The Panglong Conference (Burmese: ပင္‌လုံစာခ္ယုပ္‌), held in February 1947, was an historic meeting that took place at Panglong in the Shan States in Burma between the Shan, Kachin and Chin ethnic minority leaders and Aung San, head of the interim Burmese government. On the agenda was the united struggle for independence from Britain and the future of Burma after independence as a unified republic. Shan State is a state located in Myanmar (Burma), which takes its name from the Shan people, the majority ethnic group in the Shan State. ... The Shan are an ethnic group of Southeast Asia. ... The Jingpo or Kachin people (Chinese: 景颇族 Jǐngpōzú; own names: Jingpo, Tsaiva, Lechi) are an ethnic group who largely inhabit northern Myanmar (Kachin State). ... Chin (Burmese: ; MLCTS: ) is one of the ethnic groups in Myanmar (formerly Burma). ... Aung San General Aung San (Burmese: ; MLCTS: ); February 13, 1915 – July 19, 1947) was a Burmese revolutionary, nationalist, general, and politician. ...

History

Burma has been called an anthropologist's paradise. Various groups of people migrated south into the Irrawaddy-Chindwin, Sittang and Salween valleys from the China-Tibet region in the latter part of the first millennium, the Mon followed by the Tibeto-Burman and Tai-Shan races. The main groups were the Mon, Bamar, Shan and Rakhine, establishing their own kingdoms, and the first three groups vying for supremacy. The Bamar under Anawrahta in the 11th century, Bayinnaung in the 16th century, and Alaungpaya in the 18th century unified and expanded their kingdoms establishing the first, second and third Burmese Empires respectively, whilst the Shan were ascendent during the 14th and the 15th centuries. The ancient Mon kingdom in the south was finally overwhelmed by the Bamar into submission only in the mid-18th century, and the Arakan annexed subsequently, establishing a Bamar-dominant nation state approximately within its current boundaries. Although the Arakan and Monlands were under Bamar administration, the Shanlands and the Trans-Salween states of the Karen and Karenni were never under direct control but only under Burmese suzerainty. The Irrawaddy (newer spelling Ayeyarwaddy) is a river that flows through the centre of Myanmar (formerly Burma). It is Myanmars most important commercial waterway. ... The Salween River (also spelt Salwin, a. ... Tibet (older spelling Thibet; Tibetan: བོད་; Wylie: Bod; pronounced in the Lhasa dialect; Chinese: ; pinyin: or Simplified Chinese: ; Traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: [the two names are used with different connotations; see Name section below]) is a region in Central Asia and the home of the Tibetan people. ... The Mon (Burmese: ) are an ethnic group in Southeast Asia. ... The Bamar (Burmese: ; MLCTS: ; IPA: , also called Burman), are the dominant ethnic group of Myanmar, constituting approximately 68% (30,000,000) of the population. ... The Shan are an ethnic group of Southeast Asia. ... The Rakhine people (Burmese: ; formerly Arakanese) are a sub-ethnic group of the Bamar. ... Anawrahta (reigned 1044-1077), also spelled Aniruddha or Anoarahtâ or Anoa-ra-htá-soa, was a ruler of the kingdom of Bagan and the first ruler of a unified Burma. ... Bayinnaung (lit. ... Alaungpaya 1711-15 May 1760 was a Burmese king who established the Konbaung Dynasty (Heavens platform) in the early 18th century. ... Rakhine State (formerly Arakan) is a state of Myanmar. ... ကရင္‌လူမ္ယုိး Total population 7,400,000 Regions with significant populations Myanmar: 7,000,000 Thailand:  400,000 Language Karen Religion Buddhism, Christianity, Animism Related ethnic groups Padaung The Karen (Burmese: ; MLCTS: ), also known in Thailand as the Kariang (Thai: ) or Yang, are an ethnic group in Myanmar (Burma) and Thailand. ... Kayah may refer to: Kayah State, a state of Myanmar. ...

The British fought three wars with Burma in 1824, 1852 and 1885, culminating in the loss of Burmese sovereignty and independence. They established a colonial administration 'at least possible cost' according to Lord Dufferin,and a distinction between the hills and the plains that evolved during the arduous annexation process, due to armed resistance not just from the Bamar but from the Shan, Chin and Kachin, became formalised into Ministerial Burma, formerly Burma Proper, and the Frontier Areas. The Shan and Karreni Saophas or Sawbwas, and Kachin Duwas were left to continue their feudatory rule in their areas; the Karenni states were never even included within the borders of British Burma. In parliament, seats were reserved for the Karen, immigrant Chinese, Indian and Anglo-Burman minorities, an arrangement bitterly opposed by many Burman politicians. The Mon of Lower Burma and the Rakhine included in Ministerial Burma had no representation at all even though the plains Karen (the majority of the Karen population) and the Mon shared the Irrawaddy Delta of Lower Burma.^[1] Frederick Temple Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood, 1st Marquess of Dufferin and Ava, (June 21, 1826 – February 12, 1902) was a prominent member of Victorian society. ... The Shan are an ethnic group of Southeast Asia. ... Kayah may refer to: Kayah State, a state of Myanmar. ... Saopha (pronounced Saor Bowa) is a title used by Kanbawza Dynasty of Shan Kingdom. ... The Jingpo or Kachin people (Chinese: 景颇族 Jǐngpōzú; own names: Jingpo, Tsaiva, Lechi) are an ethnic group who largely inhabit northern Myanmar (Kachin State). ... States currently utilizing parliamentary systems are denoted in red and orange—the former being constitutional monarchies where authority is vested in a parliament, and the latter being parliamentary republics whose parliaments are effectively supreme over a separate head of state. ... ကရင္‌လူမ္ယုိး Total population 7,400,000 Regions with significant populations Myanmar: 7,000,000 Thailand:  400,000 Language Karen Religion Buddhism, Christianity, Animism Related ethnic groups Padaung The Karen (Burmese: ; MLCTS: ), also known in Thailand as the Kariang (Thai: ) or Yang, are an ethnic group in Myanmar (Burma) and Thailand. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... The Bamar (Burmese: ; MLCTS: ; IPA: , also called Burman), are the dominant ethnic group of Myanmar, constituting approximately 68% (30,000,000) of the population. ... The Mon (Burmese: ) are an ethnic group in Southeast Asia. ... Burma is divided into 7 states and 7 divisions: Categories: Myanmar | Subdivisions of Myanmar | States of Myanmar | Divisions of Myanmar ... The Rakhine people (Burmese: ; formerly Arakanese) are a sub-ethnic group of the Bamar. ... The Irrawaddy (newer spelling Ayeyarwaddy) is a river that flows through the centre of Myanmar (formerly Burma). It is Myanmars most important commercial waterway. ... Nile River delta, as seen from Earth orbit. ...

The draining of the marshes for rice cultivation drew Burman migration into British Burma even before the final annexation of Upper Burma. The Bamar however were virtually excluded from military service, and even as late as 1939 there were only 432 Burmans in the army compared with 1448 Karens, 886 Chins and 881 Kachins. Karen villagers had acted as guides for the British during the Anglo-Burmese Wars, and Karen troops had played a major part in the suppression of rebellions in Lower Burma in 1886 and again in the Saya San rebellion of 1930-32. Upper Burma was a term used by the British to refer to the central and northern area of what is now the country of Myanmar. ... The First Anglo-Burmese War lasted from 1823 to 1826. ... Saya San was a noted monk, known in 1927 as a traditional healer in Burma. ...

American, British and other European missionaries had also succeeded in converting the hills peoples to Christianity, the Karen in particular, and also the Kachin and Chin, whereas they made very little headway among the Buddhist Bamar, Mon, Rakhine, Shan and the plains Karen. Once they had benefited from a Christian education, Karen migration to towns in Lower Burma and the Tenasserim also increased. Burman leaders would blame the 'divide and rule' policy of Western imperialists and the 'servile streak' in the ethnic minorities who would look up to them; U Nu, the first prime minister of independent Burma, was later to accuse certain missionaries and writers of 'having deliberately sown the seeds of racial and religious conflict'. The ethnic minorities would, in turn, point the finger at Burman 'chauvinism' and 'oppression'.^[1] This article is becoming very long. ... A replica of an ancient statue found among the ruins of a temple at Sarnath Buddhism is a philosophy based on the teachings of the Buddha, Siddhārtha Gautama, a prince of the Shakyas, whose lifetime is traditionally given as 566 to 486 BCE. It had subsequently been accepted by... Burma is divided into 7 states and 7 divisions: Categories: Myanmar | Subdivisions of Myanmar | States of Myanmar | Divisions of Myanmar ... Tanintharyi, better known by the old name Tenasserim, is a division of Myanmar, covering the long narrow southern part of the country on the Kra Isthmus. ... In politics and sociology, divide and rule (also known as divide and conquer) is a strategy of gaining and maintaining power by breaking up larger concentrations of power into chunks that individually have less power than the one implementing the strategy. ... A cartoon portraying the British Empire as an octopus, reaching into foreign lands Imperialism is a policy of extending the control or authority over foreign entities as a means of acquisition and/or maintenance of empires, either through direct territorial or through indirect methods of exerting control on the politics... Prime Minister U Nu U Nu (otherwise known as Thakin Nu; May 25, 1907 - February 14, 1995) was a Burmese nationalist and political figure. ... Chauvinism is extreme and unreasoning partisanship on behalf of a group to which one belongs, especially when the partisanship includes malice and hatred towards a rival group. ...

The Frontier Areas or Scheduled Areas were divided into Part I or Excluded Areas such as the Kachin state with no right of election to parliament, and Part II or Partially Excluded Areas subdivided into 2 groups, one with electoral representation such as Myitkyina and Bhamo with Kachin minority and Shan/Burman majorities, and the other group with no electoral representation. A Federal Council of Shan Chiefs was formed in 1922 which gave the Shan and their Sawbwas an important channel for representation. The Burma Frontier Service boasted just 40 members employed in the administration of the entire Scheduled Areas at the outbreak of the Second World War.^[1] Myitkyina is a city, and the capital of Kachin State in Myanmar, located 919miles from Yangon, or 487 miles from Mandalay. ... Bhamo is a city in Kachin State in Myanmar, located 186 km south from the capital of Myitkyina. ... Mushroom cloud from the nuclear explosion over Nagasaki rising 18 km into the air. ...

When the Japanese invaded Burma in 1942, the Karen remained loyal to and fought with the British, and consequently suffered at the hands of the Burma Independence Army (BIA) under Gen. Aung San as well as the Japanese Army. Villages were destroyed and massacres committed in their areas, and among the victims were Saw Pe Tha, a pre-war cabinet minster, and his family.^[1] The Burma National Army was originally organized by the Minami Kikan as the Burmese Independence Army in December of 1941 , where it then served as an auxiliary of the Imperial Japanese Army. ... Aung San General Aung San (Burmese: ; MLCTS: ); February 13, 1915 – July 19, 1947) was a Burmese revolutionary, nationalist, general, and politician. ...

First Panglong conference

In March 1946, the Saophas or Chaofa (Sawbwa in Burmese) of the Shan states sponsored a conference at Panglong in order to discuss the future of the Shan states after independence. It was led by the Saopha of Yawnghwe Sao Shwe Thaik, and the Kachin, Chin and Karen representatives were also invited. They realised that Burma would soon gain independence from the British, and that the Frontier Areas faced a real risk of remaining a British dominion since the hill tracts were deemed backward and not yet ready for self-determination. The pre-war prime minister U Saw and Thakin Nu from the Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League (AFPFL) gave speeches as the Burman majority representatives, and a message from the British Governor was read out which reiterated the White Paper policy that no decisions would be made on the Frontier Areas and their peoples without their full consent.^[1] Saopha (pronounced Saor Bowa) is a title used by Kanbawza Dynasty of Shan Kingdom. ... Nyaung Shwe Nyaung Shwe (Burmese: ; also known as Yawnghwe) is a town a few kilometers north of Inle Lake in the Shan State of Myanmar. ... This article is in need of attention. ... ကရင္‌လူမ္ယုိး Total population 7,400,000 Regions with significant populations Myanmar: 7,000,000 Thailand:  400,000 Language Karen Religion Buddhism, Christianity, Animism Related ethnic groups Padaung The Karen (Burmese: ; MLCTS: ), also known in Thailand as the Kariang (Thai: ) or Yang, are an ethnic group in Myanmar (Burma) and Thailand. ... U Saw (1900 - 1948) was a Burmese politician. ... U Nu (otherwise known as Thakin Nu) (1907-1995) was a Burmese nationalist and political figure. ... The Anti-Fascist Peoples Freedom League (better known as the AFPFL) was the main political party in Burma from 1946 until 1962. ... The Bamar (Burmese: ; MLCTS: ; IPA: , also called Burman), are the dominant ethnic group of Myanmar, constituting approximately 68% (30,000,000) of the population. ... A white paper is an authoritative report; a government report outlining policy; or a document whose purpose is to educate industry customers or collect leads for a company. ...

The Chin delegates expressed their sense of insecurity stemming from their heavy economic dependence on Burma Proper, hence their weak bargaining position. The Kachins were critical of U Nu's diatribe against the British and sceptical of Burman sincerity as regards equal rights. The Karens wanted a separate state that included the Tenasserim seaboard. The one positive outcome was the formation of a United Burma Cultural Society with Sao Shwe Thaik as chairman and U Saw as secretary.^[1] Tanintharyi, better known by the old name Tenasserim, is a division of Myanmar, covering the long narrow southern part of the country on the Kra Isthmus. ...

Relations later improved between the hills peoples and the AFPFL through contacts such as the Sama Duwa Sinwa Nawng, a Buddhist Kachin whose father was killed in the fight against British annexation at the turn of the century, and who himself raised Kachin levies and fought with the Burma National Army (BNA) in the Second World War, also the Chin leader Vamthu Mawng, and the Sawbwa of the Pa-O substate of Hsihseng (Hsahtung or Thaton) Sao Khun Kyi. In November 1946, a Supreme Council of the United Hills Peoples was formed at the instigation of the AFPFL, and Sao Shwe Thaik was elected as president. The minority leaders however continued to lobby London and the Frontier Areas Administration (FAA) directly at the same time the AFPFL was in almost continuous consultation with the British authorities for independence.^[1] Sao Shwe Thaik and Sawbwa of Mong Mit Sao Khin Maung had travelled to London to argue for an independent Shan state at the Burma Round Table hearings in 1931, despite the British Governor's disapproval.^[1] The Karen Goodwill Mission to London in August 1946 likewise failed to receive any encouragement for their separatist demands from the British government.^[1] The Burma National Army served as the armed forces of the Burmese government created by the Japanese during World War II and fought in the Burma Campaign. ... Mushroom cloud from the nuclear explosion over Nagasaki rising 18 km into the air. ... The Pa-O (also known as Taungthu and Black Karen) form an ethnic group in Myanmar, comprising of approximately 600,000. ... The United Kingdom is a unitary state and a democratic constitutional monarchy. ... London (pronounced ) is the capital city of the United Kingdom and the largest city of England (strangely, England has no constitutional existence within the United Kingdom, and therefore cannot be said to have a capital). ...

H.N.C.Stevenson, the director of the FAA, criticised by both the Burma Office and the AFPFL, lamented the lost opportunities, and the lack of economic data or coordination between the Frontier Areas and Ministerial Burma. He stated,"I believe that the multiplication of and strengthening of the economic relations between the hills and the plains will be the shortest and most inexpensive route to a unified Burma."

Aung San, in his Blueprint for a Free Burma, written in Japan, had said in a similar vein, though apt to quote Lenin in discussing the question of minorities: Vladimir Ilyich Lenin ( Russian: Влади́мир Ильи́ч Ле́нин  listen?), original surname Ulyanov (Улья́нов) ( April 22 (April 10 ( O.S.)), 1870 – January 21, 1924), was a...

"the essential prerequisite is the building of one unified nation. In concrete terms it means we must now bridge all gulfs now existing through British machinations between the major Burmese race and the hill peoples, the Arakanese, the Shans and unite all these peoples into one nation with equal treatment unlike the present system which divides our people into 'backward' and 'administered' sections. All the natural barriers that make mutual associations and contacts shall be overcome, for instance, by construction of effective modern communications such as railways and roads."^[1]

Panglong Agreement

A significant breakthrough came when an agreement was signed between the Shan, Kachin and Chin leaders, and Aung San as leader of the Governor's Executive Council at the second Panglong Conference on February 12, 1947. The Karens sent only 4 observers; also absent were the Mon and Arakanese representatives as they were not considered separately, but within Ministerial Burma.^[1] There were 23 signatories in all expressing their willingness to work with the 'interim Burmese government' in order to achieve independence speedily, and agreeing in principle the formation of a 'Union of Burma'. Aung San General Aung San (Burmese: ; MLCTS: ); February 13, 1915 – July 19, 1947) was a Burmese revolutionary, nationalist, general, and politician. ... February 12 is the 43rd day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... Year 1947 (MCMXLVII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (the link is to a full 1947 calendar). ... The Mon (Burmese: ) are an ethnic group in Southeast Asia. ... The Rakhine people (Burmese: ; formerly Arakanese) are a sub-ethnic group of the Bamar. ...

• The Agreement proposed a Counsellor to the Governor to be appointed and co-opted as a member of the Executive Council, on recommendation by the Supreme Council of United Hills Peoples, in order to deal with the Frontier Areas, thus bringing the subject 'within the purview of the Executive Council', and the Counsellor to be assisted by 2 deputies who should also be allowed to attend relevant meetings of the EC.
• Full autonomy in internal administration of the Frontier Areas was to be accepted in principle.
• A separate Kachin state was agreed to be desirable, subject to discussion in the Constituent Assembly.
• Citizens of the Frontier Areas were to enjoy the rights and privileges regarded as fundamental in democratic countries.
• The financial autonomy of the Federated Shan States was not to be affected.
• Financial assistance to the Kachin and Chin Hills likewise was not to be affected, and the feasibility of the same arrangement for them as existed with the Shan states to be considered.^[2]

The British were left in no doubt that Aung San and the Burman dominated AFPFL were able to mediate with the leaders of the hills peoples. Sao Shwe Thaik was appointed Counsellor to the Governor, with Sinwa Nawng and Vumthu Mawng as his deputies. Aung San's assurance on the day, "If Burma receives one kyat, you will also get one kyat", has often been quoted by ethnic nationalists since.^[1]

Legacy

Thanks to the Panglong Agreement, the Union of Burma came into being after independence on January 4, 1948, and February 12 has been celebrated since as 'Union Day'. The spirit of Panglong is often invoked, although many today feel that another Panglong is long overdue.^[3] The debate certainly needs to move on from the old black-and-white caricatures of 'imperialist stooges' and 'chauvinist oppressors' for any progress to be made. January 4 is the 4th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... February 12 is the 43rd day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ...

Even at the time, there was no representation from the Karen and Karenni,no consideration regarding the Mon and Rakhine as they fell within Ministerial Burma, and the Pa-O, Palaung and Wa were subsumed under the Shan states, although the Saopha of Tawngpeng Palaung substate was among the signatories. The Frontier Areas Commission of Enquiry (FACE) was set up in April/May 1947 as a condition of the Aung San-Atlee Agreement of January 27, 1947, and although the Burmese independence movement was represented by just one united front, the AFPFL, there were 50 often conlicting groups from the hill tracts; the Delta Karen, Mon and Rakhine were still excluded.^[1] Kayah may refer to: Kayah State, a state of Myanmar. ... The Mon (Burmese: ) are an ethnic group in Southeast Asia. ... The Rakhine people (Burmese: ; formerly Arakanese) are a sub-ethnic group of the Bamar. ... The Pa-O (also known as Taungthu and Black Karen) form an ethnic group in Myanmar, comprising of approximately 600,000. ... The Deang (德昂族 : Déáng Zú) (also spelled Deang) people are an ethnic group. ... This article needs to be wikified. ... Saopha (pronounced Saor Bowa) is a title used by Kanbawza Dynasty of Shan Kingdom. ... Aung San General Aung San (Burmese: ; MLCTS: ); February 13, 1915 – July 19, 1947) was a Burmese revolutionary, nationalist, general, and politician. ... Clement Richard Attlee, 1st Earl Attlee, KG, OM, CH, FRS (January 3, 1883 - October 8, 1967) was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1945 to 1951. ... January 27 is the 27th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1947 (MCMXLVII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (the link is to a full 1947 calendar). ...

The shortcomings of the conference which resurfaced in the Constituent Assembly, and the consequent inadequacies of the Constitution promulgated on September 24, 1947, were to emerge soon after independence, and in fact in the Arakan the veteran monk U Seinda had already started a rebellion in May 1947. The Karen had isolated themselves further by boycotting both the EC and the elections to the Constituent Assembly, notwithstanding seats reserved for them, though persistent in their demand for an independent state similar to the kind their cousins, the Karenni, had enjoyed under their own Sawbwas; their future was as a result left unsettled, deferred till after independence. The Kachin had to make concessions in their representation in parliament in exchange for the inclusion of Myitkyina and Bhamo, towns with Shan and Burman majorities, in the new state, although in the hills the Duwas would continue their rule. The Chin ended up with no state, only a special division. The Mon and Rakhine again were not even considered separately.^[1] One Mon group contested unsuccessfully at the elections which they claimed were rigged, but another boycotted; the Mon after independence threw in their lot with the Karen and joined the rebellion.^[1] A constituent assembly is a body elected with the purpose of drafting, and in some cases, adopting a constitution. ... September 24 is the 267th day of the year (268th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1947 (MCMXLVII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (the link is to a full 1947 calendar). ... Myitkyina is a city, and the capital of Kachin State in Myanmar, located 919miles from Yangon, or 487 miles from Mandalay. ... Bhamo is a city in Kachin State in Myanmar, located 186 km south from the capital of Myitkyina. ...

Rebellion

The Regional Autonomy Enquiry Commission in October 1948, though now expanded to include 6 Karens, 6 Mons, 5 Arakanese, 7 Burmans and 4 others, did not report until February 1949, by which time the Karen rebellion had already broken out. The Karen had repeated their controversial demand to include Karen majority areas of the Irrawaddy Delta in the independent Karen state as well as a joint Mon-Karen independent state in the areas of the Tenasserim where they could not stake an exclusive claim.^[1]

Communal relations turned sour when the AFPFL government deployed Karen and Kachin troops, which proved to be ruthlessly efficient, in suppressing the Burmese Communist rebellion that started in March 1948 centred on their stronghold of Pyinmana.^[1] The situation went from bad to worse when U Nu raised the Sitwundan auxiliary troops in order to reduce the government's heavy dependence on ethnic troops, and not least in anticipation of a Karen insurrection. They were put under the command of Maj. Gen. Ne Win and not the Army Chief of Staff Gen. Smith Dun, a Karen who was later removed and replaced by Ne Win on January 31, 1949. They soon outnumbered the Karen Rifles and Union Military Police (UMP), and were subsequently used against the Karen National Defence Organisation (KNDO), a paramiltary force formed in July 1947 by the Karen National Union (KNU), and the Karen UMP units.^[1] The Communist Party of Burma (Ba-ma-pyi Co-myu-ni pa-ti) is a political party in Myanmar (Burma). ... Pyinmana (Burmese: ; population: 100,000 (2006 estimate)) is a logging town and sugar cane refinery center in Mandalay Division of Myanmar. ... Prime Minister U Nu U Nu (otherwise known as Thakin Nu; May 25, 1907 - February 14, 1995) was a Burmese nationalist and political figure. ... This article or section is not written in the formal tone expected of an encyclopedia article. ... January 31 is the 31st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1949 (MCMXLIX) was a common year starting on Saturday (the link is to a full 1949 calendar). ...

History repeated itself when the KNU was judged to be a separatist movement as an 'imperialist plot' at the Left Unity talks in July/August 1948 between the AFPFL and the PVO (Pyithu yèbaw or People's Volunteer Organisation, a paramilitary force formed earlier by Aung San from BIA veterans) and their allies the Communists. A gun-running plot had been uncovered involving an Anglo-Burmese officer ,Capt. Vivian, who was convicted and jailed but later escaped with the Karen; he was linked to U Saw who was in the frame for the assassination of Aung San and 6 other cabinet members in July 1947. Another plot led by Col. Cromarty-Tulloch, an ex-Force 136 adventurer, and a few other Britons, in the early days of the Karen insurrection, was also uncovered shortly after it started.^[1] Naw Seng, a commander of the Kachin Rifles, after being dispatched to suppress the Karen revolt, joined the KNDO whose ranks now swelled from the defection of the Karen Rifles; he then went on to lead the Pawng Yawng rebellion before going into exile to China in 1950, only to make a comeback in 1968 as a Communist commander.^[1] This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... U Saw (1900 - 1948) was a Burmese politician. ... Aung San General Aung San (Burmese: ; MLCTS: ); February 13, 1915 – July 19, 1947) was a Burmese revolutionary, nationalist, general, and politician. ... Force 136 was the general cover name for a branch of the British World War II organisation, the Special Operations Executive. ... The Communist Party of Burma (Ba-ma-pyi Co-myu-ni pa-ti) is a political party in Myanmar (Burma). ...

It was not just the Karen and Mon that rose up in rebellion soon after independence in early 1949, but the Muslims too in northern Arakan along the border of today's Bangladesh, migrants and their descendants from East Bengal. The Karenni revolt however was precipitated by a Baptist-Catholic split in its leadership in August 1948, when the veteran leader Bee Tu Re was brutally murdered, and as a result the Kyebogyi Sawbwa Sao Shwe took up arms against the AFPFL-backed Kantarawaddy Sawbwa Sao Wunna, both ex-Force 136 and erstwhile comrades-in-arms, and Sao Shwe was later aided by Tulloch.^[1] A Muslim is a believer in or follower of Islam. ... East Bengal was the name used during two periods in the 20th century for a territory that roughly included the modern state of Bangladesh. ... A Baptist is a member of a Baptist church or any follower of Jesus Christ who believes that baptism is administered by the full immersion of a confessing Christian. ...

But it was not until the early 1960s that the Kachin rebellion, triggered by the former Marxist U Nu's declaration of Buddhism as state religion, and the Shan rebellion, triggered by Gen. Ne Win's coup d'etat of March 1962, took off. In fact it was the Shan Federal Movement, led by Sao Shwe Thaik and aspiring to a 'loose' federation with Burma, but seen by army hardliners as a separatist movement insisting on the government honouring the right to secession after 10 years provided for by the 1947 Constitution to both the Shan and the Karenni, which precipitated the coup.^[1] Ne Win had already stripped the Sawbwas of their feudal powers in exchange for comfortable pensions for life in 1959 during his caretaker government.^[1] His 1962 coup put paid to the 1947 Constitution and what little remained of the Panglong spirit.^[1] The Chin launched a rebellion also in the 1960s. The Kayan insurgency in the Shan substate of Mong Pai was triggered by the first 'demonitisation' declaring the 100 and 50 kyat notes illegal in 1964 which wiped out the savings of hill farmers as well as the rest of the country.^[1] Marxism is the political practice and social theory based on the works of Karl Marx, a 19th century philosopher, economist, journalist, and revolutionary, along with Friedrich Engels. ... Prime Minister U Nu U Nu (otherwise known as Thakin Nu; May 25, 1907 - February 14, 1995) was a Burmese nationalist and political figure. ... Buddhism is a dharmic, non-theistic religion, a philosophy, and a life-enhancing system of psychology. ... This article or section is not written in the formal tone expected of an encyclopedia article. ... A coup détat, or simply a coup, is the sudden overthrow of a government, usually done by a small group that just replaces the top power figures. ... The Shan are an ethnic group of Southeast Asia. ... At the core, political federalism is a political philosophy in which a group or body of members are bound together (Latin: foedus, covenant) with a governing representative head. ... A map displaying todays federations. ... A caretaker is a term mainly used in the United Kingdom, meaning a concierge or janitor. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Mong Pai was a former British Shan States of Burma. ...

Personal journeys

Aung San was assassinated with several members of his cabinet, including Sao Sarm Htun, the Saopha of Mong Pawng and a signatory of the Agreement, and a Karen member Mahn Ba Khaing, on July 19, 1947, just months after Panglong and before independence; July 19 has been commemorated since as 'Martyrs' Day'. U Saw was convicted and hanged in May 1948 for his role in the crime. The Socialist leader Thakin Nu became the first Prime Minister of independent Burma as a direct consequence of Aung San's untimely death and the earlier expulsion of the Burmese Communists from the AFPFL.^[1] Sao Shwe Thaik was elected the first President of independent Burma (1948-52), arrested at the time of the 1962 coup when his youngest son was the one fatality, shot dead, in what was generally described as a 'bloodless' coup, and he himself died shortly afterwards in custody.^[1] His wife Mahadevi and son Chao-Tzang Yawnghwe formed the Shan State Army (SSA) in 1964 taking the Shan rebellion that started in 1958 to a new phase.^[1] Aung San General Aung San (Burmese: ; MLCTS: ); February 13, 1915 – July 19, 1947) was a Burmese revolutionary, nationalist, general, and politician. ... Saopha (pronounced Saor Bowa) is a title used by Kanbawza Dynasty of Shan Kingdom. ... July 19 is the 200th day (201st in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 165 days remaining. ... Year 1947 (MCMXLVII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (the link is to a full 1947 calendar). ... July 19 is the 200th day (201st in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 165 days remaining. ... Burmese Martyrs Day (Burmese: ) is commemorated every year on July 19. ... U Saw (1900 - 1948) was a Burmese politician. ... Socialism is a social and economic system (or the political philosophy advocating such a system) in which the economic means of production are owned and controlled collectively by the people. ... U Nu (otherwise known as Thakin Nu) (1907-1995) was a Burmese nationalist and political figure. ... A prime minister is the most senior minister of a cabinet in the executive branch of government in a parliamentary system. ... The Communist Party of Burma (Ba-ma-pyi Co-myu-ni pa-ti) is a political party in Myanmar (Burma). ... This article is in need of attention. ... Abraham Lincoln, 16th President of the United States (1861-1865) The majority of this article is about heads of states. ...

Sinwa Nawng and Vamthu Mawng both became cabinet ministers in the first AFPFL government. Brang Seng, the late Chairman of the Kachin Independence Organisation (KIO) and former headmaster of Myitkyina Baptist Mission High School, was the nephew of one of the Kachin signatories Lawdan Duwa Zau La. Khun Kya Nu, a leader of the SSA and former Rangoon University student, is the son of one of the Shan delegates at Panglong, Kya Bu.^[1] Yangon University   With truth and loyalty Yangon University is the most prestigious and the oldest university in Myanmar. ...

References

1. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac} Martin Smith (1991). Burma - Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity. London and New Jersey: Zed Books, 42-43,44-46,62,73-74,46,72,76,78-80,78,84,79,86,114-115,116-118,113-114,,141,112-113,195,193,94,69-70,79,195,220,192.
2. ^ The Panglong Agreement, 1947. Online Burma/Myanmar Library.
3. ^ The New Panglong Initiative. Ethnic Nationalities Council (Union of Burma).

External links

• The Panglong Agreement, 1947 in Burmese and English inc. photos, The New Era Journal
• In the Name of Panglong: Hailing the 57th Anniversary Union Day The New Light of Myanmar inc. photos, January 31 2004, Retrieved on 2006-11-09
• Federalism in Burma Online Burma/Myanmar Library
• Mon, Shan: New Draft Constitution for Real Union of Burma UNPO, 2006-04-13, Retrieved on 2006-11-09
• Shan State Affairs Chao Hso Hom
• Burma's Ex-Insurgents: The Mon Ceasefire and Political Transition Ashley South
• Monland Restoration Council
• Arakan Information Website
• Revolution Reviewed: The Karens' Struggle for Right to Self-determination and Hope for the Future Saw Kapi, February 26 2006, Retrieved on 2006-11-09
• Fifty Years of Struggle: A Review of the Fight for the Karen People's Autonomy {abridged) Ba Saw Khin, 1998 (revised 2005), Retrieved on 2006-11-12
• Pa-O, the Forgotten People Nandar Chann, The Irrawaddy, May 2004, Retrieved on 2006-11-12
• Determined Resistance: An Interview with Gen. Bo Mya The Irrawaddy, October 2003, Retrieved on 2006-11-12
• Echoing the Party Line: An Interview with Tu Jai The Irrawaddy, October 2003, Retrieved on 2006-11-12
• Shaky Future for the KIO Naw Seng, The Irrawaddy, April 2004, Retrieved on 2006-11-12
• A Rocky Road Khun Sam, The Irrawaddy, November 2005, Retrieved on 2006-11-12
• At What Price? Gold Mining in Kachin State, Burma Images Asia and Pan Kachin Development Society, November 2004, fully illustrated with photos
• KITE: Karenni Independence Through Education
• Karrenis, The Forgotten People of the World Kayan New Generation Youth (KNGY), June 4 2005, Retrieved on 2006-11-09
• Federal Constitution Drafting Process Ethnic Nationalities Council (Union of Burma)
• National Democratic Front (Burma)
• Chin UNPO
• Burma and Federalism Dr Vum Son, June 14 1994, Retrieved on 2006-11-09
• Zomi Re-unification Movement
• Independence or Federalism Harn Yawnghwe, Chinland Guardian, April 9 2005, Retrieved on 2006-11-09