Pachypodium is a plant genus that belongs to the dogbane family, Apocynaceae. Pachypodium comes from Greek pachy (thick) and podium (foot), hence meaning thick-footed. Jump to: navigation, search Divisions Land plants (embryophytes) Non-vascular plants (bryophytes) Hepaticophyta - liverworts Anthocerotophyta - hornworts Bryophyta - mosses Vascular plants (tracheophytes) Lycopodiophyta - clubmosses Equisetophyta - horsetails Pteridophyta - true ferns Psilotophyta - whisk ferns Ophioglossophyta - adderstongues Seed plants (spermatophytes) †Pteridospermatophyta - seed ferns Pinophyta - conifers Cycadophyta - cycads Ginkgophyta - ginkgo Gnetophyta - gnetae Magnoliophyta - flowering plants... In biology, a genus (plural genera) is a grouping in the classification of living organisms having one or more related and morphologically similar species. ... Jump to: navigation, search A family of Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso in 1997 A family is a domestic group of people, or a number of domestic groups, typically affiliated by birth or marriage, or by comparable legal relationships including domestic partnership, adoption, surname and in some cases ownership (as was the... Genera See text The Family Apocynaceae or dogbane family of flowering plants includes trees, shrubs, herbs, or lianas. ...

Genus characteristics

All Pachypodium are succulent plants that exhibit, to varying degrees, the morphological characteristics of pachycaule trunks and spinescence. These are the most general features of the genus and can be considered distinguishing characteristics. Succulent plants, or succulents, are plants that store water in their enlarged fleshy leaves, stems, or roots. ... The word characteristic has several meanings: In mathematics, see characteristic (algebra) characteristic function characteristic subgroup Euler characteristic method of characteristics In genetics, see characteristic (genetics). ... Trunk may be: Look up trunk in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... In biology, a genus (plural genera) is a grouping in the classification of living organisms having one or more related and morphologically similar species. ...

The pachycaule trunk is a morphologically enlarged trunk that stores water so as to survive seasonal drought or intemitent periods of root dessication in exposed, dry, and rocky conditions. Whereas there is great variation in the habit of the plant body, all Pachypodium exhibit pachycaul growth. Variation in habit can range from dwarf flattened plants to bottle shaped shrubs to dendroid-shaped trees. A drought is an extended period where water availability falls below the statistical requirements for a region. ... Jump to: navigation, search A habit is the usual condition or state of a person or thing, either natural or acquired, regarded as something had, possessed, and firmly retained. ...

The second general characteristic of Pachypodium is spinescence, or having spines. The spines come clustered in either pairs or triplets with these clusters often arranged in rings or whorls around the trunk. Spines emerge with leaves, and like leaves grow for a short period before stopping growth and hardending. Since spines do not regenerate, weathering and abrasion can wear away all but the youngest spines from older specimens, leaving smoothe trunks and branches.

To some extent, branches are a characteristic of the genus. Some caution is warranted in over-generalizing this characteristic. Pachypodium namaquanum is often branchless. Pachypodium brevicaule has no clear branches, and indeed may have evolved an alternative to branching in the form of nodes from which leaves, spines, and inflorescences emerge. In general Pachypodium have few branches. Since the environmental stresses and factors that contribute to branching can vary widely even in small areas, individual plants of the same species exhibit wide variation in branching morphology. Jump to: navigation, search Binomial name Pachypodium brevicaule Baker Pachypodium brevicaule is a species of plant that belongs to the dogbane family Apocynaceae, which is now amplified by the inclusion of the milkweed family Asclepiadaceae -- an important union to botanists and horticulturalists interested in the alliance succulents. ... An inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers on a branch of a plant. ...

Unlike many members of the Apocynaceae, including some members of the superficially similar Adenium, Pachypodium species do not exude a milky latex. Rather, the sap is always clear. Genera See text The Family Apocynaceae or dogbane family of flowering plants includes trees, shrubs, herbs, or lianas. ... Jump to: navigation, search The LaTeX logo, typeset with LaTeX LATEX is a document preparation system for the TeX typesetting program. ... Jump to: navigation, search The abbreviation, acronym, or initialism SAP has several different meanings: SAP AG - a German software company, or its various products such as SAP R/3 or SAP BW second audio program (television) Session Announcement Protocol Soritong audio player Simple As Possible Computer Architecture Structural Adjustment Program...

Morphology

For detailed description of the morphology of the genus, see Morphology of Pachypodium.

The morphology of the genus Pachypodium varies significantly both within and between species and is highly responsive to its immediate surrounding microenvironment. Pachypodium do not overly respond morphologically to larger vegetative zones. For example, Pachypodium can sometimes occur in prehumid vegetative zones where a taxon might find a suitable habitat on a rocky, sunny inselberg jutting above the humid canopy of the forest. Jump to: navigation, search This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... Morphology is the following: In linguistics, morphology is the study of the structure of word forms. ... In biology, a genus (plural genera) is a grouping in the classification of living organisms having one or more related and morphologically similar species. ... According to Michael Porters ground breaking 1979 theory, there are 5 forces that influence a firms competitive strategy. ... An inselberg is an isolated hill, knob, ridge, or small mountain that rises abruptly from a gently sloping or virtually level surrounding plain. ...

Morpholigically, Pachypodium can be highly flexible in organization. Branching, if present at all, can be from either the base of the plant or at the crown. Freeform branching is a morphological adaptation to factors of the immediate microenvironment which, by their diversity, account for the wide range of habits:

• flattened dwarf species less than 8 cm tall but reaching 40cm in diameter
• bottle- or oval-shaped shrubs to 4 m tall
• both branching and unbranched cigar- and cactus-like trees to 5m tall.

Despite microenvironmental variation, Pachypodium are always succulent and always exhibit pachycaul trunks. Pachypodium are usually spinescent, but individual variation in spinescence as well as weathering/abrasion can result is plants with few if any spines.

Adaptive mechanisms

To talk about adaptive mechanisms of Pachypodium, one evidently invokes a discussion about speciation, or variation in species. Pachypodium have two general succulent characteristics to respond to the xeric landscape: "pacycaule trunks" and "spinescence." Yet it is also uniquely "flexible" and "strict" in its organizational, structural morphology, which has aided it in responding to the challenges of geological, xeric landscapes. Variation among the species is so significant, with exception to the Pachypodium rosulatum aggregates, among their morphology that the discussion of adaptive mechanisms leads to a question: Jump to: navigation, search The eye is an adaptation. ... Mechanism is the following: In general, a mechanism is part of a chain of causes leading to some object or process. ... Speciation refers to the appearance of a new species of life on earth, particularly as seen in the fossil record. ... Jump to: navigation, search In biology, the most commonly used definition of species was first coined by Ernst Mayr. ... Succulent plants, or succulents, are plants that store water in their enlarged fleshy leaves, stems, or roots. ... Deserts and xeric shrublands is a biome characterized by a dry climate. ... Morphology is the following: In linguistics, morphology is the study of the structure of word forms. ... Jump to: navigation, search Geology (from Greek γη- (ge-, the earth) and λογος (logos, word, reason)) is the science and study of the Earth, its composition, structure, physical properties, history, and the processes that shape it. ... Landscape can mean: The layout of a land area, particularly with respect to its appearance. ...

"How do taxa became species?" A taxon (plural taxa) is an element of a taxonomy, e. ...

Pachypodium are always succulent plants. Hence the genus employs two types of adaptive means to xeric, isolated, geological conditions of the landscape, especially in Madagascar: Jump to: navigation, search The eye is an adaptation. ... Deserts and xeric shrublands is a biome characterized by a dry climate. ...

Pachycaule. The plant develops a pachycaule trunk that retains water. The trunk, as well as branch, is abnormally thickened into various shapes. Within this genus, these shapes range from dwarf plants to bottle-shaped shrubs and cigar-like trunk for a tree. With two species, the adaptation to develop geophytic trunks, or trunks that are beneath the soil's surface can be observed. But morphologically, these geophytic trunks are caudexes, enlarged stems or trunks that stores water. They should never be misunderstood for roots, because the enlargement occurs above the point where the roots branch off the main axis (the crown) or trunk. This evolutionary adaptation of a geophytic trunk is a response to the habitat of a species given to its typical landscape conditions. Trunk may be: Look up trunk in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... A dwarf is a short humanoid creature in Norse mythology, fairy tales, fantasy fiction and role-playing games. ... A willow shrub A shrub or bush is a horticultural rather than strictly botanical category of woody plant, distinguished from a tree by its multiple stems and lower height, usually less than 6 m tall. ... Jump to: navigation, search The coniferous Coast Redwood, the tallest tree species on earth A tree can be defined as a large, perennial, woody plant. ... Jump to: navigation, search For the heavy metal band see Soil (band) Soil is unconsolidated rock particles on the surface of the earth, mixed with organic matter from plant decay. ... Morphology is the following: In linguistics, morphology is the study of the structure of word forms. ... Roots is: The plural of Root Roots (album) Roots (TV miniseries), a mini-series based on a novel by Alex Haley Roots: The Saga of an American Family, a novel by Alex Haley Roots Canada Ltd. ... Crown names several entities associated with monarchy: A crown (headgear), the headgear worn by a monarch, other high dignitaries, divinities etcetera. ... Trunk may be: Look up trunk in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

spinescence. Pachypodium make use of spinescence as an adaptive mechanism responding to the landscape. Adaptively this spinescence is employed to different degree in various species to collect moisture from fogs and dews. The spines point in all angles, are paired or in sets of threes where the third spine is unequal, and thus captures moisture that can drip directly down to the soil beneath the plant from the branches and branchlets. The degree of spinescence demonstrates the degree to which species rely on spines as a means to collect moisture from microclimate conditions, such as localized dews or fogs within microenvironments, and drip to the soil immediately below the spine on a branch or branchlet. The falling moisture immediately around the plant saturates the soil. A superficial root system will often develop to take advantage of this source of moisture. Spine is a word with several meanings. ... Jump to: navigation, search Moisture generally refers to the presence of water in trace amounts. ... Early morning fog obscures the surface of this lake in Carrollton, Georgia, but the sky remains clear. ... Dew on leaves of grass Dew on a spiders web Dew is the term for small droplets of water that appear on thin objects in the morning or evening. ... Jump to: navigation, search For the heavy metal band see Soil (band) Soil is unconsolidated rock particles on the surface of the earth, mixed with organic matter from plant decay. ... Jump to: navigation, search Moisture generally refers to the presence of water in trace amounts. ... Tree ferns thrive in a protected dell at Heligan Gardens, in Cornwall, England, latitude 50o 15N A microclimate is a local zone wherein the climate differs from the surrounding area. ... Dew on leaves of grass Dew on a spiders web Dew is the term for small droplets of water that appear on thin objects in the morning or evening. ... Early morning fog obscures the surface of this lake in Carrollton, Georgia, but the sky remains clear. ... Jump to: navigation, search For the heavy metal band see Soil (band) Soil is unconsolidated rock particles on the surface of the earth, mixed with organic matter from plant decay. ... Jump to: navigation, search Moisture generally refers to the presence of water in trace amounts. ...

The concept of "micro-endemism" plays an important role in this relationship between adaptation mechanisms and speciation. It suggests a certain small scale "nativeness" by virtue of originating or occurring naturally in a particular place or location. The landscape of Madagascar is a perfect example of "micro-endemism" for species of Pachypodium and other taxa. Three factors can be seen to attribute speciation, or the occurrence of species diversity, via adaptive mechanisms to accelerated evolution as it occurs within the xeric landscape and climate. ... Endemic, in a broad sense, can mean belonging or native to, characteristic of, or prevalent in a particular geography, race, field, area, or environment; Native to an area or scope. ... Place is a term that has a variety of meanings in a dictionary sense, but which is principally used as a noun to denote location, though in a sense of a location identified with that which is located there. ... Landscape can mean: The layout of a land area, particularly with respect to its appearance. ... Jump to: navigation, search Charles Darwin, father of the theory of evolution by natural selection. ...

(1) The variation of geology and topology in dry climates is thought to have a greater effect upon plants than in areas with high rainfall. Xeric environments are thus more demanding of adaptive mechanisms to aid in the plant's survival than in places where rainfall is plentiful. The more the demanding, generally the more "mechanized" or "mechanisms" are needed to aid the plants' survival.

(2) The geological formations of locally xeric landscapes break up populations of organisms, i.e. plants, into smaller groups, where each group can initially interbreed but, with time, develop new genotypes and cannot be breed with exception to natural hybridization. Localized geology becomes harder to cross over for a given population to be "continuous" in a xeric geological landscape, because more demands are placed on the population. Therefore, populations are broken down into smaller units within this landscape. Groups of the original population become located to unique microenvironments within the landscape. Accordingly measures to adapt to these microenvironments become more singular to the isolated habitat. Adaptive mechanisms are employed so as to aid the survival of the plant group. This adaptation eventually, in part, leads to speciation in the habitat, or diverse species across the spectrum of the landscape. In biology and ecology, an organism (in Greek organon = instrument) is a living being. ... Divisions Green algae land plants (embryophytes) non-vascular embryophytes Hepatophyta - liverworts Anthocerophyta - hornworts Bryophyta - mosses vascular plants (tracheophytes) seedless vascular plants Lycopodiophyta - clubmosses Equisetophyta - horsetails Pteridophyta - true ferns Psilotophyta - whisk ferns Ophioglossophyta - adderstongue ferns seed plants (spermatophytes) †Pteridospermatophyta - seed ferns Pinophyta - conifers Cycadophyta - cycads Ginkgophyta - ginkgo Gnetophyta - gnetae Magnoliophyta - flowering... The genotype is the specific genetic makeup (the specific genome) of an individual, usually in the form of DNA. It codes for the phenotype of that individual. ... In genetics, hybridisation is the process of mixing different species or varieties of organisms. ... Jump to: navigation, search Geology (from Greek γη- (ge-, the earth) and λογος (logos, word, reason)) is the science and study of the Earth, its composition, structure, physical properties, history, and the processes that shape it. ... According to Michael Porters ground breaking 1979 theory, there are 5 forces that influence a firms competitive strategy. ...

(3) Taxa tend to develop specialized xeromorphoric structures at some architectural level in arid, geological and topological landscapes, where a strategy of a "flexible" and "strict" architectural, organizational morphology at various levels of structure for Pachypodium becomes advantageous to succeeding in the isolated, specialized landscape. This strategy is seen in the manifest flexible variations of habit in species of Pachypodium while all the same they are "strictly" xeromorphic pachycaule trunks meant to conserve water for dry periods. At another level of structure, namely that of organs, we can see that dew and fog dripping spines are examples of a xeromorphic adaptive mechanized organ responding to microenvironments. A dune in the Egyptian desert In geography, a desert is a landscape form or region that receives little precipitation. ... Topology (Greek topos, place and logos, study) is a branch of mathematics concerned with the study of topological spaces. ... Dew on leaves of grass Dew on a spiders web Dew is the term for small droplets of water that appear on thin objects in the morning or evening. ... Early morning fog obscures the surface of this lake in Carrollton, Georgia, but the sky remains clear. ...

These newly created species from within the xeromorphic landscape take on different characters as responses to the habitat. For instance, there is an advantage to morphologically developing into bottle-shaped "shrubs" where the plants exist in open, sunny microenvironments on top of porous sandstone. Little completion exists for height within the habitat. Likewise, where competition for resources is more competitive--both in the number of species and the height of surrounding plants--there are times when it is to the advantage of a plant to develop into arborescent, dendroid “trees.” This development is because these particular Pachypodium must compete with other plants for resources in a dry deciduous forest, composed of, perhaps, arborescent Aloe, members of the Didiereaceae genera--Alluaudia, Alluaudiopsis, Decaryia, and Didierea; all endemic to Madagascar--and Uncarina species, for instance. Habitat (from the Latin for it inhabits) is the place where a particular species lives and grows. ... Jump to: navigation, search Sandstone near Stadtroda, Germany Sandstone is an sedimentary rock composed mainly of feldspar and quartz and varies in colour (in a similar way to sand), through grey, yellow, red, and white. ... Species See Species Flower bud of Aloe Vera Leaf close up Aloe is a genus of succulent, flowering plants in the family Asphodelaceae and contains about 400 different species. ... Genera Alluaudia Alluaudiopsis Decaryia Didierea Didiereaceae is a small family of just four genera and 11 species of flowering plants endemic to Madagascar, where they form an important component of the Madagascar spiny forests. ... Species Alluaudia ascendens Alluaudia comosa Alluaudia dumosa Alluaudia humbertii Alluaudia montagnacii Alluaudia procera Alluaudia is a genus of six species of flowering plants endemic to Madagascar, where they form an important component of the Madagascar spiny forests. ...

The adaptive mechanism in a morphological form and an ecological response to habitats are typically manifested together at once for the genus Pachypodium.

Examining Pachypodium reveals characteristics of various organs that adapt to the microenvironment. These adaptations, variations on habit, trunks, branches, branchlets, spines, leaves, or flowers, are plentiful in demonstrating how Pachypodium as a genus fosters greater variation in its speciation. The manner in which speciation occurs in Pachypodium, therefore, is apparent: adaptive mechanisms on a morphological level respond to the microenvironment of Pachypodium habitat. The genus' unique organizational, architectural morphology shapes plants that are highly, adaptively responsive to their immediate, surrounding, microenvironments. The duplicity of an adaptive mechanism that is at once "strict" and "flexible" at differing levels of plant physiology, or structure, has granted Pachypodium the ability to evolve within the landscape into variations that fulfill an ecological niche as various species. Jump to: navigation, search A habit is the usual condition or state of a person or thing, either natural or acquired, regarded as something had, possessed, and firmly retained. ... Trunks can mean: Trunks are a type of male swimwear and underwear. ... Spine is a word with several meanings. ... This article is about the leaf, a plant organ. ... Wildflowers A flower is the reproductive organ of those plants classified as angiosperms ( flowering plants; Division Magnoliophyta). ... Jump to: navigation, search (Ecology is sometimes used incorrectly as a synonym for the natural environment. ...

The hypothesis of micro-endemism, therefore, states that speciation occurs in small specific habitats as aided by adaptive mechanism occurring in geological, topographical, and climatic isolation. Geologically and topographically, plant populations in xeric climates are broken down into smaller groups. The microclimate responds to the given location transforming it into a habitat. Isolated , the duplicity of organization in Pachypodium form through geology and location significant variation where over evolutionary time a new species might develop, if not have developed. The development of new species is through, in part, the adaptive mechanisms of pachycaule and spinescence as well as strict and flexible structural organization at various levels of plant physiology. Jump to: navigation, search A hypothesis (foundation from ancient Greek hupothesis where hupo = under and thesis = placing) is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon. ...

Taxonomy

See main articles Invalid species and varieties of Pachypodium, Valid species of Pachypodium, Unrecognized species of Pachypodium and Pachypodium key to species. Those 4 articles are to be merged into one, to be renamed Taxonomy of Pachypodium.

There are a host of taxonomical terms that describe the process when a published taxon becomes not accepted by the larger community of Bonatist, and eventually the world community. ... The Pachypodium genus is usually conceived as a general speciation-concept in two broad strokes where species are organized by macro-locations in either Continental Southern Africa or Madagascar. ... There are different references to unrecognized species of Pachypodium on the Internet. ... A Pachypodium botanical, Dichotomous key provides a means to identify a specific species within a genus, as is our case. ...

Number of species

There are now 25 known species, of which 20 come from Madagascar, where isolated landscapes and micro-environmental conditions have produced highly specialized species. The species account continues to grow as Pachypodium menabeum has been resurrected from invalid taxonomy and Pachypodium makayense added newly to the list. One can speculate that in regions such as Madagascar, there might still be unidentified species that are confined to a single rocky outcrop or an inselberg. Landscape can mean: The layout of a land area, particularly with respect to its appearance. ... ... Concept B is a specialization of concept A if and only if: every instance of concept B is also an instance of concept A; and there are instances of concept A which are not instances of concept B. For instance, Bird is a specialization of Animal because every bird is... An inselberg is an isolated hill, knob, ridge, or small mountain that rises abruptly from a gently sloping or virtually level surrounding plain. ...

Affinities within the Apocynaceae

The family Apocynaceae before it included Asclepiadaceae had 3 genera that can be considered succulent plants: Adenium, Pachypodium, and Plumeria. The first two genera (Pachypodium and Adenium) are generally assumed to have closed association with each other. Studies; however, of these two genera reveal that they are not as intimately close as once thought. See genus (mathematics) for the use of the term in mathematics. ... Succulent plants, or succulents, are plants that store water in their enlarged fleshy leaves, stems, or roots. ... Jump to: navigation, search Divisions Land plants (embryophytes) Non-vascular plants (bryophytes) Hepaticophyta - liverworts Anthocerotophyta - hornworts Bryophyta - mosses Vascular plants (tracheophytes) Lycopodiophyta - clubmosses Equisetophyta - horsetails Pteridophyta - true ferns Psilotophyta - whisk ferns Ophioglossophyta - adderstongues Seed plants (spermatophytes) †Pteridospermatophyta - seed ferns Pinophyta - conifers Cycadophyta - cycads Ginkgophyta - ginkgo Gnetophyta - gnetae Magnoliophyta - flowering plants... Species 7-8 species including: Plumeria (common name: Frangipani) is a small genus of 7-8 species native to tropical and subtropical America. ...

However, a study of key characteristics of the taxon and a cladistic study of the subfamily Apocynoideae and the family Asclepiadaceae (before its merging with the Apocynaceae), demonstrates that this closed association is not warranted. True, both are succulent plants and pachycaule. According to Leeuwenberg however, Adenium is maintained in the subtribe Neriinae, placed underneath the tribe Wrightieae whereas Pachypodium is placed beside the in the subtribe Pachypodiinae, within the tribe Echiteae. Though related, these taxa means that the two are not intimately related. Greek clados = branch) or phylogenetic systematics is a branch of biology that determines the evolutionary relationships of living things based on derived similarities. ... ... Genera See under Apocynaceae The Asclepiadaceae is a former plant family, now in included in the dogbane family Apocynaceae. ... Genera See text The Family Apocynaceae or dogbane family of flowering plants includes trees, shrubs, herbs, or lianas. ... Viewed historically or developmentally, a tribe consists of a social formation existing before the development of, or outside of, states. ...

Distribution and habitats

Distribution

Pachypodium are endemic to Madagascar and continental Southern Africa, i.e. Angola, Botswana, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland and Zimbabwe. Endemic, in a broad sense, can mean belonging or native to, characteristic of, or prevalent in a particular geography, race, field, area, or environment; Native to an area or scope. ... Categories: Africa geography stubs | Southern Africa ...

Habitat

See main articles Pachypodium habitats, Habitats of Pachypodium of Southern Continental Africa and Madagascar and Larger context to habitats of Pachypodium. Those 3 articles are to be merged into one, to be renamed Habitats of Pachypodium.

In elevation, Pachypodium in both mainland Africa and Madagascar grow between an altitude of sea level, where some species grow in sand dunes, such as Pachypodium geayi, to 1600 m (5249 feet) for Pachypodium lealii in southern Africa and 1900 m (6234 feet) for Pachypodium brevicaule in Madagascar. The study of detailed scattered, specialized, micro-environmental habitats of Pachypodium species are often indifferent to the greater, regional ecological, biotic zone of vegetation. ... The resolution of these subsection of The Pachypodium Genus is to explore the more macro-enviromental conditions of continental southern Africa and Madagascar. ... Information from both fieldwork and literature demonstrates that Pachypodium grow: In dry, xeric conditions without exception, even if located in a more mesic environment; because localized conditions create micro-environments that are xeric islands within this greater mesic condition of a vegetative zone or type; As suggested in the later... // Etymology World map showing Africa (geographically) The name Africa came into Western use through the Romans, who used the name Africa terra — land of the Afri (plural, or Afer singular) — for the northern part of the continent, as the province of Africa with its capital Carthage, corresponding to modern-day... Jump to: navigation, search In biology, the most commonly used definition of species was first coined by Ernst Mayr. ... This article is about the sand formations, for other meanings see Dune (disambiguation) Mesquite Flat Dunes in Death Valley National Park In physical geography, a dune is a hill of sand built by eolian (wind-related) processes. ... Jump to: navigation, search Binomial name Pachypodium geayi Costantin & Bois Pachypodium geayi is a species of Pachypodium originated from Southwest Madagascar. ... Jump to: navigation, search Binomial name Pachypodium lealii The Bottle tree (Pachypodium lealii) is a species of plant included in the genus Pachypodium. ... Jump to: navigation, search Binomial name Pachypodium brevicaule Baker Pachypodium brevicaule is a species of plant that belongs to the dogbane family Apocynaceae, which is now amplified by the inclusion of the milkweed family Asclepiadaceae -- an important union to botanists and horticulturalists interested in the alliance succulents. ...

In continental southern Africa, the extreme temperatures range from -10°C (14°F)in some locations to as much as 45°C (113°F). Whereas in Madagascar, with not such a great temperature amplitude, the temperature ranges from -6.3°C (21°F) to 40°C (104°). Temperature is the physical property of a system which underlies the common notions of hot and cold; the material with the higher temperature is said to be hotter. ...

A generalization about precipitation regimes for both southern Africa and Madagascar does not have much meaning because the habitats of Pachypodium vary so greatly with a moisture regime. In some places, Pachypodium receive annually from as little as 75 mm (2.95 inches) from the southern part of Africa to a high level of 1985 mm (78.15 inches). A precipitation regime for a species of Pachypodium, therefore, depends upon a habitat's location relative to the influences of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans and the various mountain ranges of southern continental Africa and of Madagascar. Jump to: navigation, search The Atlantic Ocean is Earths second-largest ocean, covering approximately one-fifth of its surface. ...

The genus grows in areas where there are significant periods of dry months that range from five months to ten months. It would seem likely that the Atlantic and India Oceans pay a major role in the creation of weather conducive to rainfall, not to mention mountain ranges. The dry season is a term commonly used when describing the weather in the tropics. ... In meteorology, precipitation is any kind of water that falls from the sky as part of the weather. ... Mount McKinley in Alaska has one of the largest visible base-to-summit elevation differences anywhere A mountain is a landform that extends above the surrounding terrain in a limited area. ... The range of a vehicle is the maximum distance it can cover without needing to be refueled or recharged. ...

Pachypodium grows in various types of substrates. Some species only grow in one substrate whereas other will grow in several. The degree to which a taxon can grow in a given substrate seems to determine how specialized its habitat is within the landscape and climates. On outcrops, steep hills, and inselbergs, the plants are subjected to fluctuating moisture, high winds, and temperature extremes. Only plants with special adaptations to exposure and extreme drought can survive, let alone thrive, on these exposed geological habitats. Pachypodium root in cleft, fissures, and crevices of those rocky formations. The non-succulent roots penetrate deeply into the acuminated soil, mineral, and humus in these crevices. Moisture is able to seep deep into these crevices. Very little transpiration occurs. In this manner, rocky substrates provide moisture in the habitat. This saturation of crevices can only occur, however, if there is not an considerable runoff from the rock's surface and if there is abundant fine soil in the cracks that, in turn, retain water. The substrate, therefore, plays a critical role in the creation of micro-environmental "arid islands." The word substrate can mean the following: In biochemistry, a substrate is a molecule which is acted upon by an enzyme. ... Habitat (from the Latin for it inhabits) is the place where a particular species lives and grows. ... Landscape can mean: The layout of a land area, particularly with respect to its appearance. ... Jump to: navigation, search Moisture generally refers to the presence of water in trace amounts. ... Jump to: navigation, search Wind is the quasi-horizontal movement of air (as opposed to an air current) caused by Howard Sterns asshole. ... Temperature is the physical property of a system which underlies the common notions of hot and cold; the material with the higher temperature is said to be hotter. ... Fissure is a groove, natural division, deep furrow, or cleft found in the brain, spinal cord, and liver; or an unnatural tract found most commonly in the anus. ... Jump to: navigation, search For the heavy metal band see Soil (band) Soil is unconsolidated rock particles on the surface of the earth, mixed with organic matter from plant decay. ... Jump to: navigation, search This article is about minerals in the geologic sense; for nutrient minerals see dietary mineral; for the band see Mineral (band). ... For article about the oriental food, see Hummus. ... Jump to: navigation, search Transpiration is a continuous process caused by the evaporation of water from leaves of plants and its corresponding uptake from roots in the soil. ... The word substrate can mean the following: In biochemistry, a substrate is a molecule which is acted upon by an enzyme. ...

Sand readily store water because it is taken up easily and there is less evaporation except for the top layer. Very deep sand; however, has the problem of seepage. Yet in moderation shallow and deep sand substrates have water available to Pachypodium. With shallow sand substrates, Pachypodium grow on sand dunes near the sea. Where water is in deep sandy substrate, Pachypodium grow on sand "over" laterite red soil. Laterite soil is a largely impermeable soil that traps water for the use of the flora that include Pachypodium. Laterite is a red-colored clay rich soil found in the tropics and subtropics. ...

Protection status

Internationally Pachypodium are protected under the CITES treaty. According to it, members of this genus cannot be collected from endemic, native locations within the landscape. They are not easily, readily imported and exported between nations either. The protection afforded by the CITES treaty responses to two issues: The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) is an international agreement between Governments, drafted as a result of a resolution adopted in 1963 at a meeting of members of the World Conservation Union (IUCN). ...

• The esteem the genus has within Collector's and Nursery Trade. As highly esteemed plants, succulent enthusiast desire to collect more and more species and cultivars. In the case of Pachypodium, seed, seedlings, and even mature, nursery-grown specimen plants are fortunately available readily in Nursery Trade.

• Destruction of the genus's endemic habitats, e.g. through agriculture.

Extinction of identified species seems yet unlikely, as the collection of seed and the cultivation of the plant safeguard the genus. This Osteospermum Pink Whirls is a successful cultivar. ... A seed is the ripened ovule of gymnosperm or angiosperm plants. ... Habitat (from the Latin for it inhabits) is the place where a particular species lives and grows. ... Jump to: navigation, search In biology and ecology, extinction is the ceasing of existence of a species or group of taxons. ...

History of the genus

See main article History of the genus Pachypodium

The early history of the genus Pachypodium demonstrates the typical process of a taxon becoming a new genus. Initially debate occurred over if Pachypodium belonged to the genus Echites or if it constituted a separate genus. Pachypodium were first published as a unique genus, separate from Echites, by Leandley in 1830. The introduction of this article does not provide enough context for readers unfamiliar with the subject. ... In biology, a genus (plural genera) is a grouping in the classification of living organisms having one or more related and morphologically similar species. ... 1830 was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ...

Then the debate centered on the nomenclature of species uniquely found in continental Southern Africa. That changed when, in 1892, Baker contributed the first species accepted into the genus from Madagascar. The degree of speciation then turned to Madagascar, where the count of species far exceeds those on the mainland. Nomenclature is a system of naming and categorizing objects in a given category. ... Jump to: navigation, search In biology, the most commonly used definition of species was first coined by Ernst Mayr. ... Categories: Africa geography stubs | Southern Africa ... Jump to: navigation, search 1892 was a leap year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... Baker can refer to: Baker - the cooking profession // Place Names Baker is (part of) the name of some places including Baker, California Baker, Louisiana Baker, Montana Baker, Missouri Mount Baker is situated in Washington state. ... Speciation refers to the appearance of a new species of life on earth, particularly as seen in the fossil record. ...

In 1907, Costantin and Bois constructed the first monograph, of Pachypodium, in which they enumerated 17 species, where ten were from Madagascar and seven were from continental southern Africa. 1907 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... Jump to: navigation, search A monograph is a scholarly book or a treatise on a single subject or a group of related subjects. ...

Natural history

There is no fossil records of Pachypodium known. Yet certain conclusions can be drawn from the geology of the landscape in Madagascar as to the past natural history of Pachypodium. A fossil Ammonite Fossils are the mineralized remains of animals or plants or other traces such as footprints. ... Natural history is an umbrella term for what are now usually viewed as a number of distinct scientific disciplines. ...

References

• Eggli, Urs. (1993) Glossary of botanical terms with special reference to Succulent Plants. with German Equivalents (British Cactus & Succulent Society: United Kingdom)
• Endress & Bruyn : "A revised classification of the Apocynaceae." Botanical Review 66: 1-56.
• Endress, Mary: "The unification of Asclepiadaceae and Apocynaceae." Haseltonia: The Cactus and Succulent Society of America's Yearbook Vol. 8.
• Lavranos, John, J. "Pachypodium makayense: A New Species From Madagascar". Cactus and Succulent Journal: United States 76 (2) 85-88.
• Lüthy, Jonas M. "Another look at the pachypodiums of Madagascar." Bradleya: The British Cactus and Succulent Society Yearbook. (22/2004) ISBN: 0902099744
• Mays, Harry. [European Union Honorary Representative] "The Huntington Botanical Gardens' 2005 offering of International Succulent Introductions for the European Union." [A Posting] (Woodsleigh, Moss Lane, St. Michaels on Wyre, Preston, PR3 0TY, UK: 2005)
• Rapanarivo, S.H.J.V., Lavranos, J.J., Leeuwenberg, A.J.M., and Röösli, W. Pachypodium (Apocynaceae): Taxonomy, habitats and cultivation "Taxonomic revision of the genus Pachypodium," S.H.J.V. Rapanarivo and J.J. Lavranos; "The habitats of Pachypodium species" S.H.J.V. Rapanarivo; "Cultivation" W. Röösli. (A.A. Balkema: Rotterdam, Brookfield, 1999) [Rapanarivo et al.]
• Rowley, Gordon, D. Cactus Handbook 5: Pachypodium and Adenium (British Cactus and Succulent Society, (1983) 1999)
• Rowley, Gordon. Didiereaceae: "Cacti of the Old World" (The British Cactus and Succulent Society [BSCS]: 1992)
• Rowley, G.D. "The Pachypodium rosulatum aggregate (Apocynaceae) - one species or several?" Bradleya: The British Cactus and Succulent Society Yearbook. (16/1998)
• Endress & Bruyn : "A revised classification of the Apocynaceae." Botanical Review 66: 1-56.
  
• Rapanarivo, S.H.J.V., Lavranos, J.J., Leeuwenberg, A.J.M., and Röösli, W. Pachypodium (Apocynaceae): Taxonomy, habitats and cultivation "Taxonomic revision of the genus Pachypodium," S.H.J.V. Rapanarivo and J.J. Lavranos; "The habitats of Pachypodium species" S.H.J.V. Rapanarivo; "Cultivation" W. Röösli. (A.A. Balkema: Rotterdam, Brookfield, 1999, p.5) [The rest of the list is based on Rapanarivo et al.(1999)]
  
• Rapanarivo et al. (1999) p. 5.

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