The Diamond Sutra of the Chinese Tang Dynasty, the oldest dated printed book in the world, found at Dunhuang, from 868 AD.

Papermaking is the process of making paper, a material which is ubiquitous today for writing and packaging. Though the word "paper" derives from the Egyptian use of papyrus, true paper, made from pulped fibres, is traditionally ascribed to the Chinese court official Cai Lun, at around 100AD. However, excavated examples of paper from China have been dated to the 2nd century BC. Amate paper was also independently invented by the Mayas no later than the 5th century AD. Papermaking is considered by the British scholar Joseph Needham to be one of the Four Great Inventions of ancient China, alongside the compass, gunpowder, and printing. Image File history File links Jingangjing. ... Image File history File links Jingangjing. ... China under the Tang Dynasty (yellow) and its sphere of influence Capital Changan (618–904) Luoyang (904-907) Language(s) Middle Chinese Religion Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism Government Monarchy Emperor  - 618-626 Emperor Gaozu  - 684, 705-710 Emperor Zhongzong  - 684, 710-712 Emperor Ruizong  - 904-907 Emperor Ai History  - Li... Location of Dunhuang Dunhuang (Chinese: , also written as 燉煌 till early Qing Dynasty; Pinyin: ) is a city in Jiuquan, Gansu province, China. ... A blank sheet of paper Paper is a commodity of thin material produced by the amalgamation of fibers, typically vegetable fibers composed of cellulose, which are subsequently held together by hydrogen bonding. ... Papyrus plant Cyperus papyrus at Kew Gardens, London Papyrus is an early form of paper produced from the pith of the papyrus plant, Cyperus papyrus, a wetland sedge that was once abundant in the Nile Delta of Egypt. ... Cài Lún (Wade-Giles: Tsai Lun, 蔡倫) (c. ... (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) The 2nd century BC started on January 1, 200 BC and ended on December 31, 101 BC. // Coin of Antiochus IV. Reverse shows Apollo seated on an omphalos. ... Part of the Huexotzinco Codex, printed on amatl Amatl (from the Nahuatl paper) or Amate (Spanish) is a type of paper developed in Pre-Columbian Maya civilization. ... The Maya civilization is a Mesoamerican civilization, noted for the only known fully developed written language of the pre-Columbian Americas, as well as its spectacular art, monumental architecture, and sophisticated mathematical and astronomical systems. ... One of the five major steps in the ancient Chinese papermaking process, first outlined by Cai Lun in the 2nd century. ... Compass in a wooden box A compass (or mariners compass) is a navigational instrument for finding directions on the Earth. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Blackpowder. ... For other articles which might have the same name, see Print (disambiguation). ...

History

Papyrus and parchment

The word paper derives from its mistaken identity by Greek speaking scholars to the ancient Egyptian writing material called papyrus, which was woven from papyrus plants. The Egyptians invented papyrus around 3000 BC. Papyrus is made by crisscrossing thin sections of the papyrus reed, which is ubiquitous in the marshy delta of the Nile river. Papyrus is held together by natural glues within the reed when pressure is applied. The papyrus was smoothened on one side by rubbing it against a flat stone surface with smooth stones. Around 200 B.C. parchment, the split skin of sheep or goat, was developed.^[1] Binomial name Cyperus papyrus L. Papyrus sedge, also known as Bulrush or Paper reed (Cyperus papyrus) is a monocot belonging to the sedge family Cyperaceae. ... This article is about marsh, a type of wetland. ... Delta may refer to: Look up delta in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... There is also Nile, a death metal band from South Carolina, USA. The Nile in Egypt Length 6 695 km Elevation of the source 1 134 m Average discharge 2 830 m³/s Area watershed 3 400 000 km² Origin Africa Mouth the Mediterranean Basin countries Uganda - Sudan - Egypt The... Look up glue in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

Unlike tanned leather, the material used by tribes like the Hewbrews for their scrolls, Parchment is made from split skins (vellum is whole skins) removed of all hair and stretched over a wooden frame called a hurst. A shortage of papyrus occurred because of the development of the great library of Alexandria, which pushed Attalus of Pergamum (who was building his own rival library) to search for substitute for papyrus.

Early writing materials, such as the Egyptian papyrus was structurally inappropriate for the rapid demands of the press as was Chinese bark of bamboo. parchment, and silk were too expensive. ^[2] Diversity Around 91 genera and 1,000 species Subtribes Arthrostylidiinae Arundinariinae Bambusinae Chusqueinae Guaduinae Melocanninae Nastinae Racemobambodinae Shibataeinae See the full Taxonomy of the Bambuseae. ... German parchmenter, 1568 Parchment is a material for the pages of a book or codex, made from fine calf skin, sheep skin or goat skin. ...

True paper

Papermaking has traditionally been traced to China about 105 AD, when Cai Lun, an official attached to the Imperial court during the Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD), created a sheet of paper using mulberry and other bast fibres along with fishnets, old rags, and hemp waste. ^[3] However a recent archaeological discovery has been reported from near Dunhuang of paper with writing on it dating to 8 BC.^[4], while paper used for wrapping and padding was used in China since the 2nd century BC.^[5] Paper used as a writing medium became widespread by the 3rd century,^[6] and by the 6th century sheets of paper in China were beginning to be used for toilet paper as well.^[7] During the Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD) paper was folded and sewn into square bags to preserve the flavor of tea,^[5] while the later Song Dynasty (960-1279 AD) was the first government on earth to issue paper-printed money (see banknote). Cài Lún (Wade-Giles: Tsai Lun, 蔡倫) (c. ... Han Dynasty in 87 BC Capital Changan (202 BC–9 AD) Luoyang (25 AD–190 AD) Language(s) Chinese Religion Taoism, Confucianism Government Monarchy History  - Establishment 206 BC  - Battle of Gaixia; Han rule of China begins 202 BC  - Interruption of Han rule 9 AD - 24 AD  - Abdication to Cao... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 3rd century BC - 4th century BC Decades: 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC - 200s BC - 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC Years: 207 BC 206 BC 205 BC 204 BC 203 BC - 202 BC - 201 BC 200 BC 199 BC 198 BC 197 BC Events October... Events By Place Roman Empire The Goths invade Asia Minor and the Balkans. ... Species See text. ... ukyih;;;;;;;;;;uiiiih;hhh;oiuj7p ... Not to be confused with: fishing net. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... Location of Dunhuang Dunhuang (Chinese: , also written as 燉煌 till early Qing Dynasty; Pinyin: ) is a city in Jiuquan, Gansu province, China. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... China under the Tang Dynasty (yellow) and its sphere of influence Capital Changan (618–904) Luoyang (904-907) Language(s) Middle Chinese Religion Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism Government Monarchy Emperor  - 618-626 Emperor Gaozu  - 684, 705-710 Emperor Zhongzong  - 684, 710-712 Emperor Ruizong  - 904-907 Emperor Ai History  - Li... Events End of the Sui Dynasty and beginning of the Tang Dynasty in China. ... Events Oleg leads Kievan Rus in a campaign against Constantinople Yelü Abaoji establishes Liao (Khitan) dynasty Births Deaths Categories: 907 ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... Northern Song in 1111 AD Capital Kaifeng (960–1127) Linan (1127–1279) Language(s) Chinese Religion Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism Government Monarchy History  - Zhao Kuangyin taking over the throne of the Later Zhou Dynasty 960  - Battle of Yamen; the end of Song rule 1279 Population  - Peak est. ... Events Edgar the Peaceable crowned King of England. ... For broader historical context, see 1270s and 13th century. ... A £20 Bank of England banknote. ...

The technology was first transferred to Korea in 600 and then imported to Japan by a Buddhist priest, Dam Jing (曇徴) from Goguryeo, around 610, where fibres (called bast) from the mulberry tree were used. Printing seems to have been invented in Japan with 1000 prayers being made for temples in 760Ad from stone 'blocks' and the idea went back to China, where the widespread use of paper also enhanced the innovations of printing in with wooden blockswoodblock printing by at least the 9th century (see the Diamond Sutra) and movable type printing first invented by Bi Sheng (990-1051 AD) during the Song Dynasty. Korea (Korean: 한국 in South Korea or ì¡°ì„  in North Korea, see below) is a geographic area, civilization, and former state situated on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia. ... The population of the Earth rises to about 208 million people. ... Dam Jing (曇徴) was a Buddhist priest who imported the first paper to Japan from Goguryeo in Korea, around 610, where fibres (called bast) from the mulberry tree were used. ... Goguryeo was an ancient kingdom located in the northern Korean Peninsula and southern Manchuria. ... Events October 4 - Heraclius arrives by ship from Africa at Constantinople, overthrows Byzantine Emperor Phocas and becomes Emperor. ... Bast are the strong fibers in the phloem of some plants. ... Species See text. ... For other articles which might have the same name, see Print (disambiguation). ... Yuan Dynasty woodblock edition of a Chinese play For the use of the technique in art, see Woodcut on the technique, and Old master print for the history in Europe and woodblock printing in Japan. ... The Chinese Diamond Sutra, the oldest known dated printed book in the world, printed in the 9th year of Xiantong Era of the Tang Dynasty, i. ... A case of cast metal type pieces and typeset matter in a composing stick Movable type is the system of printing and typography using movable pieces of metal type, made by casting from matrices struck by letterpunches. ... Pì ShÄ“ng (Wade-Giles selling) (Traditional Chinese: ; Simplified Chinese: ; pinyin: ; died 1052) was the inventor of the first know movable type printing system. ... Events Construction of the Al-Hakim Mosque begins in Cairo. ... -1...

Water was the problem for papermakers in the dry western part of China, and in its slow travel westward reflects the experiments with different raw materials. Western paper was made from old clothes. The secret of papermaking reached Samarkand, in Central Asia, in 751 after papermakers were captured by the Arabs at the Battle of Talas. The method spread through the Arabic empire, and in 793 the first paper was made in Baghdad during the time of Harun. ^[8] Samarkand (Tajik: Самарқанд, Persian: ‎ , Uzbek: , Russian: ), population 412,300 in 2005, is the second-largest city in Uzbekistan and the capital of Samarqand Province. ... Map of Central Asia showing three sets of possible boundaries for the region Central Asia located as a region of the world Central Asia is a vast landlocked region of Asia. ... Combatants Abbasid Caliphate Tang Dynasty Commanders Ziyad ibn Salih (Persian)[3][4] Gao Xianzhi (Goguryeo)[3] Li Siye (Chinese)[3] Duan Xiushi (Chinese)[3] Strength The number of troops from Arab protectorates was not recorded by either side. ... Baghdad (Arabic: ) is the capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate. ... Harun, or Haroon, was a prophet in the Quran. ...

Initially the crusades had opened up the holy lands, and Europe discovered paper, 'charta damascura' for the first time. The secret of paper and silk manufacture was transfered to Damascus, and Italian towns started to get rich importing these goods form the new Christian kingdoms allong the coast. However, ultimatley, the Crusades forced the muslim population to retreat in isolation and this disrupted the production, and it was sent to quieter parts of the empire in the east and west.

Persian manufacture was eventually adopted in India. The former rulers of Damascus, the Umayyad dynasty had moved to Spain (Al-Andalus) and production moved to Xavia in the 12th century. With the disaster of the 9th Crusade - the fall of Antioch (1268), Tripoli (1289), and Acre (1291), the last traces of the Christian rule in Syria disappeared - and so did the source of Charta Papyria. So new production of paper moved to Italy in the 13th century from Islamic Spain. They used hemp and linen rags as a source of fiber. Rags from old clothing, etc. were commonly bought by rag collectors and sold to paper makers. The bones were collected to make glue size to seal the paper with (12th century - 13th century - 14th century - other centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 13th century was that century which lasted from 1201 to 1300. ... Al-Āndalus (Arabic الأندلس) was the Arabic name given to the Iberian Peninsula by its Muslim inhabitants; it refers to both the Emirate (ca 750-929) and Caliphate of Córdoba (929-1031) and its taifa successor kingdoms specifically, and in general to territories under Muslim occupation (711-1492). ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... Torn linen cloth, recovered from the Dead Sea Linen is a material made from the fibers of the flax plant. ...

Paper which had been imported in small quantities from Damascus, was now imported to Europe via Islamic Spain. The oldest known paper document in the West is the Mozarab Missal of Silos from the 11th century, probably written in Islamic Spain. The use of paper became increasingly common during the fourteenth century, and is documented as being manufactured in both Italy and Germany by 1400. It then spread rapidly for letters, records, old master prints and popular prints and manuscript books. Prints were initially in woodcut , and from the 1430s in engraving also. Al-Āndalus (Arabic الأندلس) was the Arabic name given to the Iberian Peninsula by its Muslim inhabitants; it refers to both the Emirate (ca 750-929) and Caliphate of Córdoba (929-1031) and its taifa successor kingdoms specifically, and in general to territories under Muslim occupation (711-1492). ... The Mozarabs (in Spanish, mozárabes; in Portuguese, moçárabes) were Iberian Christians living under Muslim dominion, and their descendants. ... The Missal of Silos is the oldest known paper document created in Europe (paper was invented in China around 2nd century and in Egypt much earlier). ... As a means of recording the passage of time, the 11th century was that century which lasted from 1001 to 1100. ... Al-Āndalus (Arabic الأندلس) was the Arabic name given to the Iberian Peninsula by its Muslim inhabitants; it refers to both the Emirate (ca 750-929) and Caliphate of Córdoba (929-1031) and its taifa successor kingdoms specifically, and in general to territories under Muslim occupation (711-1492). ... The term Old Master Print is used to describe works of art produced by a printing process within the Western tradition (European or New World). ... Popular Prints is a term for printed images of generally low artistic quality which were sold cheaply in Europe and later the New World from the fifteenth to eighteenth centuries, often with text as well as images. ... A manuscript (Latin manu scriptus, written by hand), strictly speaking, is any written document that is put down by hand, in contrast to being printed or reproduced some other way. ... Four horsemen of the Apocalypse by Albrecht Dürer Ukiyo-e woodcut, Ishiyama Moon by Tsukioka Yoshitoshi (1889) Woodcut is a relief printing artistic technique in printmaking in which an image is carved into the surface of a block of wood, with the printing parts remaining level with the surface... Engraving is the practice of incising a design onto a hard, flat surface, by cutting grooves into it. ...

But it was not until printing with moveable type was invented, that rag paper became more popular. Parchment was not ideal for printing, being expensive and susceptible to humidity. Paper on the other hand was ideal. But as the demand for books rose, the supply of rags became more and more inadequate and other sources of fiber were actively sought. A great deal of experimentation took place.

A copy of the Gutenberg Bible, in the U.S. Library of Congress

 By the invention of movable type printing in Germany about 1450, paper was readily accessible, although still expensive. Vellum remained in use as well, and it was on this that the most expensive copies of the Gutenberg Bible were first printed. 

In America, archaeological evidence indicates that paper was invented by the Mayas no later than the 5th century AD.^[9] Called Amate, it was in widespread use among Mesoamerican cultures until the Spanish conquest. In small quantities, traditional Maya papermaking techniques are still practiced today Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 800 × 541 pixel Image in higher resolution (925 × 625 pixel, file size: 90 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Picture of a copy of the en:Gutenberg Bible owned by the US Library of Congress Taken by Mark Pellegrini on August 12... Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 800 × 541 pixel Image in higher resolution (925 × 625 pixel, file size: 90 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Picture of a copy of the en:Gutenberg Bible owned by the US Library of Congress Taken by Mark Pellegrini on August 12... A copy of the Gutenberg Bible, this version owned by the U.S. Library of Congress The Gutenberg Bible (also known as the 42-line Bible, and as the Mazarin Bible) is a print of the Latin Vulgate translation of the Bible that was printed by Johannes Gutenberg, in Mainz... The Library of Congress is the de facto national library of the United States and the research arm of the United States Congress. ... A case of cast metal type pieces and typeset matter in a composing stick Movable type is the system of printing and typography using movable pieces of metal type, made by casting from matrices struck by letterpunches. ... For other articles which might have the same name, see Print (disambiguation). ... Vellum (from the Latin for wool or pelt) is a sort of parchment, a material for the pages of a book or codex, characterized by its thin, smooth, durable properties. ... A copy of the Gutenberg Bible, this version owned by the U.S. Library of Congress The Gutenberg Bible (also known as the 42-line Bible, and as the Mazarin Bible) is a print of the Latin Vulgate translation of the Bible that was printed by Johannes Gutenberg, in Mainz... Part of the Huexotzinco Codex, printed on amatl Amatl (from the Nahuatl paper) or Amate (Spanish) is a type of paper developed in Pre-Columbian Maya civilization. ...

The Bataks, living in Sumatra, sometimes use as writing material long strips of bamboo, welded by "beating" them together, then folded together, accordion-like, between wooden covers, and bound together with a string of woven rushes. Often long strips of the thin bark of trees -- such books being known as pustakas -- are used. ^[10] Specimens of writing on bark from India are preserved in the British Museum. The people of the Malabar coast also frequently wrote upon bark with a stylus.^[10] Ancient books of the Bataks were written in ink on paper made of bark. The Lampong and Rendjang tribes, also inhabiting Sumatra, scratch their message and books on bamboo, tree bark, or certain kind of leaves. ^[10] The Batak alphabet is a type of alphabet called an abugida that is used to write the Batak languages of northern Sumatra, an Austronesian language spoken by about three million people on the Indonesian island of Sumatra. ... Sumatra (also spelled Sumatera) is the sixth largest island in the world (approximately 470,000 km²) and is the largest island entirely in Indonesia (two larger islands, Borneo and New Guinea, are partially in Indonesia). ... The British Museum in London is one of the worlds greatest museums of human history and culture. ... Malabar Coast, Kerala Bekal Fort Beach, Kerala The Malabar Coast also known as the Malabarian Coast, is a long and narrow south-western shore line of the mainland Indian subcontinent. ...

Significance

One of the five major steps in the ancient Chinese papermaking process.

Some historians speculate that paper was the key element in global cultural advancement. According to this theory, Chinese culture was less developed than the West in early ancient times because bamboo, while abundant, was a clumsier writing material than papyrus (although silk was used as a writing medium, yet was often too expensive). Chinese culture advanced during the Han Dynasty and preceding centuries due to the Chinese invention of paper; and Europe advanced during the Renaissance due to the introduction of paper and the printing press. Image File history File links Making_Paper. ... Image File history File links Making_Paper. ... Chinese culture has roots going back over five thousand years. ... Diversity Around 91 genera and 1,000 species Subtribes Arthrostylidiinae Arundinariinae Bambusinae Chusqueinae Guaduinae Melocanninae Nastinae Racemobambodinae Shibataeinae See the full Taxonomy of the Bambuseae. ... Silk dresses Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. ... Chinese culture has roots going back over five thousand years. ... Han Dynasty in 87 BC Capital Changan (202 BC–9 AD) Luoyang (25 AD–190 AD) Language(s) Chinese Religion Taoism, Confucianism Government Monarchy History  - Establishment 206 BC  - Battle of Gaixia; Han rule of China begins 202 BC  - Interruption of Han rule 9 AD - 24 AD  - Abdication to Cao... The Renaissance (French for rebirth, or Rinascimento in Italian), was a cultural movement in Italy (and in Europe in general) that began in the late Middle Ages, and spanned roughly the 14th through the 17th century. ... The printing press is a mechanical device for printing many copies of a text on rectangular sheets of paper. ...

In the very small quantities needed for popular prints , paper was affordable by the European urban working class and many peasants even in the 1400s, but books remained expensive until the nineteenth century. However even poor families could often afford a few by the 1700s in England, if they so chose. Popular Prints is a term for printed images of generally low artistic quality which were sold cheaply in Europe and later the New World from the fifteenth to eighteenth centuries, often with text as well as images. ...

Paper remained relatively expensive, at least in book-sized quantities, through the centuries, until the advent of steam-driven paper making machines in the 19th century, which could make paper with fibres from wood pulp. Although older machines predated it, the Fourdrinier paper making machine became the basis for most modern papermaking. Together with the invention of the practical fountain pen and the mass produced pencil of the same period, and in conjunction with the advent of the steam driven rotary printing press, wood based paper caused a major transformation of the 19th century economy and society in industrialized countries. With the introduction of cheaper paper, schoolbooks, fiction, non-fiction, and newspapers became gradually available to all the members of an industrial society by 1900. Cheap wood based paper also meant that keeping personal diaries or writing letters became universal. The clerk, or writer, ceased to be a high-status job, and by 1850 had nearly become an office worker or white-collar worker , which transformation can be considered as a part of the industrial revolution. For the meaning of fiber in nutrition, see dietary fiber. ... International Paper Company Wood pulp is the most common material used to make paper. ... ... A fountain pen is a writing instrument, more specifically a pen, that contains a reservoir of water-based ink that is fed to a nib through a feed via a combination of gravity and capillary action. ... This article is about the handwriting instrument. ... The printing press is a mechanical device for printing many copies of a text on rectangular sheets of paper. ... The word clerk, derived from the Latin clericus meaning cleric, i. ... White-collar workers perform tasks which are less physically laborious yet often more highly paid than blue-collar workers, who do manual work. ... A Watt steam engine. ...

Method

A rather loose description of how paper is made by hand:

Fibers are floated in a slurry, a thick soup of water and fibers, in a large vat. A wire screen mould with a wooden frame (somewhat similar to an old window screen) is used to scoop some of the slurry out of the vat. The wooden frame is called a "deckle." The impressions in paper caused by the wires in the screen that run sideways are called "laid lines" and the impressions made, unusually from top to bottom, by the wires holding the other wires together are called "chain lines." Watermarks are created by weaving a name into the wires in the mould. This is essentially true of Oriental moulds made of other substances, such as bamboo. Hand-made paper generally folds and tears more evenly along the laid lines.

The wooden frame or deckle leaves the edges of the paper slightly irregular and wavery. This wavy edge is called the "deckle edge" and is one of the indications that the paper was made by hand. Deckle-edged paper is occasionally mechanically imitated today to create the impression of old-fashioned luxury.

Returning to the process: the slurry in the screen mould is artfully sloshed around the mould until it forms an over-all thin coating. The fibers are allowed to settle and the water to run out. When the fibers have stabilized in place but are still damp, they are turned out onto a felt sheet which was generally made of an animal product such as wool or rabbit fur, and the screen mold immediately reused. Layers of paper and felt build up in a pile and a weight is placed on top to press out water and keep the paper fibers flat and tight. When the paper pages are dry, they are frequently run between rollers to produce a harder writing surface. Papers are made of different surfaces depending on their intended purpose. Paper intended for printing or writing with ink is fairly hard, while paper to be used for water color, for instance, is fairly soft.

The wood-based paper was more acidic and more prone to discolor and disintegrate over time, through processes known as slow fires. Documents written on more expensive rag paper were more stable. Both rag and woodpulp paper will develop tan spots called "foxing" caused by impurities or fungi reacting with humidity. The majority of modern book publishers now use acid-free paper. Modern newspapers are commonly printed on cheaper high-acid paper which turns tan and disintegrates rather rapidly, especially in the presence of strong light and humidity. Slow fires is a term from library and information science used to describe the self-destruction of acid paper. ... Acid-free paper is paper that has a neutral or basic pH (7 or greater), although paper having a pH between 6 and 7 is often also considered acid-free. ...

Paper sizes

A blank sheet of paper

In the beginning of Western papermaking, the paper size was fairly standard. A page of paper is referred to as a "leaf." When a leaf was printed on without being folded, the size was referred to as "folio." It was roughly equal to the size of a newspaper sheet. Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ...

When it was folded once, it produced four sides or pages, and the size of the pages or a book made of such pages was referred to as "quarto" (4to).

If the original sheet was folded in half again, the result was eight sides, referred to as "octavo" (8vo), which is the size that most books, such as the average novel, use to this day.

An "octavo" folding produces four leaves, the first two and the second two will be joined at the top by the second fold. The top edge is usually "trimmed" to make it possible to look freely at each side of the leaf. However, many books are found that have not been trimmed on the top, and these pages are referred to as "unopened." Many people reading "unopened" books will use their finger, a pencil, or some other inadequate instrument to rip open the top of the pages, leaving an irregular tear. A letter opener or a knife carefully used is a more appropriate tool.

An octavo book produces a printing puzzle. Pieces of paper are printed when they are folio size. To provide for the proper alignment of numbered pages, pages 8 and 1 are printed right-side-up on the bottom of the sheet, and pages 4 and 5 are printed up-side-down on the top of the same sheet. On the opposite side, pages 2 and 7 are printed right-side-up on the bottom of the sheet, and pages 6 and 3 are printed up-side-down on the top of the sheet. When the paper is folded twice and the folds trimmed, the pages fall into proper order.

Try folding a paper in half by turning the top half down and creasing it, and then fold it in half again by turning the left side over the right. You have the format for an octavo page arrangement. If you number the pages in order and then open the paper to full size, you will see the numbers as described above.

Smaller books are produced by folding the leaves again to produce 16 pages, known as a "sixteen-mo" (16mo). Other folding arrangements produce yet smaller books such as the thirty-two-mo (32mo).

When a standard-sized octavo book is produced by a large leaf folded two times, two leaves joined at the top will be contained in the resulting fold (which ends up in the gulley between the pages). This group of 8 numberable pages is called a "signature" or a "gathering." Traditionally, printed signatures were stacked on top of each other in a "sewing frame" and each signature was sewn through the inner fold to the signature on top of it. The sewing ran around leather bands or fabric tapes along the backs of the signatures to stabilize the growing pile of signatures.

The leather bands originally used in the West to stabilize the backs of sewn books appear as a number of ridges under the leather on the spine of leather books.

The ends of the leather strips or fabric bands were sewn or glued onto the cover boards and reinforced the hinging of the book in its covers.

Vatmen Paper

Vatmen Paper was a type of paper made in The Netherlands that was 17 inches wide and 44 inches long. 44 inches is chosen because that is how far the papermaker could stretch his arm.{cite} The reason for 17 inches is unknown. Motto: Je Maintiendrai (Dutch: Ik zal handhaven, English: I Shall Uphold) Anthem: Wilhelmus van Nassouwe Capital Amsterdam1 Largest city Amsterdam Official language(s) Dutch2 Government Parliamentary democracy Constitutional monarchy  - Queen Beatrix  - Prime minister Jan Peter Balkenende Independence Eighty Years War   - Declared July 26, 1581   - Recognised January 30, 1648 (by Spain...

Notes

1. ^ Handbook of Pulping and Papermaking, Second Edition (Hardcover) by Christopher J. Biermann (Author). Page number 1. Hardcover: 754 pages. Publisher: Academic Press; 2 edition (July 22, 1996)
2. ^ Paper & Paper Making Ancient and Modern By Richard J. Herring, George Croly. Page XII. Published 1863. Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts, & Green. 134 pages. Digitized May 3, 2006. Google Book Search, New York Public Library copy. page xii
3. ^ papermaking. (2007). In Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved April 9, 2007, from Encyclopedia Britannica Online
4. ^ World Archaeological Congress eNewsletter 11 August 2006 [1]
5. ^ ^{a b} Needham, Volume 5, 122.
6. ^ Needham, Volume 5, 1.
7. ^ Needham, Volume 5, 123.
8. ^ papermaking. (2007). In Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved April 9, 2007, from Encyclopedia Britannica Online
9. ^ The Construction of the Codex In Classic- and Postclassic-Period Maya Civilization Maya Codex and Paper Making
10. ^ ^{a b c} David Diringer. The Book Before Printing: Ancient, Medieval, and Oriental by David Diringer. Originally published in 1953 as The Hand-Produced Book. (London: Hutchinson). Reprint. New York: Dover Publications, 1982. ISBN 0486242439 (page 37).

References

• Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Part 1. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd.

See also

• Bookbinding
• Kraft process
• Paper
• Printing
• Movable type
• Woodblock printing
• Netique_Deckle_Matcher