Orthomolecular medicine and optimum nutrition are controversial medical and health approaches^[1] that posit that many diseases and abnormalities result from various chemical imbalances or deficiencies and can be prevented, treated, or sometimes cured by achieving optimal levels of naturally occurring chemical substances, such as vitamins, dietary minerals, enzymes, antioxidants, amino acids, lipotropes, essential fatty acids, prohormones, dietary fiber and intestinal short chain fatty acids.^{[2] [3] [4]} Retinol (Vitamin A) Vitamins are nutrients required in very small amounts for essential metabolic reactions in the body [1]. The term vitamin does not encompass other essential nutrients such as dietary minerals, essential fatty acids, or essential amino acids. ... Dietary minerals are the chemical elements required by living organisms, other than the four elements Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, and Oxygen which are ubiquitous in organic molecules. ... Ribbon diagram of the enzyme TIM, surrounded by the space-filling model of the protein. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section can be improved by converting lengthy lists to text. ... The general structure of an amino acid molecule, with the amine group on the left and the carboxyl group on the right. ... Lipotropic compounds are those which help catalyse the break down of fat during metabolism in the body. ... Essential fatty acids, or EFAs, are fatty acids that are required in the human diet. ... Dietary fibres are the indigestible portion of plant foods that move food through the digestive system, absorbing water. ... In chemistry, especially biochemistry, a fatty acid is a carboxylic acid (or organic acid), often with a long aliphatic tail (long chains), either saturated or unsaturated. ...

Orthomolecular medicine is explicitly practiced by relatively few conventional medical practitioners.^[5][6][7] Orthomolecular treatments are also utilized in complementary and alternative medicine fields, increasingly being integrated into OTC retail products, naturopathic medical textbooks and mainstream pharmaceuticals.^[8][9] The controversial field of orthomolecular psychiatry deals with the use of orthomolecular medicine to treat psychiatric problems. It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Alternative medicine. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

The orthomolecular field is based on research in biochemistry, nutrition, medicine, and pharmaceuticals combined with the clinical experience of a number of physicians and physician scientists. It remains controversial among mainstream medical organizations and physicians without the authoritative validation of efficacy and reservations about safety. Orthomolecular proponents argue that many mainstream nutritional studies, both recent and historical, provide investigational and clinical support for their theories.^[10] They also argue that orthomolecular therapies are intrinsically less likely to cause dangerous side-effects or harm, since they utilize only molecules which are normally present in the body through healthy diet or normal metabolism.^[3][4][11]

History and development

Orthomolecular type treatments typically have been experimentally or empirically introduced by physicians with advanced scientific or research backgrounds when conventional medical treatments offered neither solution^[12][13] nor hope.^[14][15] Orthomolecular megavitamin therapies, such as with tocopherols^[16] and ascorbates,^[17] date back to the 1930s. In nutrition and CAM, megavitamin therapy makes use of large amounts of vitamins, often many times greater than the recommended dietary allowance (RDA), to treat many types of diseases. ...

The term "orthomolecular" was first used by Linus Pauling in 1968 to express the "idea of the right molecules in the right amounts within the context of psychiatry".^[18] "Orthomolecular medicine" was subsequently defined as "the treatment of disease by the provision of the optimum molecular environment, especially the optimum concentrations of substances normally present in the human body" or as "the preservation of good health and the treatment of disease by varying the concentrations in the human body of substances that are normally present in the body and are required for health."^[19] Linus Carl Pauling (February 28, 1901 – August 19, 1994) was an American quantum chemist and biochemist. ... 1968 (MCMLXVIII) was a leap year starting on Monday (the link is to a full 1968 calendar). ...

Since 1968 the orthomolecular field has diversified, but the term is still often closely associated with Pauling's advocacy of multi-gram doses of vitamin C for optimal health. Partly for this reason, detractors of orthomolecular ideas have described them entirely in terms of megadose nutrient therapy. Cassileth, a widely quoted critic of Pauling's ideas, states: "In 1968, the Nobel-prize-winning scientist Linus Pauling coined the term "orthomolecular" to describe the treatment of disease with large quantities of nutrients."^[5] In this way, criticism of orthomolecular medicine has, to a large extent, been confused with much older medical traditions of high-dose vitamin therapies, such as earlier "megadose" usages of retinol and ergocalciferol or synthetic pharmaceutical analogues, such as menadione. However, such definitions of orthomolecular therapy are not synonymous with Pauling's ideas. 1968 (MCMLXVIII) was a leap year starting on Monday (the link is to a full 1968 calendar). ... 3D representation of vitamin C Chemical structure of vitamin C Vitamin C is a water-soluble nutrient and human vitamin essential for life and for maintaining optimal health, used by the body for many purposes. ... Retinol, the dietary form of vitamin A, is a yellow fat-soluble, antioxidant vitamin important in vision and bone growth. ... Chemical structure of ergocalciferol Ergocalciferol is a form of Vitamin D, also called vitamin D2. ... Menadione is a polycyclic aromatic ketone, based on 1,4-naphthoquinone, with a 2-methyl substituent. ...

Based on investigational scientific studies, single blinded and double blinded randomized controlled trials, clinical experience, and case histories, claims have been made that therapeutic nutrition can treat, or sometimes cure, acne, bee sting, burns, cancer, common cold, drug addiction, drug overdose, heart diseases, acute hepatitis, herpes, influenza, mononucleosis, mushroom poisoning, neuropathy & polyneuritis (including Multiple sclerosis), osteoporosis,^[20] polio, "alcoholism,^[21] allergies, arthritis, autism, epilepsy, hypertension, hypoglycemia, migraine, clinical depression, learning disabilities, retardation, mental and metabolic disorders, skin problems, and hyperactivity,"^[22][6] Raynaud's disease, heavy metal toxicity, radiation sickness, schizophrenia,^[23] shock, snakebite, spider bite, tetany and viral pneumonia. A bee sting in the vernacular means a sting of a bee, wasp or hornet. ... Burns can refer to: Burn A Scottish clan: see Burns (clan) George Burns (actor) George H. Burns (baseball player) Ken Burns Robert Burns, a Scottish poet C. M. Burns, aka Mr. ... Cancer is a class of diseases or disorders characterized by uncontrolled division of cells and the ability of these cells to invade other tissues, either by direct growth into adjacent tissue through invasion or by implantation into distant sites by metastasis. ... Acute viral nasopharyngitis, often known as the common cold, is a mild viral infectious disease of the upper respiratory system (nose and throat). ... Drug addiction, or dependency is the compulsive use of drugs, to the point where the user has no effective choice but to continue use. ... A drug overdose occurs when a drug is ingested in quantities and/or concentrations large enough to overwhelm the homeostasis of a living organism, causing severe illness or death. ... There are different forms of heart disease: Coronary heart disease Ischaemic heart disease Cardiovascular disease Pulmonary heart disease The study of the heart (and diseases of the heart) is Cardiology This is a disambiguation page, a list of pages that otherwise might share the same title. ... Hepatitis is a gastroenterological disease, featuring inflammation of the liver. ... Genera Subfamily Alphaherpesvirinae    Simplexvirus    Varicellovirus    Mardivirus    Iltovirus Subfamily Betaherpesvirinae    Cytomegalovirus    Muromegalovirus    Roseolovirus Subfamily Gammaherpesvirinae    Lymphocryptovirus    Rhadinovirus Unassigned    Ictalurivirus The Herpesviridae are a family of DNA viruses that cause diseases in humans and animals. ... Influenza, commonly known as the flu, is an infectious disease of birds and mammals caused by an RNA virus of the family Orthomyxoviridae (the influenza viruses). ... Infectious mononucleosis (also known as mono, the kissing disease, Pfeiffers disease, and, in British English, glandular fever) is a disease seen most commonly in adolescents and young adults, characterized by fever, sore throat and fatigue. ... These emerging mushrooms are too immature to safely identify as edible or toxic. ... Neuropathy, strictly speaking, is any disease that affects the nervous system. ... Neuritis is a general term referring to the inflammation of a nerve or part of the nervous system. ... Osteoporosis is a disease of bone in which the bone mineral density (BMD) is reduced, bone microarchitecture is disrupted, and the amount and variety of non-collagenous proteins in bone is altered. ... Poliomyelitis (polio), or infantile paralysis, is a viral paralytic disease. ... Alcoholism is the consumption of, or preoccupation with, alcoholic beverages to the extent that this behavior interferes with the drinkers normal personal, family, social, or work life, and may lead to physical or mental harm. ... This article needs cleanup. ... Arthritis (from Greek arthro-, joint + -itis, inflammation; plural: arthritides) is a group of conditions where there is damage caused to the joints of the body. ... Autism is classified as a neurodevelopmental disorder that manifests in delays of social interaction, language as used in social communication, or symbolic or imaginative play, with onset prior to age 3 years, according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. ... For other forms of hypertension see hypertension (disambiguation). ... Hypoglycemia (hypoglycæmia in the UK) is a medical term referring to a pathologic state produced by a lower than normal amount of sugar (glucose) in the blood. ... Clinical depression (also called severe depressive disorder, major depressive disorder) is a state of intense sadness, melancholia or despair that has advanced to the point of being disruptive to an individuals social functioning and/or activities of daily living. ... In broad terms, the phrase learning disability covers any of a range of conditions that affect a persons ability to learn new information. ... Mental retardation (also called mental handicap and, as defined by the UK Mental Health Act (1983), mental impairment and severe mental impairment) is a term for a pattern of persistently slow learning of basic motor and language skills (milestones) during childhood, and a significantly below-normal global intellectual capacity as... The Scream, the famous painting commonly thought of as depicting the experience of mental illness. ... Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ... In zootomy and dermatology, skin is an organ of the integumentary system made up of multiple layers of epithelial tissues that guard underlying muscles and organs. ... Hyperactivity can be described as a state in which a person is abnormally easily excitable and exuberant. ... Raynauds disease (RAY-noz) is a condition that affects blood flow to the extremities which include the fingers, toes, nose and ears when exposed to temperature changes or stress. ... For other meanings, see heavy metal The term heavy metal may have various more general or more specific meanings. ... Radiation poisoning, also called radiation sickness, is a form of damage to organic tissue due to excessive exposure to ionizing radiation. ... Shock is a serious medical condition where the tissue perfusion is insufficient to meet the required supply of oxygen and nutrients. ... A snakebite, or snake bite, is a bite inflicted by a snake. ... Families Suborder Mesothelae     Liphistiidae (primitive burrowing spiders) Suborder Mygalomorphae     Atypidae (atypical tarantula)     Antrodiaetidae (folding trapdoor spider)     Mecicobothriidae (dwarf tarantulas)     Hexathelidae (venomous funnel-web tarantula)     Dipluridae (funnel-web tarantula)     Cyrtaucheniidae (wafer trapdoor spider)     Ctenizidae (trapdoor spider)     Theraphosidae (tarantula) Suborder Araneomorphae     Hypochilidae (lampshade spider)     Filistatidae (crevice weaver)     Sicariidae (recluse spider)     Scytodidae (spitting... Tetany is the point at which signals from nerves (action potentials) are arriving to skeletal muscle rapidly enough in succession to cause a steady contraction, and not just a series of individual twitches. ... Viral pneumonia is an inflammation of the lung caused by a virus. ...

Method

Orthomolecular medicine argues that some diseases reflect biochemical anomalies and that it is advantageous to recognize and to correct these anomalies at an early stage, before they result in recognizable diseases. Orthomolecular medicine posits that many typical diets are insufficient for long term health; thus, orthomolecular medical diagnoses and treatment often focus on use of natural substances found in a normal diet such as vitamins, dietary minerals, enzymes, antioxidants, amino acids, essential fatty acids, dietary fiber and short and long chain fatty acids. Retinol (Vitamin A) Vitamins are nutrients required in very small amounts for essential metabolic reactions in the body [1]. The term vitamin does not encompass other essential nutrients such as dietary minerals, essential fatty acids, or essential amino acids. ... Dietary minerals are the chemical elements required by living organisms, other than the four elements Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, and Oxygen which are ubiquitous in organic molecules. ... Ribbon diagram of the enzyme TIM, surrounded by the space-filling model of the protein. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section can be improved by converting lengthy lists to text. ... The general structure of an amino acid molecule, with the amine group on the left and the carboxyl group on the right. ... Essential fatty acids, or EFAs, are fatty acids that are required in the human diet. ... Dietary fibres are the indigestible portion of plant foods that move food through the digestive system, absorbing water. ... In chemistry, especially biochemistry, a fatty acid is a carboxylic acid (or organic acid), often with a long aliphatic tail (long chains), either saturated or unsaturated. ...

Orthomolecular therapy consists in attempting to provide optimal amounts of substances normal to the body, most commonly by oral administration. Most often, "optimal" has been a matter of the clinical judgment of the orthomolecular practitioner, who gave nutrients in accord with the clinical symptoms of the patient and his or her judgement of what is appropriate. The modern orthomolecular practitioner also uses a wide range of laboratory analyses, including those for amino acids, organic acids, vitamins and minerals, functional vitamin status, hormones, immunology, microbiology, and gastrointestinal function. However, many of these tests have not been accepted by mainstream medicine for common diagnostic use. In chemistry, an amino acid is any molecule that contains both amino and carboxylic acid functional groups. ... An organic acid is an organic compound that is an acid. ... Vitamins are organic chemicals that a given living organism requires in trace quantities for good health, but which the organism cannot synthesize, and therefore must obtain from its diet. ... Minerals are natural compounds formed through geological processes. ... Hormone is also the NATO reporting name for the Soviet/Russian Kamov Ka-25 military helicopter. ... Immunology is a broad branch of biomedical science that covers the study of all aspects of the immune system in all organisms. ... An agar plate streaked with microorganisms Microbiology is the study of microorganisms, which are unicellular or cell-cluster microscopic organisms. ... For the Physics term GUT, please refer to Grand unification theory The gastrointestinal or digestive tract, also referred to as the GI tract or the alimentary canal or the gut, is the system of organs within multicellular animals which takes in food, digests it to extract energy and nutrients, and...

In the early days of orthomolecular medicine, supplementation usually meant high-dose, single-agent nutrient therapy.^[6] Most often today, the orthomolecular practitioner uses many substances: amino acids, enzymes, non-essential nutrients, hormones, vitamins, minerals, or derivate substances in a therapeutic effort to restore optimum levels for healthy young persons.^[24] A nutrient is either element or compound necessary for or contributing to an organisms metabolism, growth, or other functioning. ... In chemistry, an amino acid is any molecule that contains both amino and carboxylic acid functional groups. ... Neuraminidase ribbon diagram An enzyme (in Greek en = in and zyme = blend) is a protein, or protein complex, that catalyzes a chemical reaction and also controls the 3D orientation of the catalyzed substrates. ... Hormone is also the NATO reporting name for the Soviet/Russian Kamov Ka-25 military helicopter. ... Vitamins are organic chemicals that a given living organism requires in trace quantities for good health, but which the organism cannot synthesize, and therefore must obtain from its diet. ... Minerals are natural compounds formed through geological processes. ... ...

Frequently supplementation with relatively large doses of vitamins is given, and the name megavitamin therapy is popularly associated with the area. Megavitamin therapy is the administration of large amounts of vitamins, often many times greater than the recommended dietary allowance (RDA). The nominal ratio of dose to RDA to qualify for the term "megavitamin therapy" has been a matter of minor semantic debate. In nutrition and CAM, megavitamin therapy makes use of large amounts of vitamins, often many times greater than the recommended dietary allowance (RDA), to treat many types of diseases. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Daily values. ...

Administration of short-chain fatty acids in orthomolecular practice is usually accomplished by fiber supplementation. The fatty acids are produced by fermentation of dietary fiber in the colon, then absorbed and utilized. This process is often aided by a combination of probiotics, prebiotics and "glyconutrients" added to the diet. Administration of long chain fatty acids, such as the omega-3 fatty acids alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) may be accomplished by dietary means, or by supplementation with the appropriate fats or fatty acid esters in capsule form. In chemistry, especially biochemistry, a fatty acid is a carboxylic acid (or organic acid), often with a long aliphatic tail (long chains), either saturated or unsaturated. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Anaerobic respiration. ... Dietary fibres are the indigestible portion of plant foods that move food through the digestive system, absorbing water. ... Colon has several meanings: colon (anatomy) colon (punctuation) colon (rhetoric) See also Colón This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... Probiotics are dietary supplements containing potentially beneficial bacteria. ... The word prebiotic has two separate and disparate meanings: Before Life From the roots pre (meaning before) and biotic (referring to life), the word prebiotic can refer to the time before life appeared on the earth or any other planet with the capacity to harbor it. ... Polysaccharides are large sugar polymers made up of monosaccharide monomers such as glucose, galactose, fucose, fructose, mannose, xylose and arabinose. ... Diet may mean: In nutrition: Diet (nutrition), the sum of the food consumed by an organism or group. ... Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) is a polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acid with the molecular formula C18H30O2 OR CH3-CH2-CH=CH-CH2-CH=CH-CH2-CH=CH-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-COOH of Molar mass 278. ... Eicosapentaenoic acid (more commonly known as EPA; C20H30O2, all-cis-fatty acid 20:5 omega-3) is a polyunsaturated fatty acid that acts as a precursor for prostaglandin-3, which inhibits platelet aggregation) and thromboxane-3 groups. ... Docosahexaenoic acid (commonly known as DHA; 22:6 omega-3, all-cis-docosa-4,7,10,13,16,19-hexaenoic acid, trivial name cervonic acid) is an omega-3 essential fatty acid. ...

Nutritional substances may also be administered by changing the diet to emphasize certain foods high in nutrients, by dietary supplementation with oral preparations such as tablets or capsules, or by intravenous injection of nutrient solutions. In pharmacology and toxicology, a route of administration is the path by which a drug, fluid, poison or other substance is brought into contact with the body 1. ...

Popularity

A survey released in May 2004 by the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine focused on who used complementary and alternative medicine (CAM), what was used, and why it was used in the United States by adults age 18 years and over during 2002. The survey reported uses in the previous 12 months that include orthomolecular related uses: Nonvitamin, nonmineral, natural products 18.9%, Diet-based therapies 3.5%, Megavitamin therapy 2.8%.^[25] The survey did not include other popular related categories such as juicing, supplemental antioxidants, essential fatty acids, amino acids, enzymes and others. The National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine or NCCAM, a division of the National Institutes of Health within the Department of Health and Human Services of the United States federal government, was established in October, 1991, as the Office of Alternative Medicine, which was re-established as the NCCAM...

Another recent CAM survey reported 12% of liver disease patients using the antioxidant silymarin, more than 6% used megavitamins among others, and "In all, 74% of patients reported using CAM in addition to the medications prescribed by their physician, but 26% did not inform their physician of their CAM use."^[26]

Relation to mainstream medicine

Orthomolecular medicine claims an evolving nutritional pharmacology that overlaps between natural medicine and mainstream medicine. The International Society for Orthomolecular Medicine has conventionally-trained doctors among its members and authors. However, the leading orthomolecular medicine website, Orthomolecular Medicine Online,^[27] run by the Journal of Orthomolecular Medicine, discusses differences between orthomolecular medicine and current mainstream medicine,^[24] which the website refers to as allopathic medicine.^[7] This article or section contains information that has not been verified and thus might not be reliable. ... The term allopathic medicine is used by adherents of alternative medicine to refer to any form of mainstream medicine. ...

Amongst the differences, mainstream medicine attaches great importance to rigorous double-blind randomized controlled trials to prove a treatment is effective and to exclude the placebo effect. Orthomolecular medicine proponents, on the other hand, believe that such studies overemphasize ^[28] presupposed minimization of uncertainty in measurement and have instead led to false-negative results from otherwise poorly designed and executed studies that resulted in misrepresented "authoritative" disparagement of nutritional treatments.^[29][30][31] Mainstream medicine avoids use of new, unproven xenobiotic molecules whose effects are unknown, instead favoring extensively tested, clinically proven drugs. Orthomolecular medicine holds that natural equivalent molecules, as non-toxic nutritional therapies, are often useful in the interim, before extremely expensive, time-consuming authoritative tests are available. Double-blind describes an especially stringent way of conducting an experiment, usually on living, conscious, human subjects. ... A randomized controlled trial (RCT) is a form of clinical trial, or scientific procedure used in the testing of the efficacy of medicines or medical procedures. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Placebo. ... A xenobiotic is a chemical which is found in an organism but which is not normally produced or expected to be present in it. ...

Individual mainstream medical proponents are sometimes dismissive of orthomolecular medicine: "Scientific research has found no benefit from orthomolecular therapy for any disease"^[5] despite strong counterexamples such as megadose niacin for dyslipidemias (1955).^[32] Niacin, also known as nicotinic acid or vitamin B3, is a water-soluble vitamin whose derivatives such as NADH, NAD, NAD+, and NADP play essential roles in energy metabolism in the living cell and DNA repair. ... Hypercholesterolemia (literally: high blood cholesterol) is the presence of high levels of cholesterol in the blood. ...

Supporters claim that some aspects of orthomolecular medicine, and in particular the optimal nutrition subset, have support in mainstream scientific research in a variety of areas:

• Studies finding that greater than RDA of selenium^[33][34][35] reduce the overall incidence of cancers

• Studies finding that greater than RDA of "A, B₆, C and E plus zinc",^[36] folic acid^[37] and selenium^[33][34][35] reduce the incidence of specific cancers

• Studies finding that supplementation of long-chain omega-3 essential fatty acids^[38] reduced the incidence of cardiac mortality in secondary prevention trials^[39][40][41]

• Early studies finding that vitamin E alone^[42] and vitamin C & E together^[42] reduce coronary disease mortality

• Studies finding that niacin^[43], selenium^[33], zinc^[44], vitamin C^[45] alone and vitamin E^[42] alone and vitamin C & E together^[42] reduce overall mortality rates

• Bruce Ames's studies on the effects of vitamins on genetic diseases and biochemical aging processes^{[46][47][48][49]}

• The advocacy of daily multivitamins in cancer prevention by Bruce Ames^[50][51] and by others in a JAMA review article for "chronic disease prevention in adults"^[52][53]

Some of these findings have reported as not consistent with other studies. For example, see Vitamin E controversy below, a subsequent meta-analysis found a lack of benefit to single isomeric alpha tocopheryl ester forms of vitamin E supplementation.^[54] Indeed, alpha tocopheryl ester supplementation might increase the risk for congestive heart failure.^[55] The Shutes decades earlier did specifically caution about tocopherol dosage and slow buildup rates for CHF patients and those with pre-exisiting rheumatic heart problems; modern orthomolecular medicine has different specific nutrient recommendations for CHF patients.^[56] Reconciling and confirming the conclusions of individual nutritional studies is a subject of ongoing research. Se redirects here. ... Folic acid and folate (the anion form) are forms of a water-soluble B vitamin. ... Se redirects here. ... Tocopherol, or Vitamin E, is a fat-soluble vitamin in eight forms that is an important antioxidant. ... 3D representation of vitamin C Chemical structure of vitamin C Vitamin C is a water-soluble nutrient and human vitamin essential for life and for maintaining optimal health, used by the body for many purposes. ... Niacin, also known as nicotinic acid or vitamin B3, is a water-soluble vitamin whose derivatives such as NADH, NAD, NAD+, and NADP play essential roles in energy metabolism in the living cell and DNA repair. ... Se redirects here. ... General Name, Symbol, Number zinc, Zn, 30 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 12, 4, d Appearance bluish pale gray Atomic mass 65. ... 3D representation of vitamin C Chemical structure of vitamin C Vitamin C is a water-soluble nutrient and human vitamin essential for life and for maintaining optimal health, used by the body for many purposes. ... Tocopherol, or Vitamin E, is a fat-soluble vitamin in eight forms that is an important antioxidant. ... 3D representation of vitamin C Chemical structure of vitamin C Vitamin C is a water-soluble nutrient and human vitamin essential for life and for maintaining optimal health, used by the body for many purposes. ... Bruce Ames is a professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of California, Berkeley, and a senior scientist at Childrens Hospital Oakland Research Institute (CHORI). ... Bruce Ames is a professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of California, Berkeley, and a senior scientist at Childrens Hospital Oakland Research Institute (CHORI). ... Congestive heart failure (CHF), also called congestive cardiac failure (CCF) or just heart failure, is a condition that can result from any structural or functional cardiac disorder that impairs the ability of the heart to fill with or pump a sufficient amount of blood throughout the body. ...

These studies all come from mainstream medical sources that do not claim to support orthomolecular doctrine, and in at least some cases, explicitly reject claims of orthomolecular proponents that nutritional supplements are desirable.^[57] Ames supports daily USRDA multivitamin supplements as a public-policy solution to the lack of vegetables in United States diets, but has not endorsed global use of megavitamin therapy propounded by orthomolecular medicine.^[50][51] Dietary Reference Intake is a set of guidelines set up in 1997 to give more detailed guidance than the RDA system which preceded it. ... A multivitamin is any preparation containing more than a single vitamin. ...

The skepticism about orthomolecular medicine comes in part because some of its proponents make claims more broad than those supported by double-blind randomized controlled studies,^{[5][58][6][59][60]} additionally considering observational studies, clinical and anecdotal experience, single blinded controlled tests, and case histories. Proponents of orthomolecular medicine argue that, despite the extensive and expensive testing of pharmaceuticals, a number of medications have recently been withdrawn after approval due to serious adverse events, and the FDA regulatory methodology and relationship with the pharmaceutical industry has been criticized.^[61] Double-blind describes an especially stringent way of conducting an experiment, usually on living, conscious, human subjects. ...

Nutritional supplements, such as those used in orthomolecular medicine, are less regulated than pharmaceuticals in the United States. Pharmaceuticals must be proven safe and effective to the satisfaction of the FDA before they can be marketed, whereas supplements must be proven unsafe before regulatory action can be taken.^[62] A number of orthomolecular US supplements are available in pharmaceutical versions that are sometimes quite similar in strength and general content, or in other countries are pharmaceuticals. The US regulations also have provisions to recognize a general level of safety for established nutrients that can forgo new drug safety tests. Proponents of nutritional supplement use have argued that the lower level of regulation results in cost savings for American consumers, pointing to higher supplement prices in Europe, where supplements are more tightly regulated or even unavailable.^[63] In the United States, a dietary supplement is defined under the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994 as a product taken by the mouth that contains a dietary ingredient that is intended as a supplement to the diet. ... The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is an agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services and is responsible for regulating food (humans and animal), dietary supplements, drugs (human and animal), cosmetics, medical devices (human and animal) and radiation emitting devices (including non-medical devices), biologics, and...

Criticism and controversy

The conventional view amongst mainstream medical physicians is that most orthomolecular therapies are insufficiently proven for clinical use, that the scientific foundations are weak, and that the studies that have been performed are too few and too open to disputed interpretation.^[58] Orthomolecular proponents, such as Robert Cathcart who predicts that 120+ grams per day intravenous vitamin C should cure SARS^[64] and has used up to 250 grams IV vitamin C per day, have been criticised without any conventional medical trials of such intravenous vitamin C treatments.^[65] The word physician should not be confused with physicist, which means a scientist in the area of physics. ... Dr Robert F. Cathcart III is a leading orthomolecular physician based in Los Altos, California. ... 3D representation of vitamin C Chemical structure of vitamin C Vitamin C is a water-soluble nutrient and human vitamin essential for life and for maintaining optimal health, used by the body for many purposes. ... Sars may refer to any of the following: Severe acute respiratory syndrome, commonly abbreviated as SARS Michael Sars, a Norwegian biologist, father of Georg Sars Georg Sars, a Norwegian biologist, son of Michael Sars Special Administrative Regions, commonly abbreviated as SARs Sars, Perm Krai, an urban settlement in Perm Krai...

Proponents of orthomolecular medicine argue that many mainstream physicians are unfamiliar with the concepts and clinical background of orthomolecular medicine. They dispute the interpretation of results of many mainstream studies, arguing that those interpretations or studies are "strawmen", using much lower doses, frequencies, duration or assimilable forms than they recommend^[66] or suffered from other special conditions, contamination, populations or statistical treatment often not clearly published in the documentation.^[67][68][69] ... For Wikipedia statistics, see m:Statistics Statistics is the science and practice of developing human knowledge through the use of empirical data expressed in quantitative form. ... In general terms, documentation is any communicable material (such as text, video, audio, etc. ...

The orthomolecular field remains controversial among mainstream medical organizations, including the American Cancer Society, the American Psychiatric Association, the National Institute of Mental Health, the American Academy of Pediatrics, CHAMPUS, and the Canadian Paediatric Society. A number of individuals and organizations contest the claims, benefits, degree of evidence and toxicity.^{[6][58][5][70][71]} Linus Pauling has been criticized for making overbroad claims^[72] for the efficacy of vitamin C but has received some support for modified claims in the last few years.^[73][69] The American Cancer Society (ACS) is a medical organization in the United States. ... The American Psychiatric Association is a professional organization of psychiatrists whose members are American and international physicians who are trained in psychiatry. ... The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) is one of 27 components of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), the United States federal governments principal biomedical and behavioral research agency. ... The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) is an organization of pediatricians. ... Logo of the CPS The Canadian Paediatric Society, or CPS, is a national advocacy association committed to the health needs of children and youth. ... Linus Carl Pauling (February 28, 1901 – August 19, 1994) was an American quantum chemist and biochemist. ...

The relationship of mainstream medicine to orthomolecular proponents has often been adversarial; orthomolecular proponents argue that mainstream medical claimants confuse orthomolecular medicine with other, less science based modalities.^[24] The American Academy of Pediatrics labelled orthomolecular medicine a "cult" in 1976, in response to claims that orthomolecular medicine could cure childhood psychoses and learning disorders.^[74] Conventional health professionals see orthomolecular medicine as encouraging individuals to dose themselves with large amounts of vitamins and other nutritients without conventional supervision, which they worry might be damaging to health.^[58] Rare risks^[75] of non-orthmolecular "mega" dosages of vitamin relatives, which frequently involved pharmaceutical analogues such as synthetic menadione, unsupervised misuse, deliberate abuse and earlier medical treatments, may include increased risk of coronary heart disease^[76], hypertension, thrombophlebitis, peripheral neuropathy, ataxia, neurological effects, liver toxicity, congenital abnormalities, spontaneous abortion, gouty arthritis, jaundice, kidney stones, and diarrhea.^{[58][77] [78][79][80][81]} Megavitamin proponents point^[82] to an almost zero level of deaths caused by vitamins, even with large overdoses, compared to the significant numbers from pharmaceuticals, including a number of over-the-counter items.^[83] The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) is an organization of pediatricians. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article may require cleanup. ... Menadione is a polycyclic aromatic ketone, based on 1,4-naphthoquinone, with a 2-methyl substituent. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Ischaemic heart disease. ... For other forms of hypertension see hypertension (disambiguation). ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into deep vein thrombosis. ... Peripheral neuropathy is the medical term for damage to nerves of the peripheral nervous system, which may be caused either by diseases of the nerve or from the side-effects of systemic illness. ... Ataxia (from Greek ataxiā, meaning failure to put in order) is unsteady and clumsy motion of the limbs or trunk due to a failure of the gross coordination of muscle movements. ... Neurology is a branch of medicine dealing with disorders of the central and peripheral nervous systems. ... The liver is the largest internal organ of the human body. ... The skull and crossbones is a common symbol for toxicity. ... A congenital disorder is a medical condition that is present at birth. ... Gout (also called metabolic arthritis) is a disease due to an inborn uric acid metabolism. ... Jaundice, also known as icterus (attributive adjective: icteric), is a yellowing of the skin, conjuctiva (clear covering over the sclera, or whites of the eyes) and mucous membranes caused by increased levels of bilirubin in the human body (or the body of another red blooded animal). ... Kidney stones are solid accretions (crystals) of dissolved minerals in urine found inside the kidneys or ureters. ... Diarrhea or diarrhoea (see American and British English spelling differences) is a condition in which the sufferer has frequent watery, loose bowel movements (from the ancient Greek word διαρροή = leakage; literally meaning to run through). Acute infectious diarrhea is a common cause of death in developing countries (particularly among infants), accounting...

Vitamin E controversy

The accumulated evidence of randomized clinical trials with conventional, chemically-modified alpha tocopheryl esters, containing only one kind of natural vitamin E (of eight vitamers) in the stabilized (chemically inactivated) ester form^[84] (usually acetate) have been controverted. Initial hopes for alpha tocopheryl esters (usually acetate) were based on suppositional grounds and epidemiological data that often involved the natural, full spectrum dietary forms of vitamin E (mixed R,R,R tocopherols - alpha- beta- gamma-, delta- isomers).^[85][86] Meta analysis of several randomized clinical trials of manufactured antioxidants, including alpha tocopheryl esters (acetate, succinate) not in an antioxidant form, have not shown any benefit to alpha tocopheryl ester supplementation for preventing coronary heart disease.^[87] Orthomolecular recommendations for the full vitamin E complex typically include an additional 25% to 200% w/w of beta-, gamma-, and delta-tocopherols.^[88] Recent scientific and medical research shows gamma-tocopherol, the most common vitamer of natural vitamin E, has unique beneficial functions and "gamma tocopherol is considered an integral component of the nutrient-based recommendations in many EU member countries."^[89] Tocopherol, or Vitamin E, is a fat-soluble vitamin in eight forms that is an important antioxidant. ... Epidemiology (Greek epi = upon, among; demos = people, district; logos = word, discourse), defined literally, is the study of epidemics in humans. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Ischaemic heart disease. ...

A controversial meta-analysis^[90] published in 2005 claimed that "high dose" alpha tocopheryl esters (>=400 units/day) were associated with an all-cause mortality risk difference of 39 per 10,000 persons)^[91]. Furthermore, a significant relationship was claimed between dose and all-cause mortality, with increased risk with doses exceeding 150 I.U. per day. This meta-analysis, however, was criticized on a number of grounds.^[92] One of several criticisms which the authors did not rebut was that the mortality effect was a confounder resulting entirely from excess mortality in a few studies of combined alpha-tocopheryl ester and synthetic beta carotene in heavy smokers. Known for decades,^[93] that "[t]he antagonisms that exist between...carotene and vitamin E are complicated",^[94] this supplement and smoking exposure combination once had some academic support^[95] but synthetic "beta carotene...has previously been shown to be harmful"^[96] in smokers, a subpopulation with high oxidative stress.^[97] Long commercialized, multiple antioxidant megavitamin combinations, such as "ACES", that also include antioxidants vitamin C^[98] and selenium^[99] to recycle the first two antioxidants and aid liver peroxide detoxification, were not tested or measured.^[90] Antioxidant supplements with varying amounts of carotene(s) for (pro) vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin E and Selenium are known by the acronym, ACES. The commercial ACES formulas are a first generation, high potency, combined antioxidant that vary in component concentrations, specific components or source, and their ratio according to...

The orthomolecularly-preferred "vitamin E", mixed (natural) R,R,R tocopherols,^[90] available for two-thirds of a century, remain to be authoritatively evaluated in tests controlled for bile, pancreatic function, certain specific heart problems and risk factors, blood levels and cofactors (vitamins C, D₃, K₁, K₂,^[100] selenium, co-enzyme Q10, etc.) in the common orthomolecular range, 600 - 3200 IU alpha tocopherol plus 25%-200% by weight of other R,R,R tocopherols. With the exception of controlling for standard comorbidities such as heart disease, controlling for pancreatic function, various vitamin cofactors, etc. has not been felt by conventional medicine to be clinically relevant nor routinely done in clinical trials. However, naturopathic medicine texts ^[101] and naturopathic physicians routinely recommend such laboratory tests^[102] of biliary and pancreatic functions in their orthomolecular-related modalities.

Delay in therapy

Conventional physicians express concern that megavitamin and orthomolecular therapies used solely as alternative treatments by other practitioners, if not successful, may create dangerous delays in obtaining conventional treatments, such as radiation and chemotherapy for cancer.^[58] For example, in a highly publicized Canadian case, the chemotherapy and orthomolecular treatments of a 13-year-old cancer patient, Tyrell Dueck, were delayed, possibly fatally, due to his parents' religious beliefs, interest in alternative treatments, and lengthy legal battles. ^[103] Orthomolecular medical practitioners and orthomolecular oriented naturopaths have long expressed similar concerns about conventional medicine, particularly with gut related and chronic diseases as well as viral diseases.^{[104][105][106][107]} Radiation in Physics is the process of emitting energy in the form of waves or particles. ... Chemotherapy is the use of chemical substances to treat disease. ... Cancer is a class of diseases or disorders characterized by uncontrolled division of cells and the ability of these cells to invade other tissues, either by direct growth into adjacent tissue through invasion or by implantation into distant sites by metastasis. ...

Other claims of benefit

Several orthomolecular related AIDS approaches such as multivitamins^[108], selenium and amino acids^[109] are used with claimed improvements in patients. High dose vitamin C treatments have long been used clinically by some orthomolecular practitioners to treat AIDS patients^[110]; a minor 1994 in vitro laboratory study raised questions that sustained megadoses of vitamin C might inhibit some immune cells.^[111] In these situations, mainstream medical criticism arises because orthomolecular approaches are advocated as substitutes for, rather than complements to, current medical treatments. To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article may require cleanup. ...

Alleged economic interests and connections

Some orthomolecular proponents claim partisan politics, pharmaceutical industry influence, and competitive considerations to be significant factors. However, some prominent orthomolecular proponents sell lines of orthomolecular products and acceptance for some tests questioned about their benefit vary by medical affiliation such as hair analysis.^{[112][113][114]} The Linus Pauling Institute's funding comes mostly from National Institutes of Health^[115]. Several orthomolecular therapies have been officially sanctioned within Europe^[116] and Japan^{[117] [118][119]}. Hair analysis is the chemical analysis of a hair sample. ... The National Institutes of Health (NIH) is the primary agency of the United States government responsible for medical research. ...

Notable orthomolecular doctors

Abram Hoffer (b. ... Frederick Robert Klenner, (1907 – 1984) was a medical researcher and doctor in general practise who pioneered the use of large doses of ascorbic acid (vitamin C) to treat a wide range of illnesses, but most notably in the treatment of polio. ... Dr Robert F. Cathcart III is a leading orthomolecular physician based in Los Altos, California. ... It is proposed that this article be deleted, because of the following concern: Notability If you can address this concern by improving, copyediting, sourcing, renaming or merging the page, please edit this page and do so. ... This article or section contains information that has not been verified and thus might not be reliable. ... Glen Dettman, BA, PhD, (b. ... Archie Kalokerinos AMM MBBS PhD FAPM is an Australian physician known as a pioneer in orthomolecular medicine, though his work remains largely unrecognised by established science. ... Matthias Rath, M.D. (born 1955 in Stuttgart, Germany) is a controversial German physician. ... Julian M. Whitaker, M.D. (b. ...

Orthomolecular scientists

• Irwin Stone
• Linus Pauling
• David R. Hawkins
• Steve Hickey

Dr. Irwin Stone (b. ... Linus Carl Pauling (February 28, 1901 – August 19, 1994) was an American quantum chemist and biochemist. ... Doctor David R. Hawkins is an American author, mystic, spiritual teacher, and psychiatrist in Sedona, Arizona. ...

Bibliography

Advocates

• Abram Hoffer (1998) Putting It All Together: The New Orthomolecular Nutrition, McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-87983-633-4
• Abram Hoffer, M.D. with Linus Pauling (2004) Healing Cancer: Complementary Vitamin & Drug Treatments, CCNM Press, ISBN 1-897025-11-4
• Pauling, Linus (1986) How to Live Longer and Feel Better, W. H. Freeman and Company, ISBN 0-380-70289-4
• Roger J. Williams, Dwight K. Kalita (1979) Physician's Handbook on Orthomolecular Medicine, Keats Publishing, ISBN 0-87983-199-5
• Melvyn R. Werbach, Jeffrey Moss (1999) Textbook of Nutritional Medicine, Third Line Press, ISBN 0-9618550-9-6
• Joseph E. Pizzorno, Jr., Michael T. Murray (November 2005) Textbook of Natural Medicine, 3rd edition, Churchill Livingstone, ISBN 0-443-07300-7 · 2368pp

Critics

• Barrie R. Cassileth (1998) Alternative medicine handbook: the complete reference guide to alternative and complementary therapies. New York: W.W.Norton & Co., ISBN 0-393-04566-8

See also

• Life extension
• List of life extension related topics
• Metabolomics
• Megavitamin therapy
• Health freedom

Life extension refers to an increase in maximum or average lifespan, especially in humans, by slowing down or reversing the processes of aging. ... Following is a list of topics related to life extension: Accelerated aging disease Cockaynes syndrome Progeria Werners syndrome Xeroderma pigmentosum Accident Advanced Cell Technology Corporation Aerobic exercise Age-adjusted life expectancy Age-Related Eye Disease Study Age-Related Macular Degeneration Aging Aging and memory Aging brain Aging population... Metabolomics is the systematic study of the unique chemical fingerprints that specific cellular processes leave behind - specifically, the study of their small-molecule metabolite profiles The metabolome represents the collection of all metabolites in a biological organism, which are the end products of its gene expression. ... In nutrition and CAM, megavitamin therapy makes use of large amounts of vitamins, often many times greater than the recommended dietary allowance (RDA), to treat many types of diseases. ... The term health freedom is generally used to describe the concept of people being free to choose for themselves the type of healthcare therapies and healthcare maintenance that they wish to use to benefit their health. ...

External links

• Biologically Based Practices: An Overview, National Institute of Health National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine

The National Institutes of Health is an institution of the United States government which focuses on medical research. ... The National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine or NCCAM, a division of the National Institutes of Health within the Department of Health and Human Services of the United States federal government, was established in October, 1991, as the Office of Alternative Medicine, which was re-established as the NCCAM...

Support

• Orthomolecular Medicine
• Orthomolecular Medicine Online
• DoctorYourself.com - Personal site of Andrew Saul PhD, Contributing Editor for the Journal of Orthomolecular Medicine.
• Analysis of Megavitamin Therapy
• Linus Pauling Institute website

Criticism

• "Vitamin Therapy, Megadose / Orthomolecular Therapy", British Columbia Provincial Health Services Authority 2000
• Orthomolecular Therapy, a critical analysis of orthomolecular medicine by Stephen Barrett MD. 2000
• Faddism and quackery in cancer nutrition, Nutr Cancer. 1984;6(3):196-206.
• Should We "Thank God" for Julian Whitaker?, American Council on Science and Health, 1999
• Recommendations of the NCAHF Task Force on Supplement Abuse (1987)

Stephen Barrett, M.D. Stephen J. Barrett, M.D. (born 1933), is a retired American psychiatrist and author best known for his consumer advocacy related work regarding health issues. ... The American Council on Science and Health (ACSH) is a scientific organization founded in 1978 by Dr. Elizabeth Whelan. ...

Footnotes and Reference links