The Paleolithic diet (abbreviated Paleo diet) is also known as the Caveman diet, Prehistoric diet, Stone Age diet, or Hunter-gatherer diet. It refers to the diet recently popularized by a number of authors that consists in emulating the dietary patterns of the various human species (see Homo (genus)) living during the Paleolithic period (the Old Stone Age), a period of about 2 million years duration, ending about 10,000 years ago, when Homo sapiens, invented agriculture. Species Homo sapiens See text for extinct species. ... // The Paleolithic is a prehistoric era distinguished by the development of stone tools. ... Homo sapiens (Latin: wise man) is the scientific name for the human species. ...

This dietary concept is concerned primarily with health issues, as opposed to ethical or economic concerns. Advocates of the Paleolithic diet believe that the best foods for the human body are those that humans are best adapted to eat, arguing that many modern ailments are diet related and can be avoided using the Paleo diet approach. Supporters of this theory argue that human genetics have scarcely changed since the Stone Age, and therefore that an ideal diet would be a reconstructed prehistoric diet such as the one humans and proto-humans used before the Neolithic Revolution. Therefore through studying archeology and modern hunter-gatherers it could be determined what a healthy diet would comprise. Interest in Paleolithic nutrition has grown in recent years as low-carbohydrate diets have become more popular, as the two practices have certain similarities. This article is about the general scientific term. ... Stone Age fishing hook. ... In nutrition, the diet is the sum of food consumed by a person or other organism. ... Human beings are defined variously in biological, spiritual, and cultural terms, or in combinations thereof. ... Species Homo sapiens See text for extinct species. ... The Neolithic Revolution is the term for the first agricultural revolution, describing the transition from nomadic hunting and gathering communities and bands, to agriculture and settlement, as first adopted by various independent prehistoric human societies, in numerous locations on most continents between 10-12 thousand years ago. ... Archaeology or sometimes in American English archeology (from the Greek words αρχαίος = ancient and λόγος = word/speech) is the study of human cultures through the recovery, documentation and analysis of material remains, including architecture, artefacts, biofacts, human remains, and landscapes. ... In anthropology, the hunter-gatherer way of life is that led by certain societies of the Neolithic Era based on the exploitation of wild plants and animals. ... Low-carbohydrate diets or low-carb diets are nutritional programs that advocate restricted carbohydrate consumption, based on research that ties consumption of certain carbohydrates with increased blood insulin levels, and overexposure to insulin with metabolic syndrome (the most recognized symptom of which is obesity). ...

History of the diet

One of the first suggestions that following a diet similar to that of the late Paleolithic area would improve a person's health was made in the New England Journal of Medicine in 1985.^[1] This was followed up by a book, The Paleolithic Prescription,^[2] which focused on achieving the same proportions of nutrients (fat, protein, and carbohydrates, as well as vitamins and minerals) as were present in the diet of late Paleolithic people, not on excluding foods that were not available before the development of agriculture. As such, this early version of the Paleolithic diet recommended such foods as skimmed milk, whole grain bread, brown rice, and potatoes prepared without fat, on the argument that such foods have the same nutritional properties as Paleolithic foods. The New England Journal of Medicine (New Engl J Med or NEJM) is a peer-reviewed medical journal published by the Massachusetts Medical Society. ... For other uses, see FAT. Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and largely insoluble in water. ... A representation of the 3D structure of myoglobin, showing coloured alpha helices. ... Lactose is a disaccharide found in milk. ... Retinol (Vitamin A) For the record label, see Vitamin Records A vitamin is an organic compound required in tiny amounts for essential metabolic reactions in a living organism. ... Dietary minerals are the chemical elements required by living organisms, other than the four elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen which are present in common organic molecules. ... A glass of cows milk. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... For other uses, see Bread (disambiguation). ... Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. ... For other uses, see Potato (disambiguation). ...

Recent versions of the Paleolithic diet, like Neanderthin : Eat Like a Caveman to Achieve a Lean, Strong, Healthy Body,^[3] focus on eliminating all foods that were not available to human beings in Paleolithic times, such as milk, dairy products, and grains. Staffan Lindeberg, a notable researcher into the paleolithic diet, has also written and spoken extensively on this dietary concept.^[4] A glass of cows milk. ... Dairy products are generally defined as foodstuffs produced from milk. ... This article is about cereals in general. ...

In the latest books on the Paleolithic diet, The Paleo Diet: Lose Weight and Get Healthy by Eating the Food You Were Designed to Eat^[5] and The Paleo Diet for Athletes : A Nutritional Formula for Peak Athletic Performance,^[6] the author, Loren Cordain, a leading expert on the diet of Paleolithic humans, synthesizes a diet from commonly available modern foods that would emulate the nutritional characteristics of the diets of these ancestral humans.

For practical purposes only, this article will deal solely with these last two approaches to the Paleolithic diet.

Practices

Foods in the diet

The foods allowed in the Paleolithic diet are those that would have been generally consumed by Paleolithic humans.

In that regard, a practical, albeit imperfect, theme for adhering to the Paleolithic diet is the following : if a food item resembles one that can be found in the wild, obtained with bare hands or simple tools, and ingested immediately without cooking, processing, and by simple preparation (i.e., peeling, cracking, washing, etc.), and cause the consumer no ill effects either during or after consumption, then it can be considered edible, and therefore permissible to eat. Any food meeting this standard can then be cooked and prepared by the simplest means that are practical and consumed in modest quantities.^[3]

The following foods are included in the Paleolithic diet:^[5][7][4][3]

• meat and eggs (preferably lean meat trimmed away of any visible fat [Cordain^[5]]),

• fish and seafood, preferably fresh than canned,

• vegetables, including mushrooms, and root vegetables with a low glycemic load such as beets, rutabagas, swedes, carrots, celeriac and turnips, and, in some cases, high glycemic load roots (Cordain^[8]), and there is one version of the Paleolithic diet in which high glycemic load roots have been allowed for healthy individuals (Lindeberg^[9]),

• fruits, dried fuits in limited quantity (Cordain), and high sugar fruits in moderation for weight loss (Audette^[3]),

• herbs and spices,

• seeds, including nuts, in moderation (Lindeberg^[10]), especially for weight loss (Cordain),

• oils, excluded altogether (Lindeberg^[4]), or allowed when derived from those foods which can be obtained and produced through Paleolithic means and are edible in their natural, uncooked state, with the following recommendations:
  • oils with low omega-6/omega-3 ratios, such as fish oil supplements, flaxseed oil, walnut oil (and canola oil), without restrictions (Cordain)
  • oils high in monounsaturated fats and low in polyunsaturated fats, including olive oil and avocado oil, in moderation (Cordain)
  • oils with poor omega-6/omega-3 ratios and that are mainly polyunsaturated, such as safflower oil, sesame oil and sunflower oil, sparingly (Cordain)
  • oils with high levels of saturated fat, including coconut oil and palm oil, sparingly (Cordain)

• beverages, that is:
  • water, a generous intake - 5 or more glasses daily^[11]
  • tea, without restrictions (Audette), or in moderation (Cordain)
  • coffee, excluded (Audette), or in moderation (Cordain)
  • juices, in limited quantity (Audette), or sparingly (Cordain)
  • diet sodas, excluded (Audette), or in limited quantity (Cordain)
  • alcoholic beverages, altogether excluded (Audette), or allowed under certain conditions: (Cordain)
    • limited to an occasional glass of wine, beer or spirits (wine - 2 4 oz glasses, beer - 1 12 oz serving, spirits - 4 oz serving)
    • wine for use in marinating meats and cooking

• honey, sparingly.

The mainstays of the diet are fresh fruits, vegetables, lean meats and seafood. This article is about the food. ... An egg is a body consisting of an ovum surrounded by layers of membranes and an outer casing of some type, which acts to nourish and protect a developing embryo. ... For other uses, see FAT. Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and largely insoluble in water. ... For other uses, see Fish (disambiguation). ... Spaghetti with seafood (Spaghetti allo scoglio). ... A plate of vegetables Vegetable is a culinary term which generally refers to an edible part of a plant. ... For other uses, see Mushroom (disambiguation). ... Root vegetables are underground plant parts used as vegetables. ... The glycemic load (GL) is a ranking system for carbohydrate content in food portions based on their glycemic index (GI) and the portion size. ... Binomial name Carolus Linnaeus Beta vulgaris, commonly known as beet is a flowering plant species in the family Chenopodiaceae. ... Binomial name Brassica napobrassica Mill. ... This article is about the cultivated vegetable. ... Cultivar Group Apium graveolens Rapaceum Group Celeriac (Apium graveolens Rapaceum Group) (also known as turnip-rooted celery or knob celery) is a specially selected Cultivar Group of celery, grown as a root vegetable for its large and well-developed taproot rather than for its stem and leaves. ... Trinomial name Brassica rapa rapa L. For similar vegetables also called turnip, see Turnip (disambiguation). ... The glycemic load (GL) is a ranking system for carbohydrate content in food portions based on their glycemic index (GI) and the portion size. ... For other uses, see Fruit (disambiguation). ... Herbs: basil Herbs (IPA: hə()b, or əb; see pronunciation differences) are seed-bearing plants without woody stems, which die down to the ground after flowering. ... For other uses, see Spice (disambiguation). ... A ripe red jalapeño cut open to show the seeds For other uses, see Seed (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Nut (disambiguation). ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with vegetable oil. ... Omega-6 fatty acids are fatty acids where the term omega-6 signifies that the first double bond in the carbon backbone of the fatty acid, counting from the end opposite the acid group, occurs in the sixth carbon-carbon bond. ... Omega-3 fatty acids are polyunsaturated fatty acids found in certain fish tissues, and in vegetable sources such as flax seeds, walnuts, and canola oil. ... Fish Oil is oil derived from fishes. ... Binomial name Linum usitatissimum L. Linnaeus, 17?? Common flax (also known as linseed) is a member of the Linaceae family, which includes about 150 plant species widely distributed around the world. ... Walnut oil was one of the most important and vital oils of the Renaissance. ... In agriculture, Canola is a trademarked cultivar of genetically engineered rapeseed variants from which rapeseed oil is obtained. ... For discussion how dietary fats affect cardiovascular health, see Diet and heart disease. ... // In nutrition, polyunsaturated fat is an abbreviation of polyunsaturated fatty acid. ... For the Popeye character, see Olive Oyl. ... Avocado oil is an edible oil pressed from the fruit of the Persea americana (avocado). ... Omega-6 fatty acids are fatty acids where the term omega-6 signifies that the first double bond in the carbon backbone of the fatty acid, counting from the end opposite the acid group, occurs in the sixth carbon-carbon bond. ... Omega-3 fatty acids are polyunsaturated fatty acids found in certain fish tissues, and in vegetable sources such as flax seeds, walnuts, and canola oil. ... // In nutrition, polyunsaturated fat is an abbreviation of polyunsaturated fatty acid. ... Binomial name Carthamus tinctorius (Mohler, Roth, Schmidt & Boudreaux, 1967) Safflower is a highly branched, herbaceous, thistle-like annual, usually with many long sharp spines on the leaves. ... Chinese Sesame Oil White sesame seeds Sesame oil (also known as gingelly oil and til oil) is an organic oil derived from sesames, noted to have the distinctive aroma and taste of its parent seed. ... Sunflower Oil is the non-volatile oil expressed from sunflower (Helianthus annuus) seeds. ... Saturated fat is fat that consists of triglycerides containing only saturated fatty acids. ... Coconut oil, also known as coconut butter, is a tropical oil extracted from copra (the dried inner flesh of coconuts) with many applications. ... Palm oil from Ghana with its natural dark color visible, 2 litres Palm oil block Palm oil is a form of edible vegetable oil obtained from the fruit of the oil palm tree. ... The word drink is primarily a verb, meaning to ingest liquids. ... Impact from a water drop causes an upward rebound jet surrounded by circular capillary waves. ... For other uses, see Tea (disambiguation). ... For the several U.S. counties named Coffee, see Coffee County. ... For other uses, see Juice (disambiguation). ... Diet sodas (also diet, sugar-free, or light soft drinks, refreshments, or carbonated beverages) are sugar-free, artificially sweetened, non-alcoholic carbonated beverages generally marketed towards health-conscious people, diabetics, athletes, and other people who want to lose weight or stay fit. ... Alcoholic beverages An alcoholic beverage (also known as booze in slang term) is a drink containing ethanol, commonly known as alcohol, although in chemistry the definition of alcohol includes many other compounds. ... For other uses, see Wine (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Beer (disambiguation). ... Spirits redirects here. ... For other uses, see Wine (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Honey (disambiguation). ...

Foods not in the diet

Food exclusions comprise those introduced in the human food supply late in the course of human evolution, in particular after the invention of agriculture about 10,000 years ago, or those foods that are not characteristic of the retrojected diets of Paleolithic humans. // For the history of humans on Earth, see History of the world. ...

The following foods are commonly excluded from the Paleolithic diet:^[5][7][4][3]

• grains, including wheat, corn and rice,

• legumes, including peanuts, beans, peas, soybeans, tofu, soy milk and flour,

• root vegetables with a high glycemic load, such as Cassava, Manioc, Tapioca, potatoes, Taro, Parsnips, sweet potatoes and yams, except for highly fit athletes, or for healthy, normal weight individuals doing significant aerobic exercise on a daily basis (Cordain^[8]), however, not all proponents of the Paleolithic diet exclude high glycemic load roots (Lindeberg^[9]),

• refined sugars, like table sugar, corn syrup, fructose and molasses,

• separated fats and oils, excluded altogether (Lindeberg^[4]), or with the following exclusions:
  • separated solid plant and animal fats, such as butter, margarine, shortening and lard
  • oils derived from beans, such as peanut oil and soybean oil
  • oils derived from grains, such as corn oil, cottonseed oil, rice bran oil and wheat germ oil
  • artificial trans fats, found in hydrogenated or partially hydrogenated vegetable oils, shortenings, some margarines and oils, as well as deep-fried foods (naturally occurring trans fats found in small quantities in the fatty tissue of all ruminant animals are allowed)^[11]

• yeast-containing foods, including baked goods, pickled foods, vinegar, fermented foods and fermented beverages,

• beverages such as juices, soft drinks, coffee and alcohol (although sometimes allowed under certain conditions),

• dairy products, including milk, cheeses, yogurt and ice cream (milk from breastfeeding is allowed for infants and young children, but is excluded from the diet after the weaning period),

• processed meats (made with nitrites and additives), including hot dogs, bacon, sausage, and lunch meats,

• fatty meats (Cordain^[5]),

• salt, both refined salt and sea salt,

• cashews (Audette^[3]).

An assortment of grains The word grain has a great many meanings, most being descriptive of a small piece or particle. ... Species T. aestivum T. boeoticum T. dicoccoides T. dicoccon T. durum T. monococcum T. spelta T. sphaerococcum T. timopheevii References:   ITIS 42236 2002-09-22 Wheat Wheat For the indie rock group, see Wheat (band). ... This article is about the maize plant. ... For other uses, see Rice (disambiguation). ... This article is about the fruit of the plants also called legumes. For the plants themselves, see Fabaceae . ... Binomial name L. This article is about the legume. ... For other uses, see Bean (disambiguation). ... Binomial name L. Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. ... Binomial name (L.) Merr. ... For other uses, see Tofu (disambiguation). ... A can of Yeos soy milk, poured into a glass Soy milk foam on top of a Greek Café Frappé Soymilk (also called soya milk or soybean milk) and sometimes referred to as soy drink/beverage and even soy latte) is a beverage made from soybeans originating from China. ... For other uses, see Flour (disambiguation). ... Root vegetables are underground plant parts used as vegetables. ... The glycemic load (GL) is a ranking system for carbohydrate content in food portions based on their glycemic index (GI) and the portion size. ... “Yuca” redirects here. ... Binomial name Manihot esculenta Crantz Cassava or manioc (Manihot esculenta; also yuca in Spanish, and mandioca, aipim, or macaxera in Portuguese) is a woody perennial shrub of the spurge family, that is extensively cultivated as an annual crop for its edible starchy tuberous root. ... For other uses, see Tapioca (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Potato (disambiguation). ... This article is about the plant. ... Binomial name Pastinaca sativa L. The parsnip (Pastinaca sativa) is a root vegetable related to the carrot. ... Binomial name Ipomoea batatas Linnaeus, The sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) is a crop plant whose large, starchy, sweet-tasting tuberous roots are an important root vegetable. ... Yam may refer to: Yam (vegetable), common name for members of Dioscorea Yam (god), a Levantine deity A colloquially American term for Shellfish Yam (route), a Mongolian supply point system An animal in the same family as the Yak and Wild Buffalo A colloquially American term for sweet potato A... The glycemic load (GL) is a ranking system for carbohydrate content in food portions based on their glycemic index (GI) and the portion size. ... This article is about sugar as food and as an important and widely traded commodity. ... // Tate & Lyle brand Corn Syrup being moved by tank car Corn syrup is a syrup, made using corn (maize) starch as a feedstock, and composed mainly of glucose. ... Fructose (or levulose) is a simple sugar (monosaccharide) found in many foods and is one of the three most important blood sugars along with glucose and galactose. ... Molasses or treacle is a thick syrup by-product from the processing of the sugarcane or sugar beet into sugar. ... For other uses, see FAT. Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and largely insoluble in water. ... Synthetic motor oil An oil is any substance that is in a viscous liquid state (oily) at ambient temperatures or slightly warmer, and is both hydrophobic (immiscible with water, literally water fearing) and lipophilic (miscible with other oils, literally fat loving). This general definition includes compound classes with otherwise unrelated... For other uses, see Butter (disambiguation). ... Margarine in a tub Margarine (pronunciation: ), as a generic term, can indicate any of a wide range of butter substitutes. ... Shortening is a semisolid fat used in food preparation, especially baked goods, and is so called because it inhibits the formation of long gluten strands in wheat-based doughs, giving them a short texture (as in shortbread). ... This article is about the fat. ... For other uses, see Bean (disambiguation). ... A bottle of peanut oil Peanut oil is an organic oil derived from peanuts, noted to have the slight aroma and taste of its parent legume. ... Binomial name Glycine max Merr. ... The word grain has several meanings, most being descriptive of a small piece or particle. ... Corn oil is oil extracted from the germ of corn. ... Cottonseed oil is a vegetable oil extracted from the seeds of the cotton plant after the cotton lint has been removed. ... Bran is the hard outer layer of cereal grains, and consists of combined aleurone and pericarp. ... Wheat germ oil is extracted from the germ of the wheat kernel, which makes up only 2½% by weight of the kernel. ... A trans fatty acid (commonly shortened to trans fat) is an unsaturated fatty acid molecule that contains a trans double bond between carbon atoms, which makes the molecule less kinked compared to cis fat. Research suggests a correlation between diets high in trans fats and diseases like atherosclerosis and coronary... Hydrogenation is a class of chemical reactions which result an addition of hydrogen (H2) usually to unsaturated organic compounds. ... Hydrogenation is a class of chemical reactions which result an addition of hydrogen (H2) usually to unsaturated organic compounds. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with cooking oil. ... A Deep fried Twinkie Breaded, deep-fried squid Deep frying is a cooking method whereby food is submerged in hot oil or fat. ... Typical divisions Ascomycota (sac fungi) Saccharomycotina (true yeasts) Taphrinomycotina Schizosaccharomycetes (fission yeasts) Basidiomycota (club fungi) Urediniomycetes Sporidiales Yeasts are a growth form of eukaryotic microorganisms classified in the kingdom Fungi, with approximately 1,500 species described. ... Wikibooks Cookbook has an article on Baking Baking is the technique of prolonged cooking of food by dry heat acting by conduction, and not by radiation, normally in an oven, but also in hot ashes, or on hot stones. ... For other uses, see Pickle. ... Vinegar is sometimes infused with spices or herbs—as here, with oregano. ... For other uses, see Fermentation. ... For other uses, see Fermentation. ... The word drink is primarily a verb, meaning to ingest liquids. ... For other uses, see Juice (disambiguation). ... A soft drink is a drink that contains no alcohol. ... For the several U.S. counties named Coffee, see Coffee County. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Dairy products are generally defined as foodstuffs produced from milk. ... A glass of cows milk. ... Cheese is a solid food made from the milk of cows, goats, sheep, and other mammals. ... Yoghurt Yoghurt or yogurt, less commonly yoghourt or yogourt, is a dairy product produced by bacterial fermentation of milk. ... Missing image Ice cream is often served on a stick Boxes of ice cream are often found in stores in a display freezer. ... This article is about the food. ... // Definition The nitrite ion is NO2−. A nitrite compound is one that contains this group, either an ionic compound, or an analogous covalent one. ... Look up Additive in Wiktionary, the free dictionary When used as a noun, additive refers to something that is introduced to a larger quantity of something else, usually to alter characteristics of the larger quantity. ... This article contains a trivia section. ... For other uses, see Bacon (disambiguation). ... This article is about the prepared meat. ... This article is about the food. ... For other uses, see Salt (disambiguation). ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Binomial name L. The Cashew (Anacardium occidentale; syn. ...

Intake

The generally prescribed proportions of protein, fat, and carbohydrate are approximately 20-35%, 30-60%, and 20-35% respectively by calories, with 35-65% of calories coming from animal foods and 35-65% from plant foods,^[12] although a version of the diet has also been advocated without any specifically prescribed ratios of animal to plant foods.^[9][13][10] Eating a wide variety of plant foods is recommended to avoid high intakes of potentially harmful bioactive substances, such as goitrogens, which are present in certain roots, vegetables, beans and seeds.^[14][10][15] A representation of the 3D structure of myoglobin, showing coloured alpha helices. ... For other uses, see FAT. Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and largely insoluble in water. ... Lactose is a disaccharide found in milk. ... A calorie refers to a unit of energy. ... Goitrogens are substances that suppress the function of the thyroid gland, and which can also cause an enlargement of the thyroid. ...

Because of the large amount of water in fruits and vegetables, the diet is, by weight, roughly 2/3 plant products and 1/3 animal products.^{[citation needed]} Consequently, because of the high water content of fruits and vegetables, it is generally accepted that slightly less non-food water is required for optimal health. This is also supported by the fact that fresh water is not always readily available in the wild and that humans must rely on other sources for their water needs. This is not a reduction in need for water, but a shift in where water can be obtained. Impact from a water drop causes an upward rebound jet surrounded by circular capillary waves. ...

The vitamin and mineral content of the diet is very high compared to a standard diet, in many cases a multiple of the RDA.^{[citation needed]} Retinol (Vitamin A) For the record label, see Vitamin Records A vitamin is an organic compound required in tiny amounts for essential metabolic reactions in a living organism. ... For other uses, see Mineral (disambiguation). ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Daily values. ...

Food sources and preparation

For many practitioners of Paleolithic nutrition, the foods' source is just as important as the kind of foods being consumed. It is common practice to obtain Paleolithic foods from as natural a source as possible. Farmed meats, especially those organically farmed, are available from many natural sources, from free range poultry to grass fed beef, with many proponents preferring, though not as practical, wild game meats like quail, rabbit, and venison. “Natural” redirects here. ... Organic farming is a form of agriculture which avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, plant growth regulators, and livestock feed additives. ... Free range is a method of farming husbandry where the animals are permitted to roam freely instead of being contained in small sheds. ... Grass fed beef is meat from cows that have been raised primarily on forage (i. ... Game is any animal hunted for food or not normally domesticated (such as venison). ... Genera Coturnix Anurophasis Perdicula Ophrysia † See also Pheasant, Partridge, Grouse Quail is a collective name for several genera of mid-sized birds in the pheasant family Phasianidae, or in the family Odontophoridae. ... For other uses, see Rabbit (disambiguation). ... Leg of venison on apple sauce with dumplings and vegetables Venison is meat of the family Cervidae. ...

It is common practice among Paleolithic eaters that when cooking, unconventional cooking means should be avoided, such as the use of microwave ovens, and that foods are cooked just enough to kill any harmful bacteria that may be present. Microwave oven A microwave oven, or microwave, is a kitchen appliance employing microwave radiation primarily to cook or heat food. ...

As the consumption of raw foods gains popularity, some unsafe foods have occasionally entered the human diet. It is generally accepted among the supporters of Paleolithic nutrition that while it is necessary to eat only those things that can be consumed raw, it is not necessary or advisable to eat those foods raw. Many foods can harbor dangerous pathogens, including, among other things, salmonella, norovirus, and Trichinella spiralis, many of which can have serious health consequences if not first killed by means of heating, i.e., cooking.^{[citation needed]} For this reason, cooking is allowed of things that, under normal healthy circumstances, would not require cooking to be consumed (grains still being discounted). The heating to an adequately high temperature of meat, poultry, and fish will normally destroy harmful bacteria and in worse cases parasite eggs (such as tapeworm). Raw eggs can also contain many harmful substances, most commonly salmonella. However, recent studies have shown that the level of salmonella infection found in commercial eggs is negligible.^[16] A pathogen or infectious agent is a biological agent that causes disease or illness to its host. ... Species S. enterica This article is about the bacteria. ... Norovirus is a genus of viruses of the family Caliciviridae. ... Binomial name (Owen, 1835) The species Trichinella spiralis is an important parasite, occurring in rats, pigs, and humans, and is responsible for the disease trichinosis. ... Phyla Actinobacteria Aquificae Chlamydiae Bacteroidetes/Chlorobi Chloroflexi Chrysiogenetes Cyanobacteria Deferribacteres Deinococcus-Thermus Dictyoglomi Fibrobacteres/Acidobacteria Firmicutes Fusobacteria Gemmatimonadetes Lentisphaerae Nitrospirae Planctomycetes Proteobacteria Spirochaetes Thermodesulfobacteria Thermomicrobia Thermotogae Verrucomicrobia Bacteria (singular: bacterium) are unicellular microorganisms. ... A parasite is an organism that spends a significant portion of its life in or on the living tissue of a host organism and which causes harm to the host without immediately killing it. ... Orders Subclass Cestodaria Amphilinidea Gyrocotylidea Subclass Eucestoda Aporidea Caryophyllidea Cyclophyllidea Diphyllidea Lecanicephalidea Litobothridea Nippotaeniidea Proteocephalidea Pseudophyllidea Spathebothriidea Tetraphyllidea Trypanorhyncha In biology, Cestoda is the class of parasitic flatworms, called cestodes or tapeworms, that live in the digestive tract of vertebrates as adults and often in the bodies of various animals...

Precautions

Modern-day practitioners of the Paleolithic diet must be careful to get necessary nutrients found in foods that are not on the diet. For example, milk and other dairy products are a major source of calcium and vitamin D for most people following the conventional Western diet. Late Paleolithic people probably got sufficient calcium from wild vegetables and from gnawing the bones of animals they ate.^[2] Vitamin D can be synthesized by the body upon sufficient exposure to sunlight, and can be obtained from cod liver oil, and from oily fish such as salmon, mackerel, sardines, and tuna.^[17] Since cultivated vegetables have less calcium than their wild counterparts^{[citation needed]}, since excessive exposure to sunlight has been linked to skin cancer^{[citation needed]}, and since it can be expensive to eat fish several times a week, many followers of the diet may choose to take calcium and vitamin D supplements to be sure they get enough of these nutrients. A good source of calcium is eggshell, which can be ground into a powder and mixed into food or a glass of water.^{[citation needed]} A glass of cows milk. ... Dairy products are generally defined as foodstuffs produced from milk. ... For other uses, see Calcium (disambiguation). ... Vitamin D is a fat soluble vitamin that contributes to the maintenance of normal levels of calcium and phosphorus in the bloodstream. ... Capsules of Cod Liver Oil Cod liver oil, as its name suggests, is an oil extracted from cod livers. ... Fish as a food describes the edible parts of water-dwelling, cold-blooded vertebrates with gills, as well as certain other water-dwelling animals such as mollusks, crustaceans, and shellfish. ... For other uses, see Salmon (disambiguation). ... Mackerel is a common name applied to a number of different species of fish, mostly, but not exclusively, from the family Scombridae. ... Sardines in the Pacific An open Sardines can Sardines on a plate grilled Sardines For the hide and seek-like game, see Hide and seek. ... For other uses, see Tuna (disambiguation). ... Skin cancer is a malignant growth on the skin which can have many causes. ... A dietary supplement is intended to supply nutrients, (vitamins, minerals, fatty acids or amino acids) that are missing or not consumed in sufficient quantity in a persons diet. ...

Paleolithic fitness

In conjunction with the dietary recommendations outlined above, proponents of the Paleolithic diet have also advocated that practitioners adopt a physically active lifestyle similar to that of historically studied hunter-gatherers, which is believed to be representative of the lifestyle of Paleolithic humans. Studied hunter-gatherers walked and ran 5 to 10 miles per day in search of foods. In so doing, they basically cross-trained, performing aerobic, resistance and flexibility exercises. Days of intense physical activity were followed by days of recovery. Their survival required them to be extremely physically active.^[11]

Health

The health benefits of the Paleolithic diet are, as with most dietetic theories, widely debated.

According to S. Boyd Eaton, a medical anthropologist and "evolutionary nutrition" expert from Emory University: "We are the heirs of inherited characteristics accrued over millions of years; the vast majority of our biochemistry and physiology are tuned to life conditions that existed prior to the advent of agriculture some 10,000 years ago. Genetically our bodies are virtually the same as they were at the end of the Paleolithic [variant spelling: Palaeolithic] some 20,000 years ago."^[18] Anthropology (from Greek: ἀνθρωπος, anthropos, human being; and λόγος, logos, knowledge) is the study of humanity. ...

The Paleolithic diet is based on the premise that natural selection had 2 million or more years to genetically adapt the metabolism and physiology of the various human species to such a diet, and that in the 10,000 years since the invention of agriculture and its consequent major change in the human diet, natural selection has had too little time to make the optimal genetic adaptations to the new diet. According to advocates of the Paleolithic diet, physiological and metabolic maladaptations result from the suboptimal genetic adaptations to the contemporary human diet, which in turn contribute to many of the so-called diseases of civilization.^[19] Structure of the coenzyme adenosine triphosphate, a central intermediate in energy metabolism. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... For other uses, see Natural selection (disambiguation). ... This article is about the general scientific term. ...

Some critics have taken issue with this logic, claiming that it is based on unilateral (genetic) adaptationistic thinking and that wrong conclusions are drawn because it does not differentiate between aptation and adaptation. In addition, they have stressed the empirical problems of reconstructing Paleolithic diets prevailing millions of years ago on the grounds that archeological data only vaguely suggest some dietary trends.^[20]

It has also been argued that just because certain foods, quantities, and preparations eaten today were not available to humans during the Paleolithic period, it does not necessarily mean that they are harmful to modern humans. In response to this criticism, proponents of the Paleolithic diet have stressed that Paleolithic foods may be essential for long-term health in the suggested proportions and quantities that modern humans would have adapted to and that when eaten, non-paleo foods necessarily replace (displace) paleo-foods and affect the diet.^[21]

In support of the theory that modern humans are best adapted to the diet of their Paleolithic ancestors, advocates of the Paleolithic diet claim that the diet of hunter-gatherer groups studied in the last century is representative of patterns for humans of 50 to 25 thousand years ago and that these modern forager groups, including the elderly, seem to be largely free of the signs and symptoms of chronic disease (such as obesity, high blood pressure, nonobstructive coronary atherosclerosis, and insulin resistance) that universally afflict the elderly in western societies (with the exception of osteoarthritis, which afflicts both populations). Moreover, when these people adopt western diets, their health declines and they begin to exhibit signs and symptoms of "diseases of civilization".^[22][23]

Furthermore, there are a number of medically diagnosed conditions whose sufferers have been shown to benefit directly from specific components of the diet. Some examples of this include:

• Coeliac disease, a gastrointestinal disorder whose sufferers are unable to digest the protein gluten, found in wheat.^[24]
• Dermatitis herpetiformis, a skin disorder linked also to digestibility issues related to gluten.^{[citation needed]}
• Gluten ataxia, a common neurological manifestation of gluten sensitivity.^{[citation needed]}
• Other conditions linked anecdotally, albeit unproven, to gluten and/or casein proteins include Multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, Rheumatoid arthritis,^[25] Schizophrenia, Tourette syndrome, Chronic fatigue syndrome, Attention deficit disorder and Autism.^{[citation needed]}

Other key health benefits commonly associated with and supported by this theory include: Coeliac disease or celiac disease is an autoimmune disorder of the small bowel that occurs in genetically predisposed individuals in all age groups after early infancy. ... For the Physics term GUT, please refer to Grand unification theory The gastrointestinal or digestive tract, also referred to as the GI tract or the alimentary canal or the gut, is the system of organs within multicellular animals which takes in food, digests it to extract energy and nutrients, and... A representation of the 3D structure of myoglobin, showing coloured alpha helices. ... Wheat - a prime source of gluten Gluten is an amorphous mixture of ergastic (i. ... Species T. aestivum T. boeoticum T. dicoccoides T. dicoccon T. durum T. monococcum T. spelta T. sphaerococcum T. timopheevii References:   ITIS 42236 2002-09-22 Wheat Wheat For the indie rock group, see Wheat (band). ... Dermatitis herpetiformis (DH) or Duhrings Disease, is a skin disorder often associated with celiac disease. ... 4 different commercial forms of Triticeae cultivars. ... Casein (from Latin caseus cheese) is the most predominant phosphoprotein found in milk and cheese. ... Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is traditionally considered a chronic, inflammatory autoimmune disorder that causes the immune system to attack the joints. ... “Tourette” redirects here. ... Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) is one of several names given to a poorly understood, highly debilitating disorder of uncertain cause, which is thought to affect approximately 4 per 1,000 adults[1] in the United States and other countries, and a smaller fraction of children. ... DISCLAIMER Please remember that Wikipedia is offered for informational use only. ... Autism is a brain development disorder characterized by impairments in social interaction and communication, and restricted and repetitive behavior, all exhibited before a child is three years old. ...

• Reduction or elimination of grains, dairy, and refined sugars in the human diet has shown to lower glycemic load. This is thought to lower risk of diabetes and other related syndrome X diseases by placing less stress on the pancreas to produce insulin, and preventing insulin insensitivity. A high consumption of cereal grains, even whole grains, is likely to result in a high glycemic load diet, which in turn increases the risk for Obesity, Diabetes and other diseases of the metabolic syndrome.^[26][27]

• Increasing intake of fruits and vegetables induces a net base load, as opposed to the net acidic load on the body when eating a grain based diet. This is believed to prevent osteoporosis by passing less calcium salts through the kidneys. High reliance upon cereal grains is likely to yield a positive NEAP (Net Endogenous Acid Production) that in turn could increase the risk for osteoporosis, and other diseases of acid/base imbalance.^[28][29]

• Animals that have been fed a pastural diet (free-range beef and chicken) instead of grain fed animals tend to have higher ratios of omega-3 fatty acids and other nutrients.^{[citation needed]}

• By reducing the intake of processed foods the sodium/potassium ratios in the body are more balanced.^{[citation needed]}

• Phytic acid, a chemical present in grain, is a strong chelator of important minerals such as calcium, magnesium, iron, and zinc. It, in essence, 'binds up' these minerals, and since humans lack the digestive enzyme phytase required to break this bond, these important minerals are not bioavailable, contributing significantly to mineral deficiencies. This problem is increased when dietary mineral supplements are not available, such as in developing countries.^{[citation needed]}

• Lectins present in cereal grains and legumes have the potential to cause auto-immune diseases, like rheumathoid arthritis, by a process called molecular mimicry (similarity of structure shared by products of dissimilar genes).^[30][31][32]

• Dairy products, especially those derived from cow's milk, are more or less correlated with a variety of health issues, including type 1 diabetes,^[33] prostate cancer,^[34] multiple sclerosis,^[35] and Crohn’s disease.^[36] They also don't always make life any easier for Type 2 diabetics: milk, yoghurt, and cottage cheese have low glycemic indices but are highly insulinotrophic, with an insulin index similar to that of white bread.^[37][38]

This article is about the disease that features high blood sugar. ... (Cardiac) syndrome X is angina(Chest Pain) with signs associated with decreased blood flow to heart tissue but with normal Coronary arteries. ... Osteoporosis is a disease of bone in which the bone mineral density (BMD) is reduced, bone microarchitecture is disrupted, and the amount and variety of non-collagenous proteins in bone is altered. ... For other uses, see Calcium (disambiguation). ... For sodium in the diet, see Edible salt. ... General Name, symbol, number potassium, K, 19 Chemical series alkali metals Group, period, block 1, 4, s Appearance silvery white Standard atomic weight 39. ... Phytic acid (known as phytate when its salt form) is the principal storage form of phosphorus in many plant tissues, especially seeds. ... Chelation (from Greek χηλή, chelè, meaning claw) is the process of reversible binding (complexation) of a ligand - the chelant, chelator, chelating agent, sequestering agent, or complexing agent - to a metal ion, forming a metal complex, the chelate. ... For other uses, see Mineral (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Calcium (disambiguation). ... General Name, symbol, number magnesium, Mg, 12 Chemical series alkaline earth metals Group, period, block 2, 3, s Appearance silvery white solid at room temp Standard atomic weight 24. ... For other uses, see Iron (disambiguation). ... General Name, symbol, number zinc, Zn, 30 Chemical series transition metals Group, period, block 12, 4, d Appearance bluish pale gray Standard atomic weight 65. ... Digestive enzymes are enzymes in the alimentary tract that break down food so that the organism can absorb it. ... Phytase is an enzyme that can break down the undigestible phytic acid (phytate) part found in grains and oil seeds and thus release digestible phosphorus, calcium and other nutrients. ... In pharmacology, bioavailability is used to describe the fraction of an administered dose of unchanged drug that reaches the systemic circulation, one of the principal pharmacokinetic properties of drugs. ... A developing country is a country with low average income compared to the world average. ... Lectins are proteins of non-immune origin that specifically interact with sugar molecules (carbohydrates) without modifying them. ...

Archeological and Anthropological Evidence

Milk and dairy products were not consumed prior to the agricultural revolution, i.e. prior to the domestication of milk-producing animals.^[21] Mature lactose tolerance is perhaps the most recent evolutionary change in humans, a phenomenon unique to humanity; it evolved independently in several regions (as noted above), but is not a universal trait in modern man -- although fermented dairy goods tend to be more readily digestible than unfermented.^{[citation needed]} Dairy products have been very valuable historically (in post-Agricultural-Revolution times) as a cheap and reliable source of protein, particularly in Europe, the Middle East, and India.^{[citation needed]}

It has been established that wild tubers would have been a common component in historically studied hunter-gatherer diets, comprising 23.6 % of all the plant food consumed by the average hunter-gatherer.^[12] High glycemic load tubers (such as potatoes, which were developed from intensive agricultural inbreeding of wild types), however, would not have been part of pre-agricultural diets.^[39] Most tubers, and many underground plant structures (corms, roots, etc) are inedible unless cooked. Cooking serves to breakdown the cell walls and make the starch available for absorption and it also inactivates potentially toxic compounds. Hence, until hominins could regularly control fire (~300,000 years ago), most roots were inedible.^[40]

Historical and ethnographic studies of hunter gatherers indicate that cereal grains were rarely consumed.^[41] However, there are some notable exceptions: Holocene hunter gatherers living in marginal areas such as desert ate grains seasonally such as the Great Basin Indians in the U.S. and Australian Aborigines. More importantly, for most of humanity’s existence on the planet, up until the very end of the Paleolithic period grains were never consumed. Grains are virtually indigestible unless the cell walls are broken via (grinding or milling) and the starch is gelatinized by cooking. Hence the appearance of stone grinding tools (mortar and pestle, saddle stones etc) heralds the widespread use of grains in hunter-gatherer societies. The first documented record of stone grinding tools appearing in the fossil record occur 22,500 – 23,500 years ago in the near East,^[42][43] and the first hunter gatherer society known to have made wide scale use of grains were the Natufians who lived in the Levant ~13,000 years ago. Hence, cereal grains have little or no evolutionary precedent in hominin diet.^[40]

There is evidence that legumes were not generally consumed before the agricultural revolution.^[44] However, recent archeological finds indicate that large seeded legumes were part of the human diet long before the neolithic agricultural revolution.^[45][46]

Sustainability

Environmental sustainability

It has been estimated that, worldwide, agricultural activity, especially livestock production accounts for about a fifth of total greenhouse-gas emissions. Accordingly, the reduction of the average worldwide consumption level of animal products to 90g per day has been proposed as a means to fight global warming.^[47] In addition to its role in climate change, the current production of livestock has been claimed to increase land degradation, air pollution, water depletion and pollution, and loss of biodiversity.^[48] Whether the Paleolithic diet can be environmentally sustainable depends on the ratio of plant to animal foods consumed, the type of animal foods eaten and the sources of these foods.^{[49][50][51][52]} In that regard, it is worthy to note that a version of the Paleolithic diet without any specifically prescribed ratios of animal to plant foods has been advocated.^[9][13][10] Furthermore, policies have been proposed to address livestock's impact on the environment^[48] and alternatives to large-scale industry agriculture have been suggested for sustainable animal and plant-food production.^[53] There are also concerns that a widely adopted Paleolithic diet including fish would destroy the world's fisheries. However, informed consumers can buy fish produce that comes from well managed fisheries and has not contributed to the environmental problem of overfishing.^[54]

Economic sustainability

If the Paleolithic diet was widely adopted, there are concerns that not enough food could be produced to feed the world population^[40] and that, when produced, this food would be unaffordable. Providing fresh food free of preservatives on a large scale could introduce logistical challenges that would increase costs to producers and retailers. The advantages gained by using foods that are designed for longevity (e.g. cereal grains, legumes, salted foods) in storage would be lost. These additional costs could make food less affordable. That being said, the economic cost of sustaining the world-wide consumption of a Paleolithic diet must be evaluated in light of the possible savings resulting from the health-promoting benefits that such a diet may have. Moreover, the gathering of wild food plants appears to be an efficient method of subsistence that could prove instrumental in preventing malnutrition if the Paleolithic diet was widely adopted.^[55]

Paleolithic diet for animals

Pet food diets such as the BARF Diet (Bones and Raw food) (Biologically Appropriate Raw Food) for dogs and Prey Model Diet for cats are directly analogous to the Paleolithic diet for humans. Proponents of raw feeding note that cats and dogs are carnivores that have evolved to survive on raw meats, bones, offal, and small amounts of leafy plants, and are concerned that modern commercial pet foods contain a high proportion of health compromising grains, salt and sugars.^[56] It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Raw feeding. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...

See also

Related information

• Medical research related to low-carbohydrate diets
• Neolithic Revolution
• Natural selection
• List of diets

Low-carbohydrate diets became a major weight loss and health maintenance trend during the late 1990s and early 2000s. ... The Neolithic Revolution is the term for the first agricultural revolution, describing the transition from nomadic hunting and gathering communities and bands, to agriculture and settlement, as first adopted by various independent prehistoric human societies, in numerous locations on most continents between 10-12 thousand years ago. ... For other uses, see Natural selection (disambiguation). ... Well-known nutritional diets: Abs Diet Atkins diet Banta Diet Best Bet Diet Blood Type diet Body for Life Breatharian diet Buddhist diet Cabbage soup diet Calorie restriction The Cambridge Diet Candida control diet Diabetic diet Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension or the DASH Diet Dr. Hay diet Detox diet...

Other related diets

• Atkins Diet
• Low-carbohydrate diet
• Gluten-free diet
• Gluten-free, casein-free diet
• Blood type diet
• Candida control diet
• Joel Fuhrman diet
• Gerson diet
• Hunza diet
• Raw food diet
• Organic food diet
• Natural Foods Diet
• No-Grain Diet
• Specific Carbohydrate Diet
• Bushmeat
• Zone diet
• The Optimal Diet
• Zero-Carb Diet

book The Atkins Nutritional Approach, popularly known as the Atkins Diet or just Atkins, is a popular but controversial high-protein, high-fat, low-carbohydrate diet. ... Low-carbohydrate diets or low-carb diets are nutritional programs that advocate restricted carbohydrate consumption, based on research that ties consumption of certain carbohydrates with increased blood insulin levels, and overexposure to insulin with metabolic syndrome (the most recognized symptom of which is obesity). ... A gluten-free diet is a diet completely free of ingredients derived from gluten-containing cereals: wheat (including Kamut and spelt), barley, rye, oats and triticale. ... A gluten-free casein-free diet (or GFCF diet) eliminates intake of the naturally-occurring proteins gluten (found naturally in wheat, barley, and rye) and casein (found in milk). ... The blood type diet is a diet advocated by Peter DAdamo and outlined in his book Eat Right 4 Your Type. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Candidiasis. ... Dr. Joel Fuhrman, M.D. is a family medicine physician who practices in Flemington, New Jersey, USA. He specialises in treating some major illnesses through nutrition. ... The Gerson diet is a diet devised by Dr. Max Gerson (1881 - 1959). ... In 1998, Dr. Don Gary Young visited the Hunza valley in the Himalayas to explore the longevity secrets of the Hunza people, who are commonly thought to live 110 to 115 years. ... A raw food diet consists of uncooked and unprocessed, and often organic foods. ... Organic vegetables at a farmers market in Argentina. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... The No-Grain Diet was developed by osteopathic physician Joseph Mercola. ... The Specific Carbohydrate Diet is a nutritional regimen used to treat a variety of chronic and auto-immune disorders including Crohns Disease, Ulcerative Colitis, Diverticulitis, Celiac Disease, and Cystic Fibrosis. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... The Zone diet is a diet popularized in books by Barry Sears. ... The Optimal Diet (or Optimal Nutrition) is a low carbohydrate diet developed by Polish doctor Jan Kwasniewski. ... The Zero-Carb diet has recently gained popularity as a more extreme version of the famous low-carb diet. ...

Bibliography

Footnotes

A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ...

External links

• Paleolithic Diet in Medical Nutrition – incorporating evolutionary biology in nutritional science
• The Paleolithic Diet
• The Paleolithic Diet Page
• Beyond Vegetarianism
• The Paleobiotics Lab
• Art De Vany