NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Parliamentary democratic

A parliamentary system, or parliamentarism, is distinguished by the executive branch of government being dependent on the direct or indirect support of the parliament, often expressed through a vote of confidence. Hence, there is no clear-cut separation of powers between the executive and legislative branches, leading to criticism from some that they lack checks and balances found in a presidential republic. Parliamentarism is praised, relative to presidentialism, for its flexibility and responsiveness to the public. It is faulted for its tendency to sometimes lead to unstable governments, as in the German Weimar Republic and the French Fourth Republic. Parliamentary systems usually have a clear differentiation between the head of government and the head of state, with the head of government being the prime minister or premier, and the head of state often being an appointed figurehead with only minor or ceremonial powers. However, some parliamentary systems also have an elected president with many reserve powers as the head of state, providing some balance to these systems. Under the doctrine of the separation of powers, the executive is the branch of a government charged with implementing, or executing, the law. ... An aerial view of Parliament of India at New Delhi. ... A Motion of Confidence is a motion of support proposed by a government in a parliament to give members of parliament a chance to register their confidence for a government by means of a parliamentary vote. ... Separation of powers is the idea that the powers of a sovereign government should be split between two or more strongly independent entities, preventing any one person or group from gaining too much power. ... In a broad definition a republic is a state whose political organization rests on the principle that the citizens or electorate constitute the ultimate root of legitimacy and sovereignty. ... A presidential system, or a congressional system, is a system of government of a republic where the executive branch is elected separately from the legislative. ... The period of German history from 1919 to 1933 is known as the Weimar Republic (IPA , German Weimarer Republik). ... The Fourth Republic existed in France between 1946 and 1958. ... The head of government is the leader of the government or cabinet. ... The President of the Philippines meets with the President of the United States. ... A prime minister may be either: chief or leading member of the cabinet of the top-level government in a country having a parliamentary system of government; or the official, in countries with a semi-presidential system of government, appointed to manage the civil service and execute the directives of... A premier is an executive official of government. ... In politics, a figurehead, by metaphor with the carved figurehead at the prow of a sailing ship, is a person who holds an important title or office yet executes little actual power. ... President is a title held by many leaders of organizations, companies, universities, and countries. ...

The term parliamentary system does not mean that a country is ruled by different parties in coalition with each other. Such multi-party arrangements are usually the product of an electoral system known as proportional representation. Parliamentary countries that use first past the post voting usually have governments composed of one party. The United Kingdom, for instance, has had only one coalition government since World War II. However, parliamentary systems of continental Europe do use proportional representation, so, outside the British Commonwealth, it can be said that PR voting systems and parliamentarism go together. A coalition government, or coalition cabinet, is a cabinet in parliamentary government in which several parties cooperate. ... Proportional representation (PR) is any election system which ensures a proportionally representative result of a democratic election, x% of votes should be represented by x% in the democratic institutions, parliament or congress. ... The first-past-the-post electoral system is a voting system for single-member districts, variously called first-past-the-post (FPTP or FPP), winner-take-all, plurality voting, or relative majority. ... World War II was a truly global conflict with many facets: immense human suffering, fierce indoctrinations, and the use of new, extremely devastating weapons such as the atom bomb. ... Flag of the Commonwealth of Nations The Commonwealth of Nations is a voluntary association of independent sovereign states, most of which were once governed by the United Kingdom and are its former colonies. ...

Parliamentarism may also be heeded for governance in local governments. An example is the city of Oslo, which has an executive council as part of a parliamentary system. Local governments are administrative offices of an area smaller than a state. ... County Oslo NO-03 Landscape Viken Municipality NO-0301 Administrative centre Oslo Mayor (2004) Per Ditlev-Simonsen (H) Official language form Neutral Area - Total - Land - Percentage Ranked 224 454 kmÂ² 426 kmÂ² 0. ...

Download high resolution version (1084x768, 278 KB)The Palace of Westminster at night seen from the south bank of the River Thames. ... Download high resolution version (1084x768, 278 KB)The Palace of Westminster at night seen from the south bank of the River Thames. ...

History

Main Article: History of Parliamentarism For a definition of Parliamentarism see: Parliamentary system of government. ...

The modern parliamentary system has its roots in the Roman Republic's senate, which was essentially a ruling council made up of the elite of society. Even after the Republic became the Roman Empire, the senate still had immense influence and power. However, as time went on, the autocratic nature of later emperors eventually reduced the senate's prestige and power, and ushered in centuries of relative autocratic rule by monarchs. Under feudalism in the Middle Ages, all members of a kingdom were technically under the protection of a ruling monarch (and the Church), who gave land to nobles in exchange for support. However, nobles would occasionally challenge the ruling monarch (as would the Church). Under the customs of Feudalism, groups of nobles would meet to decide on whether they would support the monarch on important issues. These groups sometimes clashed with the autocratic nature of some monarchs. The most important clash, in the evolution of the nation state and Constitutional rule of law, came with Magna Carta of 1215—it was the first true challenge to the unrestrained powers of a king, attempting to constitutionally limit King John after he commited a series of debacles. The kingdom of England had become too big, the groups of nobles believed, for any one man as crazy as John to make decisions. The statements made by Magna Carta were a direct challenge to the Divine Right of Kings, a philosophy held by convention at the time, and led to many civil wars, perhaps the most famous of which was the English Civil War. See also Roman Republic (18th century) and Roman Republic (19th century). ... The Roman Senate (Latin, Senatus) was a deliberative body which was important in the government of both the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire. ... The Roman Empire is the term conventionally used to describe the Ancient Roman polity in the centuries following its reorganization under the leadership of Octavian (better known as Caesar Augustus). ... This is a list of Roman Emperors with the dates they controlled the Roman Empire. ... A monarch is a type of ruler or head of state, whose titles and ascent are often inherited, not earned, and who represents a larger monarchical system which has established rules and customs regarding succession, duties, and powers. ... Defining feudalism is difficult because there is no generally accepted agreement on what it means. ... The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times, beginning with the Renaissance. ... The Lords and Barons prove their Nobility by hanging their Banners and exposing their Coats-of-arms at the Windows of the Lodge of the Heralds. ... In the West, the separation of church and state during the medieval period went through a number of developments, roughly from the end of the Roman Empire through to the beginning of the Reformation. ... A nation-state is a specific form of state (a geographical entity), which exists to provide a sovereign territory for a particular nation (an ethnic entity), and derives its legitimacy from that function. ... The rule of law implies that government authority may only be exercised in accordance with written laws, which were adopted through an established procedure. ... Magna Carta placed certain checks on the absolute power of the English Monarchs. ... // Events A certified copy of the Magna Carta June 15 - King John of England forced to put his seal to the Magna Carta, outlining the rights of landowning men (nobles and knights) and restricting the kings power. ... John (December 24, c. ... The Divine Right of Kings is a European political and religious doctrine of political absolutism. ... The term English Civil War (or Wars) refers to the series of armed conflicts and political machinations which took place between Parliamentarians and Royalists from 1642 until 1651. ...

Parliaments throughout Europe systematically replaced the powers of the monarch, often holding complete financial control of the state. In many cases the monarchs finally signed over all actual power, and became ceremonial figureheads. In others, the entire monarchy fell, and were replaced by the parliaments. As time went on, most states began to give suffrage to decide the makeup of the parliament, often with two houses. One was hereditary and made up of nobles, and the other made up of elected officials, for example the House of Lords and House of Commons in the United Kingdom. Initially, the house of the elite, or upper house, held most of the power, but most parliaments now invest almost complete power in the elected or lower house. Some parliaments have abolished the upper house completely, while others have altered them to be elected as well. The parliamentary system has come full circle from its ancient beginnings. This article is about the British House of Lords. ... The House of Commons is the lower house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, and is now the dominant branch of Parliament. ... An upper house (Frequently known as a Senate) is one of two chambers of a bicameral legislature, the other chamber being the lower house. ... A lower house (sometimes known as the first chamber) is one of two chambers of a bicameral legislature, the other chamber being the upper house. ...

The features of a parliamentary system

The executive is typically a cabinet, and headed by a prime minister who is considered the head of government, but parliamentarism has also been practised with privy councils and the Senate of Finland. The prime minister and the ministers of the cabinet typically have their background in the parliament and may remain members thereof while serving in cabinet. The leader of the leading party, or group of parties, in the parliament is often appointed as the prime minister. In many countries, the cabinet, or single members thereof, can be removed by the parliament through a vote of no confidence. In addition, the executive can often dissolve the parliament and call extra-ordinary elections. Under the parliamentary system the roles of head of state and head of government are more or less separated. In most parliamentary systems, the head of state is primarily a ceremonial position, often a monarch or president, retaining duties that aren't politically divisive, such as appointments of civil service. In many parliamentary systems, the head of state may have reserve powers which are usable in a crisis. In most cases however, such powers are (either by convention or by constitutional rule) only exercised upon the advice and approval of the head of government? Alternate meanings in cabinet (disambiguation) A Cabinet is a body of high-ranking members of government, typically representing the executive branch. ... A privy council is a body that advises the head of state of a nation, especially in a monarchy. ... The Senate of Finland combined the functions of cabinet and supreme court in the Grand Duchy of Finland between 1816 to 1917. ... A minister or a secretary is a politician who heads a government ministry or department (e. ... A Motion of No Confidence, also called Motion of Non Confidence is a parliamentary motion traditionally put before a parliament by the opposition in the hope of defeating or embarrassing a government. ... The President of the Philippines meets with the President of the United States. ... The head of government is the leader of the government or cabinet. ... A monarch is a type of ruler or head of state, whose titles and ascent are often inherited, not earned, and who represents a larger monarchical system which has established rules and customs regarding succession, duties, and powers. ... President is a title held by many leaders of organizations, companies, universities, and countries. ... A reserve power is a power that may be exercised by the head of state of a country in certain exceptional circumstances. ...

Because the executive is directly related to the legislature, some argue the executive is actually more accountable than many fixed term presidential systems, as the executive, being linked to the legislative, can face an early election in the face of the aforementioned 'vote of confidence'. In addition, because the executive is beholden to the legislature, he or she faces more direct questioning by opposition politicians than an executive would in a presidential system. It can also be argued that it's relatively easier to pass legislation within a parliamentary system since the executive and the legislature are always controlled by the same party and since the executive has a greater ability to "snap the whip" and force wavering party members into alignment. Within presidential systems, the executive is often chosen independently from the legislature. If the executive is of a different party from those leading the legislature, then stalemate can occur. A Fixed-term election is an election that occurs on a set date, and cannot be changed by the incumbent politician. ... Chamber of the Estates-General, the Dutch legislature. ... Legislation refers to the process of enacting statutory laws, or to the set of statutory laws in a state. ... A presidential system, or a congressional system, is a system of government of a republic where the executive branch is elected separately from the legislative. ...

Parliamentary systems vary as to the degree to which they have a formal written constitution and the degree to which that constitution describes the day to day working of the government. Also, depending upon the voting system, they vary as to the number of parties within the system and the dynamics between the parties. Relations between the central government and local governments vary in parliamentary systems; they may be federal or unitary states. The word federal in a general sense refers to the nature of an agreement between or among two or more states, nations, or other groups to merge into a union in which control of common affairs is held by a central authority created by and with the consent of the... A map showing the unitary states. ...

Advantages of a parliamentary system

It could be argued that a parliamentary system is more accountable than a presidential system, since power is not divided. In a parliamentary system, it is easier for voters to tell who is responsible for inaction than in a presidential system. Also, in a parliamentary system the chief executive (or prime minister) is often questioned by the legislature. Such a procedure would ensure that the chief executive is held to account and would act as a check on his power. A presidential system, or a congressional system, is a system of government of a republic where the executive branch is elected separately from the legislative. ... A prime minister may be either: chief or leading member of the cabinet of the top-level government in a country having a parliamentary system of government; or the official, in countries with a semi-presidential system of government, appointed to manage the civil service and execute the directives of...

Some believe that it is easier to pass legislation within a parliamentary system. This is because the executive branch is dependent upon the direct or indirect support of the legislative branch and is often comprised of members of the legislature. In a presidential system, the executive is often chosen independently from the legislature. If the executive and legislature in such a system are comprised of members from different political parties, then stalemate can occur. Former US President Bill Clinton often faced problems in this regard, since the Republicans controlled Congress for much of his tenure as President. Presidents often face problems from their own parties as Jimmy Carter did. Legislation refers to the process of enacting statutory laws, or to the set of statutory laws in a state. ... Chamber of the Estates-General, the Dutch legislature. ... A political party is a political organization subscribing to a certain ideology or formed around very special issues. ... For the pop band, see Presidents of the United States of America. ... William Jefferson Bill Clinton (born William Jefferson Blythe, III on August 19, 1946) was the 42nd President of the United States from 1993 to 2001. ... The Republican Party, often called the GOP (for Grand Old Party, although one early citation described it as the Gallant Old Party [1]), is one of the two major political parties in the United States (the other being the Democratic Party). ... The Congress of the United States is the legislative branch of the federal government of the United States of America. ... James Earl Carter, Jr. ...

Parliamentarianism also has attractive features for nations that are ethnically divided. In a unipersonal presidential system, all executive power is concentrated in the president, in a parliamentary system, with a collegial executive, power is more divided. In the 1989 Lebanese Taif Agreement, in order to give Muslims greater political power, Lebanon moved from a semi-presidential system with a strong president to something that was more like a classical parliamentary system. Iraq similarly disdained a presidential system out of fears that such a system would be equivalent to Shiite domination; Afghanistan's minorities refused to go along with a presidency as strong as the Pashtuns desired. Switzerland is not a parliamentary system, but it does have a plural executive. The Taif Agreement was negotiated in Taif, Saudi Arabia by members of Lebanons parliament, presided by Speaker of the House President Hussein El-Husseini. ... The semi-presidential system is a system of government that features both a prime minister and a president who are active participants in the day to day functioning of government. ... The Pashtuns (also Pushtun, Pakhtun, ethnic Afghan, or Pathan) are an ethno-linguistic-religious group living primarily in eastern and southern Afghanistan, the North West Frontier Province, Federally Administered Tribal Areas, Baluchistan provinces of Pakistan, with additional large colonies found in the Northern Areas, Azad Kashmir, and the cities of...

In the English Constitution, Walter Bagehot praised parliamentarianism for producing serious debates, for allowing the change in power without an election, and for allowing elections at any time. Bagehot considered the four-year election rule of the United States to be unnatural. Walter Bagehot (February 3, 1826 â€“ March 24, 1877), pronounced â€œBadge-uttâ€ [1], was a nineteenth century British economist. ...

There is also a body of scholarship, associated with Juan Linz, Fred Riggs, Bruce Ackerman, and Robert Dahl that claims that parliamentarianism is less prone to authoritarian collapse. These scholars point out that since World War II, two-thirds of Third World countries establishing parliamentary governments successfully transitioned to democracy. By contrast, no Third World presidential system successfully transitioned to democracy without experiencing coups and other constitutional breakdowns. As Bruce Ackerman says of the thirty countries to have experimented with American checks and balances, “All of them, without exception, have succumbed to the nightmare [of breakdown] one time or another, often repeatedly.” World War II was a truly global conflict with many facets: immense human suffering, fierce indoctrinations, and the use of new, extremely devastating weapons such as the atom bomb. ...

Criticisms of parliamentarianism

A main criticism of many parlimentary systems is that the head of government cannot be directly voted on. Often, an electorate will be surprised just by who is elevated to the premiership, as Indians were surprised in 2004 when Manmohan Singh was named prime minister and not Sonia Gandhi. In a presidential system, the president is directly chosen by the people, but in a parliamentary system the prime minister is elected by the party leadership. Dr. Manmohan Singh (Gurmukhi: à¨®à¨¨à¨®à©‹à¨¹à¨¨ à¨¸à¨¿à©°à¨˜, Devanagari: à¤®à¤¨à¤®à¥‹à¤¹à¤¨ à¤¸à¤¿à¤‚à¤¹) is the fourteenth, and current, Prime Minister of India. ... Sonia Gandhi Sonia Gandhi (à¤¸à¥‹à¤¨à¤¿à¤¯à¤¾ à¤—à¤¾à¤à¤§à¥€) (born December 9, 1946), is an Italian-born Indian politician, the president of the Indian National Congress (Congress Party) and the widow of former Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi. ...

Another major criticism comes from the relationship between the executive and legislative branches. Because there is a lack of obvious separation of power, some believe that a parliamentary system can place too much power in the executive entity, leading to the feeling that the legislature or judiciary have little scope to administer checks or balances on the executive. Chamber of the Estates-General, the Dutch legislature. ... The judiciary, also referred to as the judicature, consists of the system of courts of law for the administration of justice and to its principals, the justices, judges and magistrates among other types of adjudicators. ...

In the United Kingdom, the prime minister is traditionally thought of as the "first among equals" of the cabinet. It has been alleged in The Economist and by former MP Graham Allen that the prime minister's power has grown so much in recent years that he or she is now dominant over the government and that collegiality is no more. Rather than being "first among equals," the modern British prime minister is "like the moon among the stars," as The Economist once put it. "Instead of a healthy balance we have an executive [the prime minister] who stands like an 800 lb. gorilla alongside a wizened legislature and judiciary." (Allen, 12) First among equals is a phrase which indicates that a person is the most senior of a group of people sharing the same rank or office. ... Graham Allen is the Labour member of the UK Parliament for the Nottingham North constituency. ...

Although it is possible to have a powerful prime minister, as Britain has, or even a dominant party system, as Japan has, parliamentary systems are also sometimes unstable. Critics point to Israel, Italy, the French Fourth Republic, and Weimar Germany as examples of parliamentary systems where unstable coalitions, demanding minority parties, no confidence votes, and threats of no confidence votes, make or have made effective governance impossible. Defenders of parliamentarianism say that parliamentary instability is the result of proportional representation, political culture, and highly polarised electorates. A dominant-party system, or one party dominant system, is a party system where only one political party can realistically become the government, by itself or in a coalition government. ... The Fourth Republic existed in France between 1946 and 1958. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... Proportional representation (PR) is any election system which ensures a proportionally representative result of a democratic election, x% of votes should be represented by x% in the democratic institutions, parliament or congress. ...

Although Walter Bagehot praised parliamentarianism for allowing an election to take place at any time, the lack of a definite election calendar can be abused. In some systems, such as the British, a ruling party can schedule elections when it feels that it is likely to do well, and so avoid elections at times of unpopularity. Thus, by wise timing of elections, in a parliamentary system a party can extend its rule for longer than is feasible in a functioning presidential system. In other systems, such as the Dutch, the ruling party or coalition has some flexibility in determining the election date, but not much.

Parliamentarism and Party Formation

Traditionally, parties in parliamentary systems have had much tighter ideological cohesiveness than parties in presidential systems. It would be impossible for a parliamentary system to have a party like the United States Democratic Party, which was a directionless coalition of Southern, conservative, Protestants and urban, liberal, white ethnics until the 1980s. A parliamentary system's party must support a government, if a party in a parliamentary system had wildly divergent wings, its goal of government support would be highly problematic. The Democratic Party is one of the two major political parties in the United States. ...

In parliaments, legislators do not have the freedom to vote against their party leadership. An individual legislator in a parliamentary system is recognized to be a creature of his party leadership, not an independent spokesman for a district. A parliamentarian can criticize his party’s leadership, but he must accept responsibility for the leadership’s choice and vote for it. If a parliamentarian were to vote against his leadership he would be expelled from the party and not slated in the next election.

Since parties in parliamentary systems cannot accommodate dissent in the same way parties in presidential systems can, there is an incentive to channel dissent through new parties, not through intra-party conflict. Thus, parliamentary systems – even ones that vote by first-past-the-post, will see a proliferation of alternative parties.

Countries with a parliamentary system of government

Contents

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