Pavement (American English) or road surface (British English) is the durable surface material laid down on an area intended to sustain traffic (vehicular or foot traffic). Such surfaces are frequently marked to guide traffic. The most common modern paving methods are asphalt and concrete. In the past, brick was extensively used, as was metaling. Today, permeable paving methods are beginning to be used more for low-impact roadways and walkways. This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Pavement (roads) for the surface Pavement (British English) see Sidewalk Pavement marker (roads) for devices placed on pavement to convey information (see also Lane markings) Pavement (architecture) is a floor-like indoor or outdoor stone or tile structure. ... For other uses, see American English (disambiguation). ... British English (BrE, BE, en-GB) is the broad term used to distinguish the forms of the English language used in the United Kingdom from forms used elsewhere in the Anglophone world. ... Road surface marking is any kind of device or material that is used on a road surface to convey official information. ... Asphalt is a sticky, black and highly viscous liquid or semi-solid that is present in most crude petroleums and in some natural deposits. ... This article is about the construction material. ... Permeable paving, also called pervious paving or porous pavement, is a term used to describe paving methods for roads, parking lots and walkways that allow the movement of water and air through the paving material. ...

Metalling

Metal or metalling has had two distinct usages in road paving. Metalling originally referred to the process of creating a carefully engineered gravel roadway. The route of the roadway first would be dug down several feet. Depending on local conditions, French drains may or may not have been added. Next, large stone was placed and compacted, followed by successive layers of smaller stone, until the road surface was a small stone compacted into a hard, durable surface. French drain refers to a ditch filled with gravel, rock or perforated pipe that redirects surface and ground water away from an area. ...

Road metal later became the name of stone chippings mixed with tar to form the road surfacing material tarmac. A road of such material was called a "metalled road" in British usage, although this would be very rare in modern usage. It would be more common to refer to a macadam road. The word metal is derived from the Latin metallum, which means both "mine" and "quarry", hence the roadbuilding terminology. “Rock” redirects here. ... Tar can be produced from corn stalks by heating in a microwave. ... A close-up view of some freshly-laid tarmac. ... Macadam is a type of road construction pioneered by John Loudon McAdam in the early 1800s. ... For other uses, see Latin (disambiguation). ...

Asphalt paving

A road in the process of being resurfaced, showing both old and new asphalt surfaces.

Asphalt (specifically, asphalt concrete) has been widely used since 1920-1930, though in ancient times asphalt was already used for road-building. The viscous nature of the bitumen binder allows asphalt concrete to sustain significant plastic deformation, although fatigue from repeated loading over time is the most common failure mechanism. Most asphalt pavements are built on a gravel base which is generally at least as thick as the asphalt layer, although some 'full depth' pavements are built directly on the native subgrade. In areas with very soft or expansive subgrades such as clay or peat, thick gravel bases or stabilization of the subgrade with Portland cement or lime can be required. In some countries with soft soils, a foundation of polystyrene blocks is used instead. The actual material used in paving is termed HMA (Hot Mix Asphalt), and it is usually applied using a free floating screed. Image File history File links Photo_of_road_being_resurfaced. ... Image File history File links Photo_of_road_being_resurfaced. ... Asphalt As shown in this cross-section, many older roadways are smoothed by applying a thin layer of asphalt concrete to the existing portland cement concrete. ... Asphalt is a sticky, black and highly viscous liquid or semi-solid that is present in most crude petroleums and in some natural deposits. ... Ewer from Iran, dated 1180-1210CE. Composed of brass worked in repoussé and inlaid with silver and bitumen. ... In physics and materials science, plasticity is a property of a material to undergo a non-reversible change of shape in response to an applied force. ... In materials science, fatigue is the progressive, localised, and permanent structural damage that occurs when a material is subjected to cyclic or fluctuating strains at nominal stresses that have maximum values less than (often much less than) the static yield strength of the material. ... In highway engineering, subgrade is the native material underneath a constructed pavement. ... For other uses, see Clay (disambiguation). ... Peat in Lewis, Scotland Peat is an accumulation of partially decayed vegetation matter. ... Sampling fast set Portland cement Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general usage, as it is a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar and plaster. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Loess field in Germany Surface-water-gley developed in glacial till, Northern Ireland Technically, soil forms the pedosphere: the interface between the lithosphere (rocky part of the planet) and the biosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere. ... A foundation is a structure that transmits loads from a building or road to the underlying ground. ... Polystyrene (IPA: ) is a polymer made from the monomer styrene, a liquid hydrocarbon that is commercially manufactured from petroleum by the chemical industry. ... The free floating screed is a device pioneered by Barber Greene Company in the 1930s that revolutionized the asphalt paving process. ...

Advantages of asphalt roadways include relatively low noise, relatively low cost compared with other paving methods, and ease of repair. Disadvantages include less durability than other paving methods, less tensile strength than concrete, the tendency to become slick and soft in hot weather and a certain amount of hydrocarbon pollution to soil and groundwater or waterways. Oil refineries are key to obtaining hydrocarbons; crude oil is processed through several stages to form desirable hydrocarbons, used in fuel and other commercial products. ... Missing main definition------ someone add if you know it please. ...

Concrete paving (white paving)

Concrete pavements (specifically, Portland cement concrete) are created using a concrete mix of Portland cement, gravel, and sand. The material is applied in a freshly-mixed slurry, and worked mechanically to compact the interior and force some of the thinner cement slurry to the surface to produce a smoother, denser surface free from honeycombing. Sampling fast set Portland cement Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general usage, as it is a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar and plaster. ... Gravel (largest fragment in this photo is about 4 cm) Gravel is rock that is of a certain particle size range. ... For other uses, see Sand (disambiguation). ...

Concrete pavements have been refined into three common types: jointed plain (JPCP), jointed reinforced (JRCP) and continuously reinforced (CRCP). The one item that distinguishes each type is the jointing system used to control crack development.

Jointed Plain Concrete Pavements (JPCP) contain enough joints to control the location all of the expected natural cracks. The concrete cracks at the joints and not elsewhere in the slabs. Jointed plain pavements do not contain any steel reinforcement. However, there may be smooth steel bars at transverse joints and deformed steel bars at longitudinal joints. The spacing between transverse joints is typically about 15 feet for slabs 7-12 inches thick. Today, a majority of the U.S. state agencies build jointed plain pavements.

Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavements (JRCP) contain steel mesh reinforcement (sometimes called distributed steel). In jointed reinforced concrete pavements, designers increase the joint spacing purposely, and include reinforcing steel to hold together intermediate cracks in each slab. The spacing between transverse joints is typically 30 feet or more. In the past, some agencies used a spacing as great as 100 feet. During construction of the interstate system, most agencies in the Eastern and Midwestern U.S. built jointed-reinforced pavement. Today only a handful of agencies employ this design, and its use is generally not recommended as JPCP and CRCP offer better performance and are easier to repair.

Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavements (CRCP) does not require any transverse contraction joints. Transverse cracks are expected in the slab, usually at intervals of 3-5 ft. CRCP pavements are designed with enough steel, 0.6-0.7% by cross-sectional area, so that cracks are held together tightly. Determining an appropriate spacing between the cracks is part of the design process for this type of pavement.

Continuously reinforced designs generally cost more than jointed reinforced or jointed plain designs initially due to increased quantities of steel. However, they can demonstrate superior long-term performance and cost-effectiveness. A number of agencies choose to use CRCP designs in their heavy urban traffic corridors.

Advantages of cement concrete roadways include that they are typically stronger and last longer than asphalt concrete pavements. They also can easily be grooved to provide a durable skid-resistant surface. Disadvantages are that they have a higher initial cost, are more difficult to repair, and are also somewhat noisy if jointed, but unjointed concrete pavement is actually a method of roadway noise mitigation. Roadway noise is the most prevalent form of environmental noise. ... Noise mitigation is a set of strategies to reduce unwanted environmental sound. ...

Additionally, in areas with cold winters, road salt can damage concrete roadbeds; due to the high cost of replacing the bed, exposed concrete roadbeds are infrequently seen in areas with harsh winters. However, reinforced concrete slabs are more resistant to frost-related ground heaves and pothole formation; heavily used roads in winter-prone urban areas often have concrete roadbeds covered with a thin (3cm) layer of asphalt concrete. This layer can be "skimmed off" and replaced very cheaply when it wears and deteriorates, while the concrete beneath is protected from the harsh elements. In these conditions, concrete roadbeds can last upwards of 50 years when a pure asphalt roadbed is expected to need to be completely replaced several times in this time period, offsetting the higher initial cost.

The first street in the United States to be paved with concrete is Court Avenue in Bellefontaine, Ohio, but the record for first mile of concrete pavement to be laid in the United States is claimed by Michigan. City nickname: The Peak of Ohio Location in the state of Ohio Founded 1820 County Logan County Mayor Robert C. Lentz Area  - Total  - Water 22. ... The Michigan Department of Transportation (MDOT) is a government agency in the U.S. state of Michigan. ...

Bituminous Surface Treatment (BST)

Concrete pavers

Bituminous Surface Treatment (BST) is used mainly on low-traffic roads, but also as a sealing coat to rejuvenate an asphalt concrete pavement. It generally consists of aggregate spread over a sprayed-on asphalt emulsion or cut-back asphalt cement. The aggregate is then embedded into the asphalt by rolling it, typically with a rubber-tired roller. BSTs of this type are described by a wide variety of regional terms including "chip seal", "tar and chip", "oil and stone", "seal coat" or "surface dressing". Image File history File linksMetadata No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File linksMetadata No higher resolution available. ... A. Two immisicible liquids, not emulsified; B. An emulsion of Phase B dispersed in Phase A; C. The unstable emulsion progressively separates; D. The surfactant (purple outline) positions itself on the interfaces between Phase A and Phase B, stabilizing the emulsion An emulsion is a mixture of two immiscible (unblendable... It has been suggested that Steamroller be merged into this article or section. ...

BST is used on hundreds of miles of the Alaska Highway and other similar roadways in Alaska, the Yukon Territory, and northern British Columbia. The ease of application of BST is one reason for its popularity, but another is its flexibility, which is important when roadways are laid down over unstable terrain that thaws and softens in the spring. Map of Alaska Highway (in red) The Alaska Highway, also the Alaskan Highway, Alaska-Canadian Highway, and the Alcan Highway, runs from Dawson Creek, British Columbia to Fairbanks, Alaska, via Whitehorse, Yukon. ... Official language(s) None[1] Spoken language(s) English 85. ... Motto: none Other Canadian provinces and territories Capital Whitehorse Largest city Whitehorse Commissioner Jack Cable Premier Dennis Fentie (Yukon Party) Area 482,443 km² (9th)  - Land 474,391 km²  - Water 8,052 km² (1. ... Motto: Splendor Sine Occasu (Latin: Splendour Without Sunset (diminishment)) Capital Victoria Largest city Vancouver Official languages English Government - Lieutenant-Governor Iona Campagnolo - Premier Gordon Campbell (BC Liberal) Federal representation in Canadian Parliament - House seats 36 - Senate seats 6 Confederation July 20, 1871 (6th province) Area  Ranked 5th - Total 944,735...

Other types of BSTs include micropaving, slurry seals and Novachip. These are laid down using specialized and proprietary equipment. They are most often used in urban areas where the roughness and loose stone associated with chip seals is considered undesirable.

Other paving methods

A brick main street in Lebanon, Illinois

Pavers, generally in the form of pre-cast concrete blocks, are often used for aesthetic purposes, or sometimes at port facilities that see long-duration pavement loading. Pavers are rarely used in areas that see high-speed vehicle traffic. Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1200x800, 944 KB) Summary Historic St. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1200x800, 944 KB) Summary Historic St. ... Downtown Lebanon Downtown Lebanon Lebanon is a city in St. ... For other uses, see Harbor (disambiguation). ...

Brick, cobblestone and wood plank pavements were once common in urban areas throughout the world, but due to their high manual labor requirements they are in some countries typically only maintained for historical reasons, while in other countries they are still common in local streets. They make maintenance of cabling and pipelines under the pavement easier but are also harder to walk on. For other uses, see Brick (disambiguation). ... A cobblestone-covered street Cobblestones are stones used in the pavement of early streets. ... For other uses, see Wood (disambiguation). ... Cities with at least a million inhabitants in 2006 An urban area is an area with an increased density of human-created structures in comparison to the areas surrounding it. ...

Likewise, macadam and tarmac pavements can still sometimes be found buried underneath asphalt concrete or Portland cement concrete pavements, but are rarely constructed anymore. Macadam is a type of road construction pioneered by John Loudon McAdam in the early 1800s. ... A close-up view of some freshly-laid tarmac. ...

Acoustical implications

Roadway surfacing choices are known to affect the intensity and spectrum of sound emanating from the tire/surface interaction.^[1] Initial applications of this knowledge occurred in the early 1970s. Roadway surface types contribute differential noise effects of up to four dB, with chip seal type and grooved roads being the loudest and concrete surfaces without spacers being the quietest. Asphaltic surfaces perform intermediately relative to concrete and chip seal. These phenomena are, of course, highly influenced by vehicle speed. Asphalt is a sticky, black and highly viscous liquid or semi-solid that is present in most crude petroleums and in some natural deposits. ... Chipseal is a pavement rehabilitation method. ...

Cobbles taken by me, 26/Mar/2004. ...

Although this is a wall, this image shows a common pattern for pavement, in the symmetry category "wallpaper group cmm"; the same pattern is possible with other length/width ratios; square tiles are also common Download high resolution version (1528x1528, 928 KB)Illustration of cmm type Wallpaper group (bricks on side of garage) File links The following pages link to this file: Wallpaper group Talk:Wallpaper group Categories: Public domain images ... Example of an Egyptian design with wallpaper group p4m A wallpaper group (or plane symmetry group or plane crystallographic group) is a mathematical classification of a two-dimensional repetitive pattern, based on the symmetries in the pattern. ...

Bricks in a Herringbone pattern, in the symmetry category "wallpaper group pgg"; the same pattern is possible with any length/width ratio Download high resolution version (1150x910, 393 KB)Example of wallpaper group type pgg. ... Example of an Egyptian design with wallpaper group p4m A wallpaper group (or plane symmetry group or plane crystallographic group) is a mathematical classification of a two-dimensional repetitive pattern, based on the symmetries in the pattern. ...

Street pavement in Zakopane, Poland in the symmetry category "wallpaper group p3" Download high resolution version (1000x960, 431 KB)Example of wallpaper group type p3. ... Coordinates: , Country Voivodeship Powiat Tatra County Gmina Zakopane Estabilished 17th century City Rights 1933 Government  - Mayor Janusz Majcher Area  - Town 84 km²  (32. ... Example of an Egyptian design with wallpaper group p4m A wallpaper group (or plane symmetry group or plane crystallographic group) is a mathematical classification of a two-dimensional repetitive pattern, based on the symmetries in the pattern. ...

Pavement deterioration

As pavement systems primarily fail due to fatigue (in a manner similar to metals), the damage done to pavement increases with the fourth power of the axle load of the vehicles traveling on it. Civil Engineers consider truck axle load, current and projected truck traffic volume, supporting soil properties and sub-grade drainage in design. Passenger cars are considered to have no practical effect on a pavement's service life. In materials science, fatigue is the progressive, localised, and permanent structural damage that occurs when a material is subjected to cyclic or fluctuating strains at nominal stresses that have maximum values less than (often much less than) the static yield strength of the material. ... This article is about metallic materials. ... A civil engineer is a person who practices civil engineering. ... Loess field in Germany Surface-water-gley developed in glacial till, Northern Ireland Technically, soil forms the pedosphere: the interface between the lithosphere (rocky part of the planet) and the biosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere. ... Drainage is the natural or artificial removal of surface and sub-surface water from a given area. ...

Several pavement design methods have been developed to determine the thickness and composition of pavement required to carry predicted traffic loads for a given period of time. Pavement design methods are continuously evolving. Among these are the Shell Pavement design method, and the AASHTO 1993 "Guide for Design of Pavement Structures". A new mechanistic-empirical design guide has been under development by NCHRP since 1998, but has not yet been adopted by AASHTO. The Shell Pavement design method is used in many countries for the design of new asphalt roads. ... This page is a candidate to be moved to Wiktionary. ...

According to the AASHO Road Test, heavily loaded trucks can do more than 10,000 times the damage done by a normal passenger car. Tax rates for trucks are higher than those for cars in most countries for this reason, though are not levied in proportion to the damage done. ^[2] The AASHO Road Test was a series of experiments carried out by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials to determine how traffic contributed to the deterioration of road surfaces. ... For other uses, see Truck (disambiguation). ... “Taxes” redirects here. ...

The physical properties of a stretch of pavement can be tested using a falling weight deflectometer. A falling weight deflectometer, or FWD for short, is a testing device used by civil engineers to evaluate the physical properties of a stretch of pavement. ...

Further research by University College London into pavements has led to the development of an indoor 80 sq metre artificial pavement at a research centre called Pedestrian Accessibility and Movement Environment Laboratory (PAMELA). It is used to simulate everyday scenarios, from different pavement users to varying pavement conditions. ^[3] Affiliations University of London Russell Group LERU EUA ACU Golden Triangle G5 Website http://www. ... The Pedestrian Accessibility and Movement Environment Laboratory (PAMELA) is an indoor 80 sq metre artificial pavement at a research center at University College London. ...

See also

• Road

Mountain road with hairpin turns in the French Alps For other uses, see Road (disambiguation). ...

Line notes

References

• When to pave a gravel road

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Pavements