ« 1(Persian) Independence, freedom, Islamic Republic (introduced 1979) Anthem SorÅ«d-e MellÄ«-e Īrān 2 Capital (and largest city) Tehran Official languages Persian Demonym Iranian Government Islamic Republic  -  Supreme Leader  -  President Establishment  -  Proto-Elamite Period 3200-2700 BCE... The Kârnâmag î Ardashîr î Babagân or Book of the Deeds of Ardashir, Son of Babag, is a mythological Persian Phalavi tale written sometime during the Sassanid dynasty. ... The Pahlavi script was used broadly in the Sasanid Persian Empire to write down Middle Persian for secular, as well as religious purposes. ... After Islamic Conquest  Modern SSR = Soviet Socialist Republic Afghanistan  Azerbaijan  Bahrain  Iran  Iraq  Tajikistan  Uzbekistan  This box:      The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty (Persian: []) is the name used for the fourth Iranian dynasty, and the second Persian Empire (226–651). ... The Persian Empire was a series of historical empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the old Persian homeland, and beyond in Western Asia, Central Asia and the Caucasus. ... Silver coin of Ardashir I with a fire altar on its verso (British Museum London). ...

The appearance of the chess pieces had altered greatly since the times of Chaturanga. Chaturanga had ornate pieces, and the chess pieces could depict animals. The muslim sets of later centuries followed a pattern which assigned names but not shape to the chess pieces, as Islam forbids depiction of animals and human beings in art. The pieces were made of simple clay and carved stone.^[8] There is also a collection of Hadith called Sahih Muslim A Muslim (Arabic: مسلم, Persian: Mosalman or Mosalmon Urdu: مسلمان, Turkish: Müslüman, Albanian: Mysliman, Bosnian: Musliman) is an adherent of the religion of Islam. ... For people named Islam, see Islam (name). ...

A variation of chaturanga made its way to Europe through Persia, the Byzantine empire and the expanding Arabian empire. The oldest recording game in Chess history dates to a 10th century game played between a historian from Baghdad and a pupil.^[9] World map showing the location of Europe. ... Byzantine Empire at its greatest extent c. ... For other uses, see Arab (disambiguation). ... As a means of recording the passage of time, the 10th century was that century which lasted from 901 to 1000. ... Baghdad (Arabic: ) is the capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate. ...

Further development of chess

Among its more notable entries in the 13th century Libro de los juegos is a depiction of what Alfonso X of Castile calls the ajedrex de los quatro tiempos ("chess of the four seasons"). This game is a chess variant for four players, described as representing a conflict between the four elements and the four humors. The chessmen are marked correspondingly in green, red, black, and white, and pieces are moved according to the roll of dice.^[10]

Chess eventually spread westward to Europe and eastward as far as Japan, spawning variants as it went. The names of its pieces were translated into Persian along the way. Although the existing evidence is weak, it is commonly speculated that chess entered Persia during the reign of Khusraw I Nûshîrwân (531–578 CE). Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... (12th century - 13th century - 14th century - other centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 13th century was that century which lasted from 1201 to 1300. ... The Libro de los Juegos, (Book of games), or Libro de ajedrez, dados y tablas, (Book of chess, dice and tables) was commissioned by Alfonso X, king of León and Castile, during the 13th century between 1251 and 1283 AD. It consists of 98 pages, with 150 color illustrations. ... Alfonso X and his court. ... Persian (Local names: فارسی Fârsi or پارسی Pârsi)* is an Indo-European language spoken in Iran, Afghanistan and Tajikistan as well as by minorities in Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, India, Pakistan, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Southern Russia, neighboring countries, and elsewhere. ... Khosrau I, the Blessed (Anushirvan), (531 - 579) was the favourite son and successor of Kavadh I, and the most famous of the Sassanid kings. ... Events End of the reign of Northern Wei Chang Guang Wang, ruler of the Chinese Northern Wei Dynasty. ... Events Tiberius II Constantine succeeds Justin II as Byzantine Emperor Births Deaths July 30 - Jacob Baradaeus, bishop of Edessa October 5 - Justin II, Roman emperor Northern Zhou Wu Di, Chinese ruler John Malalas, Byzantine chronicler Categories: 578 ...

When Persia was conquered for Islam, chatrang entered the Islamic world, where the names of its pieces largely remained in their Persian forms in early Islamic times. Its name became shatranj, which continued in Portuguese as xadrez, in Spanish as ajedrez and in Greek as zatrikion, but in most of Europe was replaced by versions of the Persian word shāh = "king". There is a theory that this name replacement happened because, before the game of chess came to Europe, merchants coming to Europe brought ornamental chess kings as curiosities and with them their name shāh, which Europeans mispronounced in various ways Shatranj is an old form of chess, which has been popular in Persia and the Middle East for almost 1000 years[1]. The modern chess has gradually developed from this game. ...

Two kings and two queens from the Lewis chessmen at the British Museum, London.

The game spread throughout the Islamic world after the Muslim conquest of Persia. From the Muslim world it may have penetrated into Europe through Spain from Morocco, or through Italy from Sicily and Tunisia, or through Byzantium from Syria; perhaps by all three routes. Two kings and two queens from the Uig, or Lewis chessmen at the British Museum. ... Two kings and two queens from the Uig, or Lewis chessmen at the British Museum. ... The Lewis chessmen top: king, queen, bishop middle: knight, rook, pawn bottom: closeup of queen The Lewis chessmen belong to one of the few complete medieval chess sets that have survived until today. ... The British Museum in London, England is one of the worlds greatest museums of human history and culture. ... This article is about the capital of England and the United Kingdom. ... For people named Islam, see Islam (name). ...

The commonly held view is that chess reached Europe in 10th century. However in 1992 a group of British archaeologists found in the ancient city Butrint an object which looks like a chess king or queen. If it really is a chess piece, this would mean that chess reached Europe already in 6th century. Still, no other chess pieces were found there, and the artifact could be also something else. ^[11] Year 1992 (MCMXCII) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1992 Gregorian calendar). ... Remains of a theatre and part of the agora (Photo by Marc Morell) Remains of the 6th-century baptistery Butrint (Albanian: Butrint or Butrinti) is a city and an archeological site in Albania, close to the Greek border. ...

Chess was introduced into Spain by the Persian Ziryab in the 9th century,^[12] and described in a famous 13th century manuscript covering chess, backgammon, and dice named the Libro de los juegos. Chess with dice from the Romanesque period was found in France with Charlemagne figure sculpted on king pieces. Abû al-Hasan Alî Ibn Nâfi (c. ... As a means of recording the passage of time the 9th century was the century that lasted from 801 to 900. ... (12th century - 13th century - 14th century - other centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 13th century was that century which lasted from 1201 to 1300. ... Backgammon is a board game for two players in which pieces are moved according to the roll of dice. ... Two standard six-sided pipped dice with rounded corners. ... The Libro de los Juegos, (Book of games), or Libro de ajedrez, dados y tablas, (Book of chess, dice and tables) was commissioned by Alfonso X, king of León and Castile, during the 13th century between 1251 and 1283 AD. It consists of 98 pages, with 150 color illustrations. ... Interior of the Saint-Saturnin church St-Sernin, Toulouse, 1080 – 1120: elevation of the east end Romanesque sculpture, cloister of St. ... Charlemagne and Pippin the Hunchback. ...

See also

• Timeline of chess

It has been suggested that Chess During World War II be merged into this article or section. ...

Notes

Oxford University Press (OUP) is a highly-respected publishing house and a department of the University of Oxford in England. ... David H. Li, born 1928 in Ningbo, China, moved to the United States of America in 1949. ...

References

• Murray, H. J. R. A History of Chess (Northampton, MA: Benjamin Press, 1985) ISBN 0-936317-01-9

• Kulke, Hermann; Dietmar Rothermund (2004). A History of India. Routledge. ISBN ISBN 0415329205. 

• Meri, Josef W. (2005). Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. ISBN ISBN 0415966906. 

Further reading

• Davidson, Henry (1949, 1981). A Short History of Chess. McKay. ISBN 0-679-14550-8. 

External links

• Chess. (2007). In Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved July 30, 2007, from Encyclopedia Britannica Online
• "Chess," Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007
• Initiative group Koenigstein, different authors on origin of chess.