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The foundation of the U.N. The United Nations (UN) is an international organization whose stated aims are to facilitate co-operation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress and human rights issues. ... Single European Act A treaty is a binding agreement under international law entered into by actors in international law, namely states and international organizations. ... The Antarctic Treaty and related agreements, collectively called the Antarctic Treaty System or ATS, regulate the international relations with respect to Antarctica, Earths only uninhabited continent. ... United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea Opened for signature December 10, 1982 in Montego Bay (Jamaica) Entered into force November 16, 1994[1] Conditions for entry into force 60 ratifications Parties 149[2] For maritime law in general see Admiralty law. ...  signed and ratified  only signed The Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, better known as the Moon Treaty or Moon Agreement is an international treaty that turns jurisdiction of all heavenly bodies (including the orbits around such bodies) over to the international community. ... The terms international waters or transboundary waters apply where any of the following types of bodies of water (or their drainage basins) transcend international boundaries: oceans, large marine ecosystems, enclosed or semi-enclosed regional seas and estuaries, rivers, lakes, groundwater systems (aquifers), and wetlands [1]. Oceans and seas, waters outside... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Image File history File links Broom_icon. ...

History

The Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies also known as the Outer Space Treaty (the Treaty), was opened for signature in the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union (the three depository governments) on January 27, 1967, and the Treaty entered into force on October 10, 1967. As of January 2006, 98 countries are states-parties to the treaty, while another 27 have signed the treaty but have not yet completed ratification. January 27 is the 27th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1967 (MCMLXVII) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar (the link is to a full 1967 calendar). ... October 10 is the 283rd day of the year (284th in leap years). ... 1967 (MCMLXVII) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar (the link is to a full 1967 calendar). ...

The Treaty

The Outer Space Treaty represents the basic legal framework of international space law and, among its principles, it bars States Parties to the Treaty from placing nuclear weapons or any other weapons of mass destruction in orbit of Earth, installing them on the Moon or any other celestial body, or to otherwise station them in outer space. It exclusively limits the use of the Moon and other celestial bodies to peaceful purposes and expressly prohibits their use for testing weapons of any kind, conducting military maneuvers, or establishing military bases, installations, and fortifications (Art.IV). However, the Treaty does not expressly prohibit the placement or use of weapons in orbit, so long as they are for peaceful purposes. It does explicitly forbid any government from claiming a celestial resource such as the Moon or a planet since they are common heritage of humanity. Art. II of the Treaty states, in fact, that “outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means.”.

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Article VI of the Outer Space Treaty deals with international responsibility, stating that "the activities of non-governmental entities in outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, shall require authorization and continuing supervision by the appropriate State Party to the Treaty" and that States Parties shall bear international responsibility for national space activities whether carried out by governmental or non-governmental entities. Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1357x628, 47 KB) green - ratified; yellow - signed only Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1357x628, 47 KB) green - ratified; yellow - signed only Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1. ... John Hancocks signature is one of the most prominent on the United States Declaration of Independence. ... Ratification is the process of adopting an international treaty, or a constitution or other nationally binding document (such as an amendment to a constitution) by the agreement of multiple subnational entities. ... John Hancocks signature is one of the most prominent on the United States Declaration of Independence. ...

Following discussions arising from Project West Ford, a consultation clause was inserted in Article IX of the Outer Space Treaty: "A State Party to the Treaty which has reason to believe that an activity or experiment planned by another State Party in outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, would cause potentially harmful interference with activities in the peaceful exploration and use of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, may request consultation concerning the activity or experiment." Project West Ford (aka Westford Needles and Project Needles) was a test carried out by Massachusetts Institute of Technologys Lincoln Laboratory on behalf of the United States military in 1961 and 1963 to create a ring of copper dipole antennas (2cm long needles) in orbit which would allow global...

These concepts are also reaffirmed in Article 11 of the “Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies” (the Moon Treaty) of 1979, which was intended as a clarifying follow-up to the 1967 Outer Space Treaty. However, it failed to be ratified by any major space power. Experts of international space law state that the Moon falls under the legal concept of res communis, which means that it belongs to a group of persons, and may be used by every member of the group, but cannot be appropriated by anyone (the concept is also applied to International Waters).^{[citation needed]} The effect of the Outer Space Treaty to restrict control of private property rights, in the way that the law of the sea prevents anyone owning the sea.^{[citation needed]} This is often disputed^{[citation needed]} by those who claim the ability to sell property rights on the Moon and other bodies, but the dispute has never been tested in a court of law.  signed and ratified  only signed The Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, better known as the Moon Treaty or Moon Agreement is an international treaty that turns jurisdiction of all heavenly bodies (including the orbits around such bodies) over to the international community. ... The terms international waters or transboundary waters apply where any of the following types of bodies of water (or their drainage basins) transcend international boundaries: oceans, large marine ecosystems, enclosed or semi-enclosed regional seas and estuaries, rivers, lakes, groundwater systems (aquifers), and wetlands [1]. Oceans and seas, waters outside...

A test (of sorts) of the Outer Space Treaty is being put forward by Canadian artist Cesar Saez's project to float a giant helium-filled banana over Texas in 2008, a very serious project supported by the Canada and Quebec Arts Councils. The Michigan consulting firm of nearSpace Technology is also involved in the project.[1]

See also

• Squadron Leader KK Nair's "Space:The Frontiers of Modern Defence" Knowledge World Publishers, New Delhi, Chap-5 (Examining Space Law...), Pg 84-104, available at [2]
• High altitude nuclear explosion
• Militarization of space
• Space law
• Space Preservation Treaty

Bluegill Triple Prime shot, 1962, altitude 31 miles High altitude nuclear explosions have historically been nuclear explosions which take place outside the Earths atmosphere. ... A ground-based interceptor, designed to destroy incoming ICBMs, is lowered into its silo at the missile defence complex at Fort Greely, Alaska, July 22, 2004. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... The Space Preservation Treaty (SPT) is a proposed international treaty to ban space weapons. ...

External links

• Full text of the "Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies" in Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, or Spanish
• Easy-to-read version of the text
• "United Nations Treaties and Principles on Space Law""
• "Space Law Probe""

Wikisource has original text related to this article:

Outer Space Treaty of 1967