It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Perfectionism. (Discuss)

Perfection is, broadly, a state of completeness and flawlessness. Perfection can refer to a number of different things: Perfection is a philosophical concept related to idealism Perfection was the second single from Australian singer Dannii Minogues greatest hits album, The Hits and Beyond. ... Image File history File links Merge-arrow. ... Perfectionism can be thought of as: The persistence of will in obtaining the optimal present and future quality of spiritual, mental, physical, and material being. ...

The term "perfection" is actually used to designate a range of diverse, if often kindred, concepts. These concepts have historically been addressed in a number of discrete disciplines, notably mathematics, physics, chemistry, ethics, aesthetics, ontology and theology.^[1] Terminology is the study of terms and their use — of words and compound words that are used in specific contexts. ... For other uses, see Concept (disambiguation). ... This is a list of academic disciplines (and academic fields). ... For other meanings of mathematics or uses of math and maths, see Mathematics (disambiguation) and Math (disambiguation). ... A magnet levitating above a high-temperature superconductor demonstrates the Meissner effect. ... For other uses, see Chemistry (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Ethics (disambiguation). ... The Parthenons facade showing an interpretation of golden rectangles in its proportions. ... This article is about ontology in philosophy. ... Theology finds its scholars pursuing the understanding of and providing reasoned discourse of religion, spirituality and God or the gods. ...

The term and the concept

The form of the word long fluctuated in various languages. The English language had the alternates, "perfection" and the Biblical "perfectness." The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. ... This Gutenberg Bible is displayed by the United States Library. ...

The word, "perfection" derives from the Latin "perfectio", and "perfect" — from "perfectus." These expressions in turn come from "perficio" — "to finish", "to bring to an end." "Perfectio(n)" thus literally means "a finishing", and "perfect(us)" — "finished", much as in grammatical parlance ("perfect tense"). For other uses, see Latin (disambiguation). ... For the rules of English grammar, see English grammar and Disputes in English grammar. ... The perfect tenses are verb tenses showing actions completed at or before a specific time. ...

Many modern languages have adopted their terms for the concept of "perfection" from the Latin: the French "parfait" and "perfection"; the Italian "perfetto" and "perfezione"; the English "perfect" and "perfection"; the Russian "совершенный" (sovyershenniy); the Croatian "dovershiti"; the Czech "dokonalost"; the Slovak "dokonaly" and "dokonalost"; the Polish "doskonały" and "doskonałość." The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. ...

The genealogy of the concept of "perfection" reaches back beyond Latin, to Greek. The Greek equivalent of the Latin "perfectus" was "teleos." The latter Greek expression generally had concrete referents, such as a perfect physician or flutist, a perfect comedy or a perfect social system. Hence the Greek "teleiotes" was not yet so fraught with abstract and superlative associations as would be the Latin "perfectio" or the modern "perfection." To avoid the latter associations, the Greek term has generally been translated as "completeness" rather than "perfection." Look up completeness in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

Aristotle.

The oldest definition of "perfection", fairly precise and distinguishing the shades of the concept, goes back to Aristotle. In Book Delta of the Metaphysics, he distinguishes three meanings of the term, or rather three shades of one meaning, but in any case three different concepts. That is perfect: ImageMetadata File history File links Download high resolution version (600x800, 231 KB) Suject : Portrait of Aristoteles ; Origin : Imperial Roman copy (1st or 2nd century) of a lost bronze sculpture made by Lysippos ; Material : Marble of the Penteli, region of Athens ; Location : Louvre museum, Paris, France, #MA 80 bis ; Author : Eric... ImageMetadata File history File links Download high resolution version (600x800, 231 KB) Suject : Portrait of Aristoteles ; Origin : Imperial Roman copy (1st or 2nd century) of a lost bronze sculpture made by Lysippos ; Material : Marble of the Penteli, region of Athens ; Location : Louvre museum, Paris, France, #MA 80 bis ; Author : Eric... For other uses, see Aristotle (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Aristotle (disambiguation). ...

1. which is complete — which contains all the requisite parts;

2. which is so good that nothing of the kind could be better;

3. which has attained its purpose.

Thomas Aquinas.

The first of these concepts is fairly well subsumed within the second. Between those two and the third, however, there arises a duality in concept. This duality was expressed by Thomas Aquinas, in the Summa Theologiae, when he distinguished a twofold perfection: when a thing is perfect in itself — as he put it, in its substance; and when it perfectly serves its purpose. Image File history File links Saint_Thomas_Aquinas. ... Image File history File links Saint_Thomas_Aquinas. ... Saint Thomas Aquinas, O.P.(also Thomas of Aquin, or Aquino; c. ... Saint Thomas Aquinas, O.P.(also Thomas of Aquin, or Aquino; c. ... Summa theologiae, Pars secunda, prima pars. ...

Leibniz.

The variants on the concept of perfection would have been quite of a piece for two thousand years, had they not been confused with other, kindred concepts. The chief of these was the concept of that which is the best: in Latin, "excellentia" ("excellence"). In antiquity, "excellentia" and "perfectio" made a pair; thus, for example, dignitaries were called "perfectissime", just as they are now called "excellency." Nevertheless, these two expression of high regard differ fundamentally: "excellentia" is a distinction among many, and implies comparison; while "perfectio" involves no comparison, and if something is deemed perfect, then it is deemed so in itself, without comparison to other things. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, who thought much about perfection and held the world to be the best of possible worlds, did not claim that it was perfect.^[2] Image File history File links Leibniz_231. ... Image File history File links Leibniz_231. ... Gottfried Leibniz Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (July 1, 1646 in Leipzig - November 14, 1716 in Hannover) was a German philosopher, scientist, mathematician, diplomat, librarian, and lawyer of Sorb descent. ... Classical antiquity is a broad term for a long period of cultural history centered on the Mediterranean Sea, which begins roughly with the earliest-recorded Greek poetry of Homer (7th century BC), and continues through the rise of Christianity and the fall of the Western Roman Empire (5th century AD... Gottfried Leibniz Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (July 1, 1646 in Leipzig - November 14, 1716 in Hannover) was a German philosopher, scientist, mathematician, diplomat, librarian, and lawyer of Sorb descent. ... “Positive Attitude” redirects here. ...

Paradoxes

Scaliger.

The parallel existence of two concepts of perfection, one strict ("perfection", as such) and the other loose ("excellence"), has given rise — perhaps since antiquity but certainly since the Renaissance — to a singular paradox: that the greatest perfection is imperfection. This was formulated by Lucilio Vanini (ca. 1585 – 1619), who had a precursor in the 16th-century writer Joseph Juste Scaliger, and they in turn referred to the ancient philosopher Empedocles. Their argument, as given by the first two, was that if the world were perfect, it could not improve and so would lack "true perfection", which depends on progress. To Aristotle, "perfect" meant "complete" ("nothing to add or subtract"). To Empedocles, according to Vanini, perfection depends on incompleteness ("perfectio propter imperfectionem"), since the latter possesses a potential for development and for complementing with new characteristics ("perfectio complementii"). This view relates to the baroque esthetic of Vanini and Marin Mersenne: the perfection of an art work consists in its forcing the recipient to be active — to complement the art work by an effort of mind and imagination. In the public domain by age This image is in the public domain because its copyright has expired in the United States and those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100 years. ... In the public domain by age This image is in the public domain because its copyright has expired in the United States and those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100 years. ... Joseph Justus Scaliger (1540–1609) was a French religious leader and scholar. ... “Ancient” redirects here. ... This article is about the European Renaissance of the 14th-17th centuries. ... Look up paradox in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Lucilio Vanini, or, as he styled himself in his works, Giulio Cesare (1585 - February 9, 1619), was an Italian free-thinker, born at Taurisano, near Lecce, in 1585. ... (15th century - 16th century - 17th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 16th century was that century which lasted from 1501 to 1600. ... Joseph Justus Scaliger (1540–1609) was a French religious leader and scholar. ... Empedocles (Greek: , ca. ... For other uses, see Aristotle (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Baroque (disambiguation). ... Aesthetics (or esthetics) (from the Greek word αισθητική) is a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of beauty. ... Marin Mersenne, Marin Mersennus or le Père Mersenne (September 8, 1588 – September 1, 1648) was a French theologian, philosopher, mathematician and music theorist. ...

The paradox of perfection — that imperfection is perfect — applies not only to human affairs, but to technology. Thus, irregularity in semiconductor crystals (an imperfection, in the form of contaminants) is requisite for the production of semiconductors. The solution to the apparent paradox lies in a distinction between two concepts of "perfection": that of regularity, and that of utility. Imperfection is perfect in technology, in the sense that irregularity is useful.^[3] Look up paradox in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... By the mid 20th century humans had achieved a mastery of technology sufficient to leave the surface of the Earth for the first time and explore space. ... An irregular is a short name for something that does not follow the expected pattern. ... A semiconductor is a solid whose electrical conductivity is in between that of a conductor and that of an insulator, and can be controlled over a wide range, either permanently or dynamically. ... For other uses, see Crystal (disambiguation). ... The Lachine Canal, in Montreal, is badly polluted Pollution is the release of harmful environmental contaminants, or the substances so released. ... In ordinary English, regular is an adjective or noun used to mean in accordance with the usual customs, conventions, or rules, or frequent, periodic, or symmetric. ... In economics, utility is a measure of the relative happiness or satisfaction (gratification) gained. ...

Perfect numbers

"Perfect numbers" have been distinguished ever since the ancient Greeks called them "teleioi." There was, however, no consensus among the Greeks as to which numbers were "perfect" or why. A view that was shared by Plato held that 10 was a perfect number. Mathematicians, including the mathematician-philosopher Pythagoreans, proposed as a perfect number, the number 6. In mathematics, a perfect number is an integer which is the sum of its proper positive divisors, excluding itself. ... The term ancient Greece refers to the periods of Greek history in Classical Antiquity, lasting ca. ... For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation). ... In mathematics, a perfect number is defined as an integer which is the sum of its proper positive divisors, that is, the sum of the positive divisors not including the number. ... For other meanings of mathematics or uses of math and maths, see Mathematics (disambiguation) and Math (disambiguation). ... The Pythagoreans were an Hellenic organization of astronomers, musicians, mathematicians, and philosophers; who believed that all things are, essentially, numeric. ...

The number 10 was thought perfect because there are 10 fingers to the two hands. The number 6 was believed perfect for being divisible in a special way: a sixth part of that number constitutes unity; a third is two; a half — three; two-thirds (Greek: dimoiron) is four; five-sixths (pentamoiron) is five; six is the perfect whole. The ancients also considered 6 a perfect number because the human foot constituted one-sixth the height of a man, hence the number 6 determined the height of the human body. In mathematics, a perfect number is defined as an integer which is the sum of its proper positive divisors, that is, the sum of the positive divisors not including the number. ...

Thus both numbers, 6 and 10, were credited with perfection, both on purely mathematical grounds and on grounds of their relevance in nature.

Belief in the "perfection" of certain numbers survived antiquity, but this quality came to be ascribed to other numbers as well. The perfection of the number 3 actually became proverbial: "omne trinum perfectum" (Latin: "all threes are perfect"). Another number, 7, found a devotee in the sixth-century Pope Gregory I (Gregory the Great), who favored it on grounds similar to those of the Greek mathematicians who had seen 6 as a perfect number, and in addition for some reason he associated the number 7 with the concept of "eternity." Classical antiquity is a broad term for a long period of cultural history centered on the Mediterranean Sea, which begins roughly with the earliest-recorded Greek poetry of Homer (7th century BC), and continues through the rise of Christianity and the fall of the Western Roman Empire (5th century AD... Look up proverb in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... For other uses, see Latin (disambiguation). ... (5th century — 6th century — 7th century — other centuries) Events The first academy of the east the Academy of Gundeshapur founded in Persia by the Persian Shah Khosrau I. Irish colonists and invaders, the Scots, began migrating to Caledonia (later known as Scotland) Glendalough monastery, Wicklow Ireland founded... For other uses, see Pope (disambiguation). ... Saint Gregory I, or Gregory the Great (called the Dialogist in Eastern Orthodoxy) (circa 540 - March 12, 604) was pope of the Catholic Church from September 3, 590 until his death. ... In mathematics, a perfect number is defined as an integer which is the sum of its proper positive divisors, that is, the sum of the positive divisors not including the number. ... While in the popular mind, eternity often simply means existing for an infinite, i. ...

The Middle Ages, however, championed the perfection of 6: Augustine and Alcuin wrote that God had created the world in 6 days because that was the perfect number. The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times, beginning with the Renaissance. ... Augustinus redirects here. ... This article is about the scholar Alcuin of York. ... This article discusses the term God in the context of monotheism and henotheism. ... In mathematics, a perfect number is defined as an integer which is the sum of its proper positive divisors, that is, the sum of the positive divisors not including the number. ...

The Greek mathematicians had regarded as perfect that number which equals the sum of its divisors that are smaller than itself. Such a number is neither 3 nor 7 nor 10, but 6, for 1 + 2 + 3 = 6. Addition is one of the basic operations of arithmetic. ... In mathematics, a divisor of an integer n, also called a factor of n, is an integer which evenly divides n without leaving a remainder. ...

Euclid.

But there are more numbers that show this property, such as 28, which = 1 + 2 + 4 + 7 + 14. It became customary to call such numbers "perfect." Euclid gave a formula for (even) "perfect" numbers: Download high resolution version (930x1094, 173 KB) Detail of The School of Athens ( full image) by Raffaello Santi, 1509, showing Euclid The two-dimensional work of art depicted in this image is in the public domain in the United States and in those countries with a copyright term of life... Download high resolution version (930x1094, 173 KB) Detail of The School of Athens ( full image) by Raffaello Santi, 1509, showing Euclid The two-dimensional work of art depicted in this image is in the public domain in the United States and in those countries with a copyright term of life... For other uses, see Euclid (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Euclid (disambiguation). ...

N_n = 2ⁿ⁻¹ (2ⁿ − 1)

where n and 2ⁿ − 1 are prime numbers. In mathematics, a prime number (or a prime) is a natural number which has exactly two distinct natural number divisors: 1 and itself. ...

Brożek.

Nikomachos of Gerasa had listed the first four perfect numbers: 6; 28; 496; and 8128. A manuscript of 1456 gave the fifth perfect number: 33,550,336. Gradually mathematicians found further perfect numbers (which are very rare). In 1652 the Polish polymath Jan Brożek noted that there was no perfect number between 10⁴ and 10⁷. Image File history File linksMetadata Jan_Brożek_portr. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Jan_Brożek_portr. ... Jan Brożek Jan Brożek (Joannes Broscius) (b. ... Nicomachus (c. ... In mathematics, a perfect number is defined as an integer which is the sum of its proper positive divisors, that is, the sum of the positive divisors not including the number. ... Leonardo da Vinci, a polymath, is seen as the epitome of the related term, Renaissance Man A polymath (Greek polymathÄ“s, πολυμαθής, having learned much)[1][2] is a person with encyclopedic, broad, or varied knowledge or learning. ... Jan Brożek Jan Brożek (Joannes Broscius) (b. ... In mathematics, a perfect number is defined as an integer which is the sum of its proper positive divisors, that is, the sum of the positive divisors not including the number. ...

Despite over 2,000 years of study, it still is not known whether there exist infinitely many perfect numbers; or whether there are any odd ones.

Today the term "perfect number" is merely historic in nature, used for the sake of tradition. These peculiar numbers had received the name on account of their analogy to the construction of man, who was held to be nature's most perfect creation, and above all on account of their own peculiar regularity. Thus, they had been so named on the same grounds as perfect objects in nature, and perfectly proportioned edifices and statues created by man; the numbers had come to be called "perfect" in order to emphasize their special regularity. In mathematics, a perfect number is defined as an integer which is the sum of its proper positive divisors, that is, the sum of the positive divisors not including the number. ... This article is about the physical universe. ... In ordinary English, regular is an adjective or noun used to mean in accordance with the usual customs, conventions, or rules, or frequent, periodic, or symmetric. ... In ordinary English, regular is an adjective or noun used to mean in accordance with the usual customs, conventions, or rules, or frequent, periodic, or symmetric. ...

The Greek mathematicians had named these numbers "perfect" in the same sense in which philosophers and artists used the word. Jamblich (In Nicomachi arithmeticam, Leipzig, 1894) states that the Pythagoreans had called the number 6 "marriage", "health", and "beauty", on account of the harmony and accord of that number. Leonhard Euler, considered one of the greatest mathematicians of all time A mathematician is a person whose primary area of study and research is the field of mathematics. ... A philosopher is a person who thinks deeply regarding people, society, the world, and/or the universe. ... The definition of an artist is wide-ranging and covers a broad spectrum of activities to do with creating art, practicing the arts and/or demonstrating an art. ... The Pythagoreans were an Hellenic organization of astronomers, musicians, mathematicians, and philosophers; who believed that all things are, essentially, numeric. ... Harmony is the use and study of pitch simultaneity, and therefore chords, actual or implied, in music. ...

The perfect numbers early on came to be treated as the measure of other numbers: those in which the sum of the divisors is greater than the number itself, as in 12, have — since as early as Theon of Smyrna, ca. 130 A.D. — been called "redundant" (Latin: redundantio) or "more than perfect" (plus quam perfecti), and those the sum of whose divisors is smaller, as in 8, have been called "deficient" (deficientes).^[4] In mathematics, a perfect number is defined as an integer which is the sum of its proper positive divisors, that is, the sum of the positive divisors not including the number. ... Theon of Smyrna (ca. ... In total quality management, TQM, redundancy in quality or redundant quality means quality which exceeds the required quality level. ... For other uses, see Latin (disambiguation). ... In mathematics, a deficient number or defective number is a number n for which &#963;(n) < 2n. ...

Currently 44 perfect numbers have been identified. In mathematics, a perfect number is defined as an integer which is the sum of its proper positive divisors, that is, the sum of the positive divisors not including the number. ...

Physics and chemistry

A variety of physical and chemical concepts include, in their names, the word "perfect." A magnet levitating above a high-temperature superconductor demonstrates the Meissner effect. ... For other uses, see Chemistry (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Concept (disambiguation). ...

The physicist designates as a perfectly rigid body, one that "is not deformed by forces applied to it." He uses the concept in the full awareness that this is a fictitious body, that no such body exists in nature. The concept is an ideal construct. In physics, a rigid body is an idealization of a solid body of finite size in which deformation is neglected. ... This article is about the physical universe. ... In philosophy, physics, and other fields, a thought experiment (from the German Gedankenexperiment) is an attempt to solve a problem using the power of human imagination. ... Construction on the North Bytown Bridge in Ottawa, Canada. ...

A perfectly plastic body is one that is deformed infinitely at a constant load corresponding to the body's limit of plasticity: this is a physical model, not a body observed in nature. For other uses, see Plasticity. ... Part of the one-tenth scale model of Bourton-on-the-Water at Bourton-on-the-Water, Gloucestershire, England A scale model of the Singapore City Centre. ...

A perfectly black body would be one that absorbed completely, radiation falling upon it — that is, a body with a coefficient of absorption equal to unity. As the temperature decreases, the peak of the black body radiation curve moves to lower intensities and longer wavelengths. ...

A crystal is perfect when its physically equivalent walls are equally developed; it has a perfect structure when it answers the requirements of spatial symmetry and is free of structural defects, dislocation, lacunae and other flaws. For other uses, see Crystal (disambiguation). ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Sphere symmetry group o. ...

A perfect fluid is one that is incompressible and non-viscous — this, again, is an ideal fluid that does not exist in nature. In physics, a perfect fluid is a fluid that can be completely characterized by its rest frame energy density ρ and isotropic pressure p. ... In fluid mechanics, an incompressible fluid is a fluid whose density (often represented by the Greek letter ρ) is constant: it is the same throughout the field and it does not change through time. ...

Boyle.

Gay-Lussac.

A perfect gas is one whose molecules do not interact with each other and which have no volume of their own. Such a gas is fictitious, just as are perfectly solid, perfectly rigid, perfectly plastic and perfectly black bodies. They are termed "perfect" in the strict (non-metaphorical) sense of the word. These are all concepts that are necessary in physics, insofar as they are limiting, ideal, fictitious — insofar as they set the extreme which nature may at the most approach. In the public domain by age When was it made? RedWolf 01:01, Jan 21, 2005 (UTC) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... In the public domain by age When was it made? RedWolf 01:01, Jan 21, 2005 (UTC) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Robert Boyle (Irish: Robaird Ó Bhaoill) (25 January 1627 – 30 December 1691) was an Irish natural philosopher, chemist, physicist, inventor, and early gentleman scientist, noted for his work in physics and chemistry. ... File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. ... An ideal gas (also called a perfect gas) is a hypothetical fluid consisting of particles that are identical to each other, occupy negligible volume and undergo perfect elastic collisions with each other, with no intermolecular forces and no intramolecular storage of energy, as opposed to a real gas, a gas...

In a looser sense, real things are called "perfect" if they approximate perfection more or less closely, though they be not, strictly speaking, perfect.

The relation of these perfect bodies to real bodies may be illustrated by the relation of a perfect gas to a real one. The equation of state of a perfect gas is a first approximation to a quantum equation of state that results from statistical physics. Thus, the equation of state of a real gas within classical limits assumes the form of the equation of state of a perfect gas. That is, the equation of state of a perfect gas describes an ideal gas (comprising points, that is, dimensionless molecules that do not act upon one another).

The perfect gas equation arose from the work of Robert Boyle, Edme Mariotte and Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, who, in studying the properties of real gases, found formulas applicable not to these but to an ideal, perfect gas.^[5] Isotherms of an ideal gas The ideal gas law is the equation of state of a hypothetical ideal gas, first stated by Benoît Paul Émile Clapeyron in 1834. ... Robert Boyle (Irish: Robaird Ó Bhaoill) (25 January 1627 – 30 December 1691) was an Irish natural philosopher, chemist, physicist, inventor, and early gentleman scientist, noted for his work in physics and chemistry. ... Edme Mariotte (c. ... Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. ... An ideal gas (also called a perfect gas) is a hypothetical fluid consisting of particles that are identical to each other, occupy negligible volume and undergo perfect elastic collisions with each other, with no intermolecular forces and no intramolecular storage of energy, as opposed to a real gas, a gas... In mathematics and in the sciences, a formula (plural: formulae, formulæ or formulas) is a concise way of expressing information symbolically (as in a mathematical or chemical formula), or a general relationship between quantities. ... An ideal gas (also called a perfect gas) is a hypothetical fluid consisting of particles that are identical to each other, occupy negligible volume and undergo perfect elastic collisions with each other, with no intermolecular forces and no intramolecular storage of energy, as opposed to a real gas, a gas...

Ethics

Plato.

The ethical question of perfection concerns not whether man is perfect, but whether he should be. And if he should be, then how is this to be attained? Image File history File links Platon-2. ... Image File history File links Platon-2. ... For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Ethics (disambiguation). ...

Plato seldom actually used the term, "perfection"; but the concept of "good", central to his philosophy, was tantamount to "perfection." He believed that approximation to the idea of perfection makes people perfect. For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation). ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ...

Soon after, the Stoics introduced the concept of perfection into ethics expressly, describing it as harmony — with nature, reason, man himself. They held that such harmony — such perfection — was attainable for anyone. Stoicism is a school of philosophy commonly associated with such Greek philosophers as Zeno of Citium, Cleanthes, or Chrysippus and with such later Romans as Cicero, Seneca, Marcus Aurelius, and Epictetus. ... Harmony is the use and study of pitch simultaneity, and therefore chords, actual or implied, in music. ... This article is about the physical universe. ... For other uses, see Reason (disambiguation). ...

Plato and the Stoics had made perfection a philosophical watchword. Soon it would be transformed, in Christianity, into a religious one. For other uses, see Philosophy (disambiguation). ... Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations · Other religions Ecumenism · Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas · Luther Calvin · Wesley Arius · Marcion of Sinope Archbishop of Canterbury · Catholic Pope Coptic Pope · Ecumenical Patriarch Christianity Portal This box:      Christianity is... Various Religious symbols, including (first row) Christian, Jewish, Hindu, Bahai, (second row) Islamic, tribal, Taoist, Shinto (third row) Buddhist, Sikh, Hindu, Jain, (fourth row) Ayyavazhi, Triple Goddess, Maltese cross, pre-Christian Slavonic Religion is the adherence to codified beliefs and rituals that generally involve a faith in a spiritual...

The Christian doctrine of perfection rests on Gospel. Matthew 5:48 enjoins: "Be ye therefore perfect, even as your Father which is in heaven is perfect." Luke says the same, only replacing "perfect" with "merciful" (evidently, for Matthew, an attribute of perfection). This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Gospel, from the Old English good tidings is a calque of Greek () used in the New Testament (see Etymology below). ... Matthew the Evangelist (&#1502;&#1514;&#1497; Gift of the LORD, Standard Hebrew and Tiberian Hebrew Mattay; Septuagint Greek &#924;&#945;&#964;&#952;&#945;&#953;&#959;&#962;, Matthaios) is traditionally believed to be the author of the Gospel of Matthew. ... Luke the Evangelist (Greek &#923;&#959;&#965;&#954;&#945;&#962; Loukas) is said by tradition to be the author of both the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles, the third and fifth books of the New Testament. ...

St. Augustine.

Early Christian writings, especially Paul's, are replete with calls to perfection. Many of these are collected in a discourse by St. Augustine, De perfectione iustitiae hominis. They begin already with the Old Testament: "Thou shalt be perfect with the Lord thy God." (Deuteronomy 18:13.) Elsewhere, synonyms for "perfection" are "undefiled", "without rebuke", "without blemish", "blameless", "holy", "righteous", "unblamable", "unreprovable." Public domain image from [1]. Original source: Hundred Greatest Men, The. ... Public domain image from [1]. Original source: Hundred Greatest Men, The. ... Augustinus redirects here. ... Paul of Tarsus (b. ... Augustinus redirects here. ... Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations · Other religions Ecumenism · Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas · Luther Calvin · Wesley Arius · Marcion of Sinope Archbishop of Canterbury · Catholic Pope Coptic Pope · Ecumenical Patriarch Christianity Portal This box:      Note: Judaism... Deuteronomy (Greek deuteronomium, second, from to deuteronomium touto, this second law, pronounced ) is the fifth book of the Torah of the Hebrew bible and the Old Testament. ... Synonyms (in ancient Greek, συν (syn) = plus and όνομα (onoma) = name) are different words with similar or identical meanings. ...

Augustine explains that not only that man is properly termed perfect and without blemish who is already perfect, but also he who strives unreservedly after perfection. This is a broader concept, of approximate perfection, resembling that used in the exact sciences. The first ancient and Christian perfection was not very remote from modern self-perfection. St. Ambrose in fact wrote about degrees of perfection ("gradus piae perfectionis"). Exact science refers to systematized knowledge. ... Saint Ambrose, Latin Sanctus Ambrosius, Italian SantAmbrogio (circa 340 - April 4, 397), bishop of Milan, was one of the most eminent fathers of the Christian church in the 4th century. ...

St. Jerome.

Along with the idea of perfection, Holy Scripture conveyed doubt as to whether perfection was attainable for man. According to 1 John 1:8, "If we say that we have no sin, we deceive ourselves, and the truth is not in us." Similarly Matthew 19:17: "And he said unto him, Why callest thou me good? there is none good but one, that is, God..." And St. Jerome wrote: "Perfectio vera in coelestibus" — true perfection is to be found only in heaven. Download high resolution version (1780x2320, 784 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Download high resolution version (1780x2320, 784 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... For other uses see: Jerome (disambiguation) Jerome (about 340 - September 30, 420), (full name Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus) is best known as the translator of the Bible from Greek and Hebrew into Latin. ... Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ... The First Epistle of John is a book of the Bible New Testament, the fourth of the catholic or general epistles. ... Matthew the Evangelist (&#1502;&#1514;&#1497; Gift of the LORD, Standard Hebrew and Tiberian Hebrew Mattay; Septuagint Greek &#924;&#945;&#964;&#952;&#945;&#953;&#959;&#962;, Matthaios) is traditionally believed to be the author of the Gospel of Matthew. ... For other uses see: Jerome (disambiguation) Jerome (about 340 - September 30, 420), (full name Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus) is best known as the translator of the Bible from Greek and Hebrew into Latin. ...

As early as the 5th century C.E., two distinct views on perfection had arisen within the Church: that it was attainable by man on earth by his own powers; and, that it may come to pass only by special divine grace. The first view, which was championed by Pelagius, was condemned in 417 C.E.; the second view, which was championed by St. Augustine, prevailed at the very beginning of the 5th century and became authoritative. Europe in 450 The 5th century is the period from 401 to 500 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian Era. ... Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations · Other religions Ecumenism · Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas · Luther Calvin · Wesley Arius · Marcion of Sinope Archbishop of Canterbury · Catholic Pope Coptic Pope · Ecumenical Patriarch Christianity Portal This box:      In Christianity... Pelagius (ca. ... Europe in 450 The 5th century is the period from 401 to 500 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian Era. ...

St. Paul.

Still, the Church did not condemn the writings of the Pseudo-Areopagite, purportedly the first bishop of Athens, voicing a natural possibility for man to rise to perfection, to the contemplation of God. And so, for centuries, two views contended within the Church. Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (633x823, 79 KB) Summary St. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (633x823, 79 KB) Summary St. ... Paul of Tarsus (b. ... Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, also known as pseudo-Denys, refers to the anonymous theologian and philosopher of the 5th century whose Corpus Areopagiticum was falsely ascribed to Dionysius the Areopagite of Acts 17:34. ... Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations · Other religions Ecumenism · Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas · Luther Calvin · Wesley Arius · Marcion of Sinope Archbishop of Canterbury · Catholic Pope Coptic Pope · Ecumenical Patriarch Christianity Portal This box:      This article... This article is about the capital of Greece. ...

Even as, for the ancient philosophers, the essence of perfection had been harmony, so for the Gospel and the Christian theologians it was charity, or love. St. Paul wrote (Epistle to the Colossians, 3:14): "And above all these things put on charity, which is the bond of perfectness." Harmony is the use and study of pitch simultaneity, and therefore chords, actual or implied, in music. ... Gospel, from the Old English good tidings is a calque of Greek () used in the New Testament (see Etymology below). ... Allegorical personification of Charity as a mother with three infants by Anthony van Dyck // The word charity entered the English language through the O.Fr word charite which was derived from the Latin caritas.[1] In Christian theology charity, or love (agapē), is the greatest of the three theological virtues... Paul of Tarsus (b. ... The Epistle to the Colossians is a book of the Bible New Testament. ...

St. Gregory.

St. Gregory wrote that perfection will be realized only after the fulfillment of history — only "then will the world be beautiful and perfect." Still, everyone should make his own approach to perfection — to holiness. Discourses in moral theology and asceticism were generous with advice on how this was to be done. Saraceni painting of Pope Gregory I, also known as Pope Gregory the Great. ... Saraceni painting of Pope Gregory I, also known as Pope Gregory the Great. ... Pope Saint Gregory I or Gregory the Great (ca. ... Pope Saint Gregory I or Gregory the Great (ca. ... Holiness is the state of being holy, that is, set apart for the worship or service of God or gods. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

The medieval concept of perfection and self-perfection, especially in its mature form, can be natural for modern man. As formulated by Peter Lombard, this concept implies that perfection is a result of development. And as described by Aegidius Romanus, perfection has not only personal sources ("personalia") but social ones ("secundum statum"). Since the individual is formed within a society, the second perfection subsumes the first, in accordance with the "order of the universe" ("ordo universi"). The social perfection is binding on man, whereas personal perfection is only becoming to him. The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times. ... Peter Lombard (c. ... Personal development (also known as self-development, self-improvement or personal growth) comprises the development of the self. ... Giles of Rome (Latin Ægidius Romanus) (circa 1243_1247), was a Roman archbishop famed for his logician commentary on Organon by Aristotle. ... For other uses, see Society (disambiguation). ...

Calvin.

Theses on perfection persist within the Church to the present day. The first condition for perfection is the desire of it. Also necessary is grace — but God gives grace to those who desire perfection and strive for it. Another condition for perfection is constancy of striving and effort. Augustine says: "He who stops, regresses." And effort is necessary in things not only great but also in the smallest; the Gospel according to St. Luke says: "He that is faithful in that which is least is faithful also in much: and he that is unjust in the least is unjust also in much." An aid in approaching perfection is an awareness of God's perfection and of one's own imperfection. From [1], in the public domain This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... From [1], in the public domain This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... John Calvin (July 10, 1509 – May 27, 1564) was a French Protestant theologian during the Protestant Reformation and was a central developer of the system of Christian theology called Calvinism or Reformed theology. ... Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations · Other religions Ecumenism · Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas · Luther Calvin · Wesley Arius · Marcion of Sinope Archbishop of Canterbury · Catholic Pope Coptic Pope · Ecumenical Patriarch Christianity Portal This box:      In Christianity... Augustinus redirects here. ... Gospel, from the Old English good tidings is a calque of Greek () used in the New Testament (see Etymology below). ... Luke the Evangelist (Greek &#923;&#959;&#965;&#954;&#945;&#962; Loukas) is said by tradition to be the author of both the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles, the third and fifth books of the New Testament. ... This article discusses the term God in the context of monotheism and henotheism. ...

Teresa of Ávila.

The 14th century saw, with the Scotists, a shift in interest from moral to ontological perfection; the 15th century, particularly during the Italian Renaissance, a shift to artistic perfection. The first half of the 16th century saw John Calvin's complete conditioning of man's perfection on the grace of God. Download high resolution version (1813x1734, 483 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Download high resolution version (1813x1734, 483 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... For other saints with similar names, please see Saint Teresa. ... This 14th-century statue from south India depicts the gods Shiva (on the left) and Uma (on the right). ... Scotism is the name given to the philosophical and theological system or school named after John Duns Scotus. ... This article is about the use of the moral in storytelling. ... This article is about ontology in philosophy. ... (14th century - 15th century - 16th century - other centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 15th century was that century which lasted from 1401 to 1500. ... The Italian Renaissance began the opening phase of the Renaissance, a period of great cultural change and achievement in Europe that spanned the period from the end of the 14th century to about 1600, marking the transition between Medieval and Early Modern Europe. ... This article is about the philosophical concept of Art. ... John Calvin (July 10, 1509 – May 27, 1564) was a French Protestant theologian during the Protestant Reformation and was a central developer of the system of Christian theology called Calvinism or Reformed theology. ... Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations · Other religions Ecumenism · Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas · Luther Calvin · Wesley Arius · Marcion of Sinope Archbishop of Canterbury · Catholic Pope Coptic Pope · Ecumenical Patriarch Christianity Portal This box:      In Christianity...

The second half of the 16th century brought the Counter-reformation, the Council of Trent, and a return of the Catholic concept; and also, heroic attempts to attain perfection through contemplation and mortification. This was the age of Ignatius Loyola and the founding of the Jesuit Order; of St. Teresa of Ávila (1515-82) and St. John of the Cross (1542-91), and the 1593 founding of the Barefoot Carmelites. It was the epitome of the Christian idea of perfection and remains so to this day. The Counter-Reformation or the Catholic Reformation was a strong reaffirmation of the doctrine and structure of the Catholic Church, climaxing at the Council of Trent, partly in reaction to the growth of Protestantism. ... The Council of Trent is the Nineteenth Ecumenical Council of the Roman Catholic Church. ... Contemplation comes from the latin root for temple, and means to enter an open or consecrated place. ... Flagellants mortifying the flesh, at the time of the Black Death Mortification of the flesh literally means putting the flesh to death. The term is primarily used in religious contexts, and is practiced in a variety of ways. ... Ignatius of Loyola Saint Ignatius of Loyola (December 24, 1491? &#8211; July 31, 1556), baptized Íñigo López de Loyola, was the founder of the Society of Jesus, a Roman Catholic religious order commonly known as the Jesuits that was established to strengthen the Church, initially against Protestantism. ... The Society of Jesus (Latin: Societas Iesu), commonly known as the Jesuits, is a Roman Catholic religious order. ... For other saints with similar names, please see Saint Teresa. ... Saint John of the Cross (Juan de la Cruz) was a Spanish Carmelite friar, born on June 24, 1542 at Fontiveros, a small village near Avila. ... The Discalced Carmelites, or Barefoot Carmelites, is a Roman Catholic mendicant order. ... Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations · Other religions Ecumenism · Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas · Luther Calvin · Wesley Arius · Marcion of Sinope Archbishop of Canterbury · Catholic Pope Coptic Pope · Ecumenical Patriarch Christianity Portal This box:      Christianity is...

Jansen.

The first half of the 17th century saw attempts at a Catholic reform of the idea of perfection. This was the time of Cornelis Jansen (1585-1638) and of Jansenism — of a growing belief in predestination and in the impossibility of perfection without grace. Engraving of Cornelius Jansen by Jean Morin This image is in the public domain because its copyright has expired in the United States and those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100 years. ... Engraving of Cornelius Jansen by Jean Morin This image is in the public domain because its copyright has expired in the United States and those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100 years. ... Cornelius Jansen, Engraving by Jean Morin Cornelius Jansen, often known as Jansenius (October 28, 1585–May 6, 1638) was Catholic bishop of Ypres and the father of the religious movement known as Jansenism. ... Cornelius Jansen, Engraving by Jean Morin Cornelius Jansen, often known as Jansenius (October 28, 1585 &#8212; May 6, 1638) was bishop of Ypres and the father of the religious revival known as Jansenism. ... Jansenism was a branch of Catholic thought tracing itself back to Cornelius Otto Jansen (1585 – 1638), a Flemish theologian. ... Predestination (also linked with foreknowledge) is a religious concept, which involves the relationship between the beginning of things and their destinies. ... Look up grace in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

With the second half of the 17th century came a further development in the doctrine of predestination — the doctrine of "Quietism." Perfection could be reached through a passive awaiting of grace rather than by an active striving. This theory, formulated in Spain by Miguel de Molinos (ca. 1628 - 1697), spread in France, where it was espoused by Madame Guyon (1648-1717) and for a time attracted François de Salignac de la Mothe-Fénelon. Predestination (also linked with foreknowledge) is a religious concept, which involves the relationship between the beginning of things and their destinies. ... Quietism is a term with multiple meanings and definitions. ... Miguel de Molinos (c. ... Categories: People stubs | 1648 births | 1717 deaths ... François de Salignac de la Mothe Fénelon (1641 – 1679). ...

The 18th century brought a sea change to the idea of moral perfection. Faith in it remained, but it changed character from religious to secular. This secular, 18th-century perfection was a fundamental article of faith for the Enlightenment. Its central tenet was that nature was perfect; and perfect, too, was the man who lived in harmony with nature's law. Various Religious symbols, including (first row) Christian, Jewish, Hindu, Bahai, (second row) Islamic, tribal, Taoist, Shinto (third row) Buddhist, Sikh, Hindu, Jain, (fourth row) Ayyavazhi, Triple Goddess, Maltese cross, pre-Christian Slavonic Religion is the adherence to codified beliefs and rituals that generally involve a faith in a spiritual... This article concerns secularity, that is, being secular, in various senses. ... The Enlightenment (French: ; German: ; Italian: ; Portuguese: ) was an eighteenth century movement in European and American philosophy — some classifications also include 17th century philosophy (usually called the Age of Reason). ... This article is about the physical universe. ...

Rousseau.

Primitive man was held to be the most perfect, for he was closest to nature. Perfection lay behind present-day man rather than before him, for civilization distanced man from perfection instead of bringing him closer to it. Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Rousseau redirects here. ... Central New York City. ...

A second interpretation, however, took the contrary view: civilization perfected man by bringing him closer to reason, and thereby to nature; for reason would direct life with due consideration for the laws of nature. Central New York City. ... For other uses, see Reason (disambiguation). ... This article is about the physical universe. ... Natural law or the law of nature (Latin: lex naturalis) is an ethical theory that posits the existence of a law whose content is set by nature and that therefore has validity everywhere. ...

The former, retrospective view of perfection had antecedents in antiquity: Hesiod and Ovid had described a "golden age" that had existed at the beginning of time, and which had been succeeded by silver, copper and Iron Ages, each inferior to the previous. The renewal of this view now, after two millennia, was stimulated by European contact with the "primitive" peoples of the Americas. Jean-Jacques Rousseau was but one of many who wrote in a similar vein. Classical antiquity is a broad term for a long period of cultural history centered on the Mediterranean Sea, which begins roughly with the earliest-recorded Greek poetry of Homer (7th century BC), and continues through the rise of Christianity and the fall of the Western Roman Empire (5th century AD... Roman bronze bust, the so-called Pseudo-Seneca, now identified by some as possibly Hesiod Hesiod (Hesiodos, ) was an early Greek poet and rhapsode, who presumably lived around 700 BC. Hesiod and Homer, with whom Hesiod is often paired, have been considered the earliest Greek poets whose work has survived... For other uses, see Ovid (disambiguation) Publius Ovidius Naso (March 20, 43 BC – 17 AD) was a Roman poet known to the English-speaking world as Ovid who wrote on topics of love, abandoned women and mythological transformations. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... World map showing the Americas CIA political map of the Americas The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere or New World, consisting of the continents of North America[1] and South America with their associated islands and regions. ... Rousseau redirects here. ...

Kant.

These two mid-18th-century schools of thought — one seeing perfection in nature and in the past, and the other in civilization and in the future — represented a reaction not against the idea of perfection, but against its transcendental interpretation: as, earlier, the measure of perfection had been the idea of God, so now it was the idea of nature or of civilization. It was the latter idea that ultimately gained the upper hand and passed into the 19th century as the legacy of the Enlightenment. Image File history File links Kant_2. ... Image File history File links Kant_2. ... Kant redirects here. ... (17th century - 18th century - 19th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 18th century refers to the century that lasted from 1701 through 1800. ... This article is about the physical universe. ... Central New York City. ... In philosophy, transcendental/transcendence, has three different but related primary meanings, all of them derived from the words literal meaning (from Latin), of climbing or going beyond: one that originated in Ancient philosophy, one in Medieval philosophy and one in modern philosophy. ... This article discusses the term God in the context of monotheism and henotheism. ... This article is about the physical universe. ... Central New York City. ... The Enlightenment (French: ; German: ; Italian: ; Portuguese: ) was an eighteenth century movement in European and American philosophy — some classifications also include 17th century philosophy (usually called the Age of Reason). ...

Hume.

The idea of perfection as transcendental, fell away; only worldly perfection counted. The idea that perfection was a matter of grace, also fell by the wayside; man himself must strive for it, and if a single man could not accomplish it, then perhaps mankind could. As God had been the measure of perfection during the Middle Ages, so now man was: the measure had become smaller, more accessible. To the thinking of the 19th century, such worldly, human perfection might ultimately be attainable by everyone. And if not perfection, then improvement. This would be the great concept of the modern age. Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (825x1000, 91 KB) Found at Web Gallery of Art File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): David Hume Empiricism Allan Ramsay (1713-1784) Category talk:Philosophers User:Primalchaos... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (825x1000, 91 KB) Found at Web Gallery of Art File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): David Hume Empiricism Allan Ramsay (1713-1784) Category talk:Philosophers User:Primalchaos... This article is about the philosopher. ... This article discusses the term God in the context of monotheism and henotheism. ... The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times, beginning with the Renaissance. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

Bentham.

At the very midpoint of the 18th century, there occurred an exceptional momentary retreat from the idea of perfection. It was in the French Encyclopédie. The entry, "Perfection" (vol. XII, 1765), discussed only technical perfection, in the sense of the matching of human products to the tasks set for them; no mention was made of ontological, moral or esthetic perfection. Jeremy Bentham, British philosopher, 1748-1832 The two-dimensional work of art depicted in this image is in the public domain in the United States and in those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100 years. ... Jeremy Bentham, British philosopher, 1748-1832 The two-dimensional work of art depicted in this image is in the public domain in the United States and in those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100 years. ... Jeremy Bentham (IPA: ) (26 February [O.S. 15 February 15] 1748) – June 6, 1832) was an English jurist, philosopher, and legal and social reformer. ... This article is about the 18th-century French encyclopaedia. ... This article is about ontology in philosophy. ... Morality (from the Latin manner, character, proper behavior) has three principal meanings. ... Aesthetics (or esthetics) (from the Greek word &#945;&#953;&#963;&#952;&#951;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#942;) is a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of beauty. ...

Spencer.

Otherwise, the 18th century saw great declarations championing the future perfection of man, as in Immanuel Kant's Idee zu einer allgemeinem Geschichte (1784) and Johann Gottfried von Herder's Ideen (1784/91). Download high resolution version (1000x1541, 105 KB) This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Download high resolution version (1000x1541, 105 KB) This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... For other persons named Herbert Spencer, see Herbert Spencer (disambiguation). ... Kant redirects here. ... Johann Gottfried Herder Johann Gottfried von Herder (August 25, 1744 - December 18, 1803), German poet, critic, theologian, and philosopher, is best known for his concept of the Volk and is generally considered the father of ethnic nationalism. ...

Perfection was expected to come about by a variety of means. Partly it would be by way of natural development and progress (the view espoused by David Hume) but more so by way of education (precursors of this view included John Locke and David Hartley, and some fervent exponents included the leaders of the Polish Enlightenment) and by way of overt state action (Claude Adrien Helvétius, later Jeremy Bentham); reliance was placed in cooperation among people (Charles Fourier, 1808), later in eugenics (Francis Galton, 1869). While the foundations of the faith in the future perfectibility of man changed, the faith itself persisted. It linked the people of the Enlightenment with the idealists and romantics — with Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, the Polish Messianists — as well as with the 19th-century Positivists and evolutionists; Herbert Spencer penned a great new declaration championing the future perfection of man. This article is about the philosopher. ... For other persons named John Locke, see John Locke (disambiguation). ... There are several persons with the name David Hartley: David Hartley (1705-1757), English philosopher David Hartley (1731-1813), son of David Hartley the philosopher, and signatory to the Treaty of Paris David Hartley, musician This is a disambiguation page &#8212; a navigational aid which lists other pages that might... The ideas of the Age of Enlightenment in Poland were developed later then in the Western Europe, as Polish bourgeoisie was weaker, and szlachta (nobility) culture (Sarmatism) together with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth political system (Golden Freedoms) were in deep crisis. ... Claude Adrien Helvétius (February 26, 1715 - December 26, 1771) was a French philosopher and litterateur. ... Jeremy Bentham (IPA: ) (26 February [O.S. 15 February 15] 1748) – June 6, 1832) was an English jurist, philosopher, and legal and social reformer. ... This article is about cooperation as used in the social sciences. ... This article is about the French utopian socialist philosopher. ... Eugenics is the self-direction of human evolution: Logo from the Second International Eugenics Conference [7], 1921, depicting it as a tree which unites a variety of different fields. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... The Enlightenment (French: ; German: ; Italian: ; Portuguese: ) was an eighteenth century movement in European and American philosophy — some classifications also include 17th century philosophy (usually called the Age of Reason). ... This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedias quality standards. ... Romantics redirects here. ... Johann Gottlieb Fichte (May 19, 1762 – January 27, 1814) was a German philosopher. ... Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (IPA: ) (August 27, 1770 – November 14, 1831) was a German philosopher and, with Johann Gottlieb Fichte and Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, one of the representatives of German idealism. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Messiah. ... Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century &#8212; 19th century &#8212; 20th century &#8212; more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. ... Positivism is a philosophy that states that the only authentic knowledge is scientific knowledge, and that such knowledge can only come from positive affirmation of theories through strict scientific method. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... For other persons named Herbert Spencer, see Herbert Spencer (disambiguation). ...

Newman.

The idea of human perfectibility had, however, become more comprehensive. Man would attain greater perfection, in the sense that he would live more rationally, healthily, happily, comfortably. But there was no adequate term for this new conception, as the term "perfection" had a moral coloring, while the new goal was more intellectual, physical and social. Image File history File links John Henry Newman, when he preached his first sermon in Over Worton Church on 23 June 1824. ... Image File history File links John Henry Newman, when he preached his first sermon in Over Worton Church on 23 June 1824. ... J H Newman age 23 when he preached his first sermon. ...

In 1852, John Henry Newman, the future British cardinal, wrote that it would be well if the English language, like the Greek, had a term to express intellectual perfection, analogously to the term "health", which addresses man's physical state, and to "virtue", which speaks to his moral nature. During the 19th century, the Germans would come to call perfection, thus construed, "culture" (Kultur), and the French would call it "civilization" (civilisation). J H Newman age 23 when he preached his first sermon. ... For other uses, see Cardinal (disambiguation). ... The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. ... Intelligence is a general mental capability that involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend ideas and language, and learn. ... Personification of virtue (Greek ἀρετή) in Celsus Library in Ephesos, Turkey Virtue (Latin virtus; Greek ) is moral excellence of a person. ... For other uses, see Culture (disambiguation). ... Central New York City. ...

Tatarkiewicz.

One of the elements of perfection, in its new construction, is health, understood by the World Health Organization as "a state of complete physical and mental well-being." Download high resolution version (598x892, 127 KB) File links The following pages link to this file: Wladyslaw Tatarkiewicz Categories: Pre-1994 Poland images ... Download high resolution version (598x892, 127 KB) File links The following pages link to this file: Wladyslaw Tatarkiewicz Categories: Pre-1994 Poland images ... Władysław Tatarkiewicz Władysław Tatarkiewicz (April 3, 1886, Warsaw – April 4, 1980, Warsaw) was a Polish philosopher, historian of philosophy, historian of art, esthetician, and author of works in ethics. ... WHO redirects here. ...

Still, the burgeoning achievements of contemporary biology have not dislodged the age-old interest in moral perfection — with the important distinction, that the goal now is not so much perfection as improvement. A classic early-19th century exponent of this view was Fichte. For the song by Girls Aloud see Biology (song) Biology studies the variety of life (clockwise from top-left) E. coli, tree fern, gazelle, Goliath beetle Biology (from Greek: βίος, bio, life; and λόγος, logos, speech lit. ... Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century &#8212; 19th century &#8212; 20th century &#8212; more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. ... Johann Gottlieb Fichte (May 19, 1762 – January 27, 1814) was a German philosopher. ...

In the 20th and 21st centuries, the advances of science and technology appear to have been paralleled to some extent by increasingly pluralistic attitudes. The Polish philosopher Władysław Tatarkiewicz (1886-1980) has written: "To demand of someone that he strive after perfection seems equally inappropriate as to blame him for not striving after it." Such striving, he adds, "is often egocentric and yields poorer moral and social results than an outward-directed behavior based not on self-perfection but on good will and kindliness toward others."^[6] (19th century - 20th century - 21st century - more centuries) Decades: 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s As a means of recording the passage of time, the 20th century was that century which lasted from 1901&#8211;2000 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar (1900&#8211;1999... 20XX redirects here. ... A magnet levitating above a high-temperature superconductor demonstrates the Meissner effect. ... By the mid 20th century humans had achieved a mastery of technology sufficient to leave the surface of the Earth for the first time and explore space. ... A philosopher is a person who thinks deeply regarding people, society, the world, and/or the universe. ... WÅ‚adysÅ‚aw Tatarkiewicz WÅ‚adysÅ‚aw Tatarkiewicz (April 3, 1886, Warsaw – April 4, 1980, Warsaw) was a Polish philosopher, historian of philosophy, historian of art, esthetician, and author of works in ethics. ...

Aesthetics

The ancient Greeks viewed perfection as a requisite for beauty and high art. The Pythagoreans held that perfection was to be found in the right proportions and in a harmonious arrangement of parts. The idea that beauty and art were characterized by perfection, was subsequently embraced by Plato, who believed that art ought to be "apt, suitable, without deviations" — in short, "perfect." The term ancient Greece refers to the periods of Greek history in Classical Antiquity, lasting ca. ... For beauty as a characteristic of a persons appearance, see Physical attractiveness. ... This article is about the philosophical concept of Art. ... The Pythagoreans were a Hellenic organization of astronomers, musicians, mathematicians, and philosophers who believed that all things are, essentially, numeric. ... Vitruvian Man, by Leonardo da Vinci. ... Harmony is the use and study of pitch simultaneity, and therefore chords, actual or implied, in music. ... For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation). ...

From a conviction that perfection was a single quality, the Pythagoreans, Plato and their adherents held that beauty also was a single quality; hence, for every kind of art, there was but one perfect and proper form. Plutarch stated (De Musica) that, during the early Greek age, musical harmonies that were recognized as perfect were legally binding at public performances. It has been suggested that this article be split into multiple articles accessible from a disambiguation page. ... Mestrius Plutarchus (Greek: Πλούταρχος; 46 - 127), better known in English as Plutarch, was a Greek historian, biographer, essayist, and Middle Platonist. ... Harmony is the use and study of pitch simultaneity, and therefore chords, actual or implied, in music. ...

Similarly, in temple architecture from the 5th century BCE, there were established "orders." There were established proportions for Doric temples, and for Ionic temples. Likewise in sculpture, for centuries, it was a matter of dogma that certain proportions of the human body were perfect and obligatory. Temple of Hephaestus, an Doric Greek temple in Athens with the original entrance facing east, 449 BC (western face depicted) For other uses, see Temple (disambiguation). ... This article is about building architecture. ... (6th century BC - 5th century BC - 4th century BC - other centuries) (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium AD) Events Demotic becomes the dominant script of ancient Egypt Persians invade Greece twice (Persian Wars) Battle of Marathon (490) Battle of Salamis (480) Athenian empire formed and falls Peloponnesian War... This article includes a list of works cited or a list of external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks in-text citations. ... Architectural practice has often used proportional systems to generate or constrain the forms considered suitable for inclusion in a building. ... The Doric order was one of the orginal pokersthree orders or organizational systems of Ancient Greek or classical architecture; the other two canonical orders were the Ionic and the Corinthian. ... Location of Ionia Ionia (Greek Ιωνία; see also list of traditional Greek place names) was an ancient region of southwestern coastal Anatolia (in present-day Turkey, the region nearest İzmir,) on the Aegean Sea. ... Sculptor redirects here. ...

There was also a prevalent belief that certain shapes and proportions were in themselves perfect. Plato felt that the perfect proportion was the ratio of the side to the diagonal of a square. His authority was so great that architects and other artists continued using this proportion, even when ignorant of its source, as late as the Middle Ages. Look up shape in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... This article is about proportionality, the mathematical relation. ... This article is about the mathematical concept. ... An ancient time This page is about the town Side on the Mediterranean coast of Turkey. ... A diagonal can refer to a line joining two nonadjacent vertices of a polygon or polyhedron, or in contexts any upward or downward sloping line. ... For other uses, see Square. ... The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times, beginning with the Renaissance. ...

Cicero.

Another early idea — one that was to be espoused by many illustrious writers and artists of various periods — found perfection in the circle and the sphere. Aristotle wrote in the Physica that the circle was "the perfect, first, most beautiful form." Cicero wrote in De natura deorum (On the Nature of the Gods): "Two forms are the most distinctive: of solids, the sphere... and of plane figures, the circle... There is nothing more commensurate than these forms." Scanned from a book dated 1900. ... Scanned from a book dated 1900. ... For other uses, see Cicero (disambiguation). ... Circle illustration This article is about the shape and mathematical concept of circle. ... For other uses, see Sphere (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Aristotle (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Cicero (disambiguation). ... It has been suggested that this article be split into multiple articles accessible from a disambiguation page. ... This box:      For other uses, see Solid (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Sphere (disambiguation). ... In geometry, two sets of points are of the same shape precisely if one can be transformed to another by dilating (i. ... Circle illustration This article is about the shape and mathematical concept of circle. ... Sphere symmetry group o. ...

In a commentary to Aristotle's De coelo et mundo (On the Heavens and Earth), the medieval Pole, Jan of Słupcza, wrote: "The most perfect body ought to have the most perfect form, and such [a body] is heaven, while the most perfect form is the round form, for nothing can be added to it." In the famous illustrated Les très riches heures du duc de Berry, paradise is depicted as contained within an ideal sphere. The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times. ... For other uses, see Heaven (disambiguation). ... Paradise, Jan Bruegel Paradise is an English word from Persian roots that is generally identified with the Garden of Eden or with Heaven. ... For other uses, see Sphere (disambiguation). ...

Palladio.

The Renaissance architect Sebastiano Serlio (1475-1554) stated: "the round form is the most perfect of all." Image File history File links Size of this preview: 210 × 288 pixelsFull resolution (210 × 288 pixel, file size: 23 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Afterwards please add the following code to : (Please review the discussion here. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 210 × 288 pixelsFull resolution (210 × 288 pixel, file size: 23 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Afterwards please add the following code to : (Please review the discussion here. ... Andrea Palladio (November 30, 1508 – August 19, 1580), was an Italian architect, widely considered the most influential person in the history of Western architecture. ... This article is about the European Renaissance of the 14th-17th centuries. ... For other uses, see Architect (disambiguation). ... Sebastiano Serlio (Bologna 1475 – Fontainebleau ca 1554), the Italian Mannerist architect, was part of the Italian team building Fontainebleau. ...

The most excellent of 16th-century architects, Andrea Palladio, held that "the most perfect and most excellent" form was "the round form, since of all forms it is the simplest, the most uniform, the strongest, the most capacious" and "is the most suitable for rendering the unity, infinity, uniformity and righteousness of God." This was the same thought as in Jan of Słupcza and in Serlio, and it was one of uncommon durability. (15th century - 16th century - 17th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 16th century was that century which lasted from 1501 to 1600. ... Andrea Palladio (November 30, 1508 – August 19, 1580), was an Italian architect, widely considered the most influential person in the history of Western architecture. ...

Castiglione.

The Middle Ages — Romanesque and Gothic alike — had been quite taken with the idea of perfection. But a true explosion of the imperative for perfection came with the Renaissance. Baldassare Castiglione The two-dimensional work of art depicted in this image is in the public domain in the United States and in those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100 years. ... Baldassare Castiglione The two-dimensional work of art depicted in this image is in the public domain in the United States and in those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100 years. ... i love orange pekoe tea!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! ... The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times, beginning with the Renaissance. ... South transept of Tournai Cathedral, Belgium, 12th century. ... The cathedral Notre Dame de Paris, a significant architectural contribution of the High Middle Ages. ... This article is about the European Renaissance of the 14th-17th centuries. ...

Renaissance aesthetics placed less emphasis than had classical aesthetics on the unity of things perfect. Baldassare Castiglione, in his Courtier, wrote, of Leonardo, Andrea Mantegna, Raphael, Michelangelo and Giorgione, that "each of them is unlike the others, but each is the most perfect [perfectissimus] in his style." Classicism door in Olomouc, The Czech Republic Teatr Wielki in Warsaw Church La Madeleine in Paris Classicism, in the arts, refers generally to a high regard for classical antiquity, as setting standards for taste which the classicist seeks to emulate. ... i love orange pekoe tea!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! ... The Book of the Courtier (Italian Il Cortegiano) was written by Baldassare Castiglione in 1528. ... “Da Vinci” redirects here. ... The Agony in the Garden (1455) is the pinnacle of Mantegnas early style. ... This article is about the Renaissance artist. ... For other uses, see Michelangelo (disambiguation). ... A purported self-portrait of Giorgione, represented in the guise of David. ...

Barbaro.

The great architect and polymath Leone Battista Alberti wrote (De architectura) that "the art of building... in Italy [had] achieved perfect maturity", that the Romans had "created such a perfect art of building that there was in it nothing mysterious, hidden or unclear." This was yet another formulation of the concept of perfection. Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (2024x2546, 343 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Perfection Daniele Barbaro ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (2024x2546, 343 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Perfection Daniele Barbaro ... Daniele Barbaro (Daniele Matteo Alvise Barbaro; Barbarigo, Barberigo: the -igo suffix is typically Venetian; 1513-70) was an Italian translator of, and commentator on, Vitruvius. ... For other uses, see Architect (disambiguation). ... Leonardo da Vinci, a polymath, is seen as the epitome of the related term, Renaissance Man A polymath (Greek polymathēs, πολυμαθής, having learned much)[1][2] is a person with encyclopedic, broad, or varied knowledge or learning. ... Late statue of Leon Battista Alberti. ... For other uses, see Roman Empire (disambiguation). ...

Daniele Barbaro, in his 1567 translation of Vitruvius, classically defined perfection as "that which lacks nothing and to which nothing can be added." Daniele Barbaro (Daniele Matteo Alvise Barbaro; Barbarigo, Barberigo: the -igo suffix is typically Venetian; 1513-70) was an Italian translator of, and commentator on, Vitruvius. ... Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (born ca. ...

The Renaissance showed a marked concern with preeminence in perfection. Leonardo concluded that the most perfect of the arts was painting. In 1546 Benedetto Varchi compared great masters in the arts. Others compared art and science, art and nature, and perfection in the arts of the ancients with that in the modern masters. The 16th century saw comparisons of their music, the 17th — of their visual arts and especially of their poetry. These comparisons construed perfection fairly loosely; the concept was treated more strictly by architects. The Arts is a broad subdivision of culture, comprised of many expressive disciplines. ... For other uses , see Painting (disambiguation). ... Benedetto Varchi (born 1502 or 1503 in Florence; died 1565) was an Italian historian. ... This article is about the philosophical concept of Art. ... A magnet levitating above a high-temperature superconductor demonstrates the Meissner effect. ... This article is about the philosophical concept of Art. ... This article is about the physical universe. ... (16th century - 17th century - 18th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 17th century was that century which lasted from 1601-1700. ... The Mona Lisa is one of the most recognizable artistic paintings in the Western world. ... This article is about the art form. ... This article is about building architecture. ...

Vasari.

The Renaissance distinguished a variety of properties to perfection. It was variously held to be: Giorgio Vasaris Self Portrait The two-dimensional work of art depicted in this image is in the public domain in the United States and in those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100 years. ... Giorgio Vasaris Self Portrait The two-dimensional work of art depicted in this image is in the public domain in the United States and in those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100 years. ... Giorgio Vasaris selfportrait Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Giorgio Vasari Giorgio Vasari (Arezzo, Tuscany July 3, 1511 - Florence, June 27, 1574) was an Italian painter and architect, mainly known for his famous biographies of Italian artists. ... This article is about the European Renaissance of the 14th-17th centuries. ...

• an objective property (Petrarch, who opposed perfection to other esthetic qualities such as grace);
• specific to art rather than to nature (Vasari);
• a rare property (Alberti felt that not even Greek architecture had attained perfection);
• a property of the whole work rather than of its parts (Alberti);
• a conjunction of many values (Lodovico Dolce thought Raphael perfect because Raphael had manifold talent, as opposed to the one-sided Michelangelo);
• something that required not merely talent but art, that is, skill (Vasari);
• not the sole value in a work of art (Vasari differentiated perfection from grace; Renaissance Platonists such as Ficino viewed perfection as a divine attribute).

In the eclectic view of the late Renaissance, perfection would require uniting the talents of many artists. From the c. ... Look up grace in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... This article is about the philosophical concept of Art. ... Giorgio Vasari (Arezzo, Tuscany July 3, 1511 - Florence, June 27, 1574) was an Italian painter and architect, mainly known for his famous biographies of Italian artists. ... Late statue of Leon Battista Alberti. ... Late statue of Leon Battista Alberti. ... Lodovico Dolce (1508-1568) was an Italian theorist of painting. ... This article is about the Renaissance artist. ... For other uses, see Michelangelo (disambiguation). ... A skill is an ability, usually learned and acquired through training, to perform actions which achieve a desired outcome. ... Giorgio Vasari (Arezzo, Tuscany July 3, 1511 - Florence, June 27, 1574) was an Italian painter and architect, mainly known for his famous biographies of Italian artists. ... This article is about the philosophical concept of Art. ... Giorgio Vasari (Arezzo, Tuscany July 3, 1511 - Florence, June 27, 1574) was an Italian painter and architect, mainly known for his famous biographies of Italian artists. ... Look up grace in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Platonic idealism is the theory that the substantive reality around us is only a reflection of a higher truth. ... Marsilio Ficino (also known by his Latin name, Marsilius Ficinus) (Figline Valdarno, October 19, 1433 - Careggi, October 1, 1499) was one of the most influential humanist philosophers of the early Italian Renaissance, astrologer, and a reviver of Neoplatonism who was in touch with every major academic thinker and writer of... This article discusses the term God in the context of monotheism and henotheism. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

Sarbiewski.

The concept of perfection was harder to apply to Renaissance literature but became so common — often, linked to "eccelente" — as to become banal. Its frequent application brought about its relativization and even subjectivization. Image File history File links Sarbiewski. ... Image File history File links Sarbiewski. ... Poeta Laureatus Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski. ... For other uses, see Literature (disambiguation). ... In complexity theory and computability theory, an oracle machine is an abstract machine used to study decision problems. ... This article is in need of attention. ...

Beginning with Serlio and Palladio, perfection in art had become less important, less definite, less objective. The striving for perfection no longer had the importance for men of letters that it did for the great architects. But the 17th century still revered perfection, as shown by the appearance of that word in book titles: De perfecta poesi by the Polish poet Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski (1595-1640); Le peintre parfait (1767 by André Félibien; and Idée de la perfection de la peinture (1662) by Fréart de Chambray. Sebastiano Serlio (Bologna 1475 – Fontainebleau ca 1554), the Italian Mannerist architect, was part of the Italian team building Fontainebleau. ... Illustration from a 1736 English edition of I Quattro Libri dellArchitettura. ... An intellectual is a person who uses his or her intellect to study, reflect, and speculate on a variety of different ideas. ... For other uses, see Architect (disambiguation). ... The poor poet A poet is a person who writes poetry. ... Poeta Laureatus Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski. ... Events January 30 - William Shakespeares Romeo and Juliet is performed for the first time. ... Events December 1 - Portugal regains its independence from Spain and João IV of Portugal becomes king. ... Year 1767 (MDCCLXVII) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Monday of the 11-day slower Julian calendar). ... André Félibien (May 1619 - 11 June 1695), sieur des Avaux et de Javercy was a French architect and historiographer. ... Events February 1 - The Chinese pirate Koxinga seizes the island of Taiwan after a nine-month siege. ... Fréart de Chambray (died 1676) was a French architect and theorist of architecture. ...

Sarbiewski offered several theses: poetry not only imitates things perfectissime ("most perfectly"), but imitates them as they ought perfectissime to be in nature; perfect art is recognized by its agreement with nature, as well as its universality; art is the more perfect, the nobler (nobilior) its manner of representing things; it is the more perfect, the more truths it contains; perfection has various degrees — it is higher in poetry than in prose. This article is about the art form. ... Prose is writing distinguished from poetry by its greater variety of rhythm and its closer resemblance to everyday speech. ...

Wolff.

In classicism, especially in French 17th-century classicism, from an ideal attainable by few, perfection became an obligation for every author. And inasmuch as the criterion of perfection had been lowered, "perfection" now meant only correctness. In the ensuing devaluation, it was not enough that art be perfecta, it should be perfectissima. Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (500x709, 138 KB) Christian Wolff, Professeur des Mathématique Engraving by Johann Georg Wille Česky | Deutsch | English | Ελληνικά | Español | فارسی | Français | עברית | Indonesian | Italiano | 日本語 | 한국어 | Magyar | Nederlands | Polski | Português | Românǎ | Русский | Slovenščina | Српски | Sunda | 简体中文 | 正體中文 | Türkçe | Русский | Українська +/- Source: http://www. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (500x709, 138 KB) Christian Wolff, Professeur des Mathématique Engraving by Johann Georg Wille Česky | Deutsch | English | Ελληνικά | Español | فارسی | Français | עברית | Indonesian | Italiano | 日本語 | 한국어 | Magyar | Nederlands | Polski | Português | Românǎ | Русский | Slovenščina | Српски | Sunda | 简体中文 | 正體中文 | Türkçe | Русский | Українська +/- Source: http://www. ... Christian Wolff (less correctly Wolf; also known as Wolfius) (January 24, 1679 - April 9, 1754) was a German philosopher. ... Classicism door in Olomouc, The Czech Republic Teatr Wielki in Warsaw Church La Madeleine in Paris Classicism, in the arts, refers generally to a high regard for classical antiquity, as setting standards for taste which the classicist seeks to emulate. ... (16th century - 17th century - 18th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 17th century was that century which lasted from 1601-1700. ...

Perfection, formerly the supreme characterization for a work of art, now became but one of many positive characterizations. Cesare Ripa, in his Iconologia (published 1593, but typical for the 17th century), presented perfezione as a concept of equal status with grace (grazia), prettiness (venustà) and beauty (bellezza). Cesare Ripa was a 16th-century Italian aesthetician and author of the Iconologia. ... Events May 18 - Playwright Thomas Kyds accusations of heresy lead to an arrest warrant for Christopher Marlowe. ... Look up grace in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... For beauty as a characteristic of a persons appearance, see Physical attractiveness. ...

Leibniz's pupil, Christian Wolff, in his Psychology, wrote that beauty consists in perfection, and that this was why beauty was a source of pleasure. No such general esthetic theory, explicitly naming perfection, had ever been formulated by any of its devotees from Plato to Palladio. Gottfried Leibniz Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (July 1, 1646 in Leipzig - November 14, 1716 in Hannover) was a German philosopher, scientist, mathematician, diplomat, librarian, and lawyer of Sorb descent. ... Christian Wolff is the name of at least two notable individuals: an eighteenth-century philosopher and mathematician - see Christian Wolff (philosopher) a twentieth_century composer _ see Christian Wolff (composer) a German actor This is a disambiguation page &#8212; a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the... For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation). ... Illustration from a 1736 English edition of I Quattro Libri dellArchitettura. ...

Diderot.

Wolff's theory of beauty-as-perfection was developed by the school's chief aesthetician, Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. This tradition remained active in Germany as late as Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, who considered both beauty and sublimity to be ideas of perfection; when unity prevailed, beauty emerged; when plurality — sublimity. Portrait of Denis Diderot by Jean-Baptiste Greuze, painted 1766. ... Portrait of Denis Diderot by Jean-Baptiste Greuze, painted 1766. ... Portrait of Diderot by Louis-Michel van Loo, 1767 Denis Diderot (October 5, 1713 – July 31, 1784) was a French philosopher and writer. ... Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten (June 17, 1714 _ May 26, 1762) was a German philosopher. ... Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (22 January 1729 – 15 February 1781), writer, philosopher, publicist, and art critic, was one of the most outstanding German representatives of the Enlightenment era. ... For beauty as a characteristic of a persons appearance, see Physical attractiveness. ... The sublime (from the Latin sublimis (exalted)), refers in aesthetics to the quality of transcendent greatness, whether physical, moral, intellectual or artistic. ... For the use of the term in political theory, see Pluralism (political theory). ...

In the latter part of the 18th century, Immanuel Kant wrote much in his Critique of Judgment about perfection — inner and outer, objective and subjective, qualitative and quantitative, perceived clearly and obscurely, the perfection of nature and that of art. Nevertheless, in aesthetics Kant found that "The judgment of taste [i.e., aesthetic judgment] is entirely independent of the concept of perfection" — that is, beauty was something different from perfection. Kant redirects here. ... The Critique of Judgement (Kritik der Urteilskraft, 1790), also known as the third critique, is a philosophical work by Immanuel Kant. ...

Burke.

Earlier in the 18th century, France's leading aesthetician, Denis Diderot, had questioned whether perfection was a more comprehensible idea than beauty. Jean-Jacques Rousseau had treated perfection as an unreal concept, and wrote Jean le Rond d'Alembert, "Let us not seek the chimera of perfection, but that which is the best possible." Image File history File links Edmund_Burke2_c. ... Image File history File links Edmund_Burke2_c. ... Edmund Burke (January 12, 1729[1] – July 9, 1797) was an Anglo-Irish statesman, author, orator, political theorist, and philosopher, who served for many years in the British House of Commons as a member of the Whig party. ... Portrait of Diderot by Louis-Michel van Loo, 1767 Denis Diderot (October 5, 1713 – July 31, 1784) was a French philosopher and writer. ... Rousseau redirects here. ... Jean le Rond dAlembert, pastel by Maurice Quentin de La Tour Jean le Rond dAlembert (November 16, 1717 – October 29, 1783) was a French mathematician, mechanician, physicist and philosopher. ...

In England, in 1757, the important aesthetician Edmund Burke denied that perfection was the cause of beauty. Quite the contrary, he argued that beauty nearly always involved an element of imperfection; for example, women, in order to heighten their attractiveness, emphasized their weakness and frailty, which is to say, their imperfection. For other uses, see England (disambiguation). ... 1757 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... Edmund Burke (January 12, 1729[1] – July 9, 1797) was an Anglo-Irish statesman, author, orator, political theorist, and philosopher, who served for many years in the British House of Commons as a member of the Whig party. ...

De Musset.

The 18th century was the last for which perfection was a principal concept in aesthetics. In the 19th century, perfection survived only vestigially as a general expression of approval. Alfred de Musset held that "Perfection is no more attainable for us than is infinity. One ought not to seek it anywhere: not in love, nor beauty, nor happiness, nor virtue; but one should love it, in order to be virtuous, beautiful and happy, insofar as that is possible for man." Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (592x857, 20 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Alfred de Musset Perfection ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (592x857, 20 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Alfred de Musset Perfection ... Tomb of Alfred de Musset in Le Père Lachaise cemetery. ... Tomb of Alfred de Musset in Le Père Lachaise cemetery. ...

In the 20th century, Paul Valéry wrote: "To strive for perfection, to devote endless time to a work, to set oneself — like Goethe— an unattainable goal, are all intents that are precluded by the pattern of modern life." For other people of the same name, see Valery. ... Johann Wolfgang von Goethe Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (pronounced [gø t&#601;]) (August 28, 1749&#8211;March 22, 1832) was a German writer, politician, humanist, scientist, and philosopher. ...

The dismissal of the question concerning whether artists can achieve perfection, still left the question: Do artists want to achieve it? Is that their actual goal? Some artists, schools and epochs have aimed for perfection. Others have nurtured other goals: pluralism, novelty, powerful sensations, faithfulness to truth, self-expression and expression of the world, creativity and originality — all of which may roughly be summarized as "expression." It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Sensation and perception psychology. ... In psychology, an emotional expression is a representation of emotions. ... In psychology, an emotional expression is a representation of emotions. ... For other uses of Creativity, see Creativity (disambiguation). ... Originality refers to something being new or novel. ... Expression may refer to: (in the vernacular) the act or particular way of expressing something (including an emotion through a facial expression or configuration) (in mathematics) a mathematical expression (in computing) a programming language expression (in computing) a vector graphics software Microsoft Expression (in genetics) the effect produced by a...

There have been ages of perfection, and ages of expression. The arts of ancient Greece, the Renaissance and neoclassicism were arts of perfection. In the mannerist, baroque and romantic periods, expression has prevailed.^[7] The term ancient Greece refers to the periods of Greek history in Classical Antiquity, lasting ca. ... This article is about the European Renaissance of the 14th-17th centuries. ... Late Baroque classicizing: G. P. Pannini assembles the canon of Roman ruins and Roman sculpture into one vast imaginary gallery (1756) Neoclassicism (sometimes rendered as Neo-Classicism or Neo-classicism) is the name given to quite distinct movements in the decorative and visual arts, literature, theatre, music, and architecture that... In Parmigianinos Madonna with the Long Neck (1534-40), Mannerism makes itself known by elongated proportions, affected poses, and unclear perspective. ... For other uses, see Baroque (disambiguation). ... Romantics redirects here. ...

Ontology and theology

See also: Christian perfection

Parmenides.

The Greek philosopher Anaximander described the world as "endless" (apeiron), Xenophanes — as "the greatest" (megistos). But while they ascribed great qualities to the world, they did not regard it as perfect. Christian Perfection is a Christian doctrine which maintains that after conversion, but before death, a Christians soul may be cleansed from the stain of original sin. ... Image File history File links Parmenides. ... Image File history File links Parmenides. ... Parmenides of Elea (Greek: , early 5th century BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher born in Elea, a Hellenic city on the southern coast of Italy. ... Anaximander Possibly what Anaximanders map looked like Anaximander (Greek: Αναξίμανδρος)(c. ... Xenophanes of Colophon (Greek: Ξενοφάνης, 570 BC-480 BC) was a Greek philosopher, poet, and social and religious critic. ...

Only Parmenides seems to have considered existence to be "tetelesmenon" ("finished"); and Melissos, his successor in the Eleatic school, said that existence "was entirely" ("pan esti"). Thus both saw perfection in existence; true existence was one, constant, immutable. Moreover, Parmenides thought the world to be finite, limited in all directions, and like a sphere — which was a mark of its perfection. Parmenides of Elea (Greek: , early 5th century BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher born in Elea, a Hellenic city on the southern coast of Italy. ... For the philosophical movement, see Existentialism. ... Melissus of Samos, Greek philosopher of the Eleatic School, was born probably not later than 470 BC. According to Diogenes Laërtius, ix. ... The Eleatics were a school of pre-Socratic philosophers at Elea, a Greek colony in Campania, Italy. ... For other uses, see Sphere (disambiguation). ...

Parmenides' view was embraced to some extent by Plato. He thought that the world was the work of a good Demiurge, and that this was why order and harmony prevailed in the world. The world was the best, the most beautiful, perfect. It had a perfect shape (spherical) and a perfect motion (circular). For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation). ... Demiurge (from the Greek , Latinized , meaning artisan or craftsman, literally worker in the service of the people, from of the people + work) is a term for a creator deity, responsible for the creation of the physical universe. ...

But Plato said nothing about the Demiurge architect-of-the-world himself being perfect. And understandably so, for perfection implied finitude, limits; whereas it was the world, not its creator, that had limits. A similar view was held by Aristotle: the world could be perfect, but God could not. For other uses, see Aristotle (disambiguation). ...

Only the pantheist Stoics held the divinity to be perfect — precisely because they identified it with the world. Cicero wrote in De natura deorum (On the Nature of the Gods) that the world "encompasses... within itself all beings... And what could be more nonsensical than denying perfection to an all-embracing being... Besides the world, there is no thing that does not lack something and that is harmonious, perfect and finished in every respect..." Pantheism (Greek: πάν ( pan ) = all and θεός ( theos ) = God) literally means God is All and All is God. It is the view that everything is of an all-encompassing immanent abstract God; or that the universe, or nature, and God are equivalent. ... Stoicism is a school of philosophy commonly associated with such Greek philosophers as Zeno of Citium, Cleanthes, or Chrysippus and with such later Romans as Cicero, Seneca, Marcus Aurelius, and Epictetus. ... For other uses, see Cicero (disambiguation). ...

Plotinus.

At a certain moment, Greek philosophy became bound up with the religion of the Christians: the abstract concept of first cause became linked with the religious concept of God; the primum movens became identified with the Creator, the absolute with the divine Person. Features of an absolute existence were discovered in the Person of the Creator: He was immutable, timeless. And absolute existence took on the attributes of a person: it was good, omnipotent, omnipresent. Christian theology united the features of the first cause in Aristotle's Metaphysics with those of the Creator in the Book of Genesis. But the attributes of God did not include perfection, for a perfect being must be finite; only of such a being might one say that it lacked nothing. Image File history File links Plot. ... Image File history File links Plot. ... Plotinus (Greek: ) (ca. ... Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations · Other religions Ecumenism · Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas · Luther Calvin · Wesley Arius · Marcion of Sinope Archbishop of Canterbury · Catholic Pope Coptic Pope · Ecumenical Patriarch Christianity Portal This box:      Christianity is... Categories: Wikipedia cleanup | Stub | Philosophy of science | Religious Philosophy | Theology ... This article discusses the term God in the context of monotheism and henotheism. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view. ... Theology finds its scholars pursuing the understanding of and providing reasoned discourse of religion, spirituality and God or the gods. ... Categories: Wikipedia cleanup | Stub | Philosophy of science | Religious Philosophy | Theology ... Plato (Left) and Aristotle (right), by Raphael (Stanza della Segnatura, Rome) Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy concerned with explaining the ultimate nature of reality, being, and the world. ... Genesis (Greek: Γένεσις, having the meanings of birth, creation, cause, beginning, source and origin) is the first book of the Torah (five books of Moses) and hence the first book of the Tanakh, part of the Hebrew Bible; it is also the first book of the Christian Old Testament. ...

There was another reason for the denial, to God, of perfection — in a branch of Christian theology that was under the influence of Plotinus. In this view, the absolute from which the world derived could not be grasped in terms of human concepts, even the most general and transcendent. Not only was that absolute not matter, it was not spirit either, nor idea; it was superior to these. It exceeded any description or praise; it was incomprehensible and ineffable; it was beyond all that we may imagine — including perfection. Plotinus (Greek: ) (ca. ... For other uses, see Concept (disambiguation). ... This article is about matter in physics and chemistry. ... The English word spirit comes from the Latin spiritus (breath). // The English word spirit comes from the Latin spiritus, meaning breath (compare spiritus asper), but also soul, courage, vigor, ultimately from a PIE root *(s)peis- (to blow). In the Vulgate, the Latin word translates Greek (πνευμα), pneuma (Hebrew (רוח) ruah), as... IDEA may refer to: Electronic Directory of the European Institutions IDEA League Improvement and Development Agency Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Indian Distance Education Association Integrated Data Environments Australia Intelligent Database Environment for Advanced Applications IntelliJ IDEA - a Java IDE Interactive Database for Energy-efficient Architecture International IDEA (International Institute...

Duns Scotus.

Medieval Christian philosophy held that the concept of perfection might describe creation, but was not appropriate to describe God. The Scholastic, Thomas Aquinas, indicating that he was following Aristotle, defined a perfect thing as one that "possesses that of which, by its nature, it is capable." Also (Summa Theologiae): "That is perfect, which lacks nothing of the perfection proper to it." Thus there were, in the world, things perfect and imperfect, more perfect and less perfect. God permitted imperfections in creation when they were necessary for the good of the whole. And for man it was natural to go by degrees from imperfection to perfection. Image File history File links John Duns Scotus (c. ... Image File history File links John Duns Scotus (c. ... John Duns Scotus (c. ... The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times. ... THIS IS A FACT Creation is a doctrinal position in many religions and philosophical belief systems which maintains that a single God, or a group of or deities is responsible for creating the universe. ... Scholasticism comes from the Latin word scholasticus, which means that [which] belongs to the school, and is the school of philosophy taught by the academics (or schoolmen) of medieval universities circa 1100–1500. ... Saint Thomas Aquinas, O.P.(also Thomas of Aquin, or Aquino; c. ... For other uses, see Aristotle (disambiguation). ... Summa theologiae, Pars secunda, prima pars. ...

Duns Scotus understood perfection still more simply and mundanely: "Perfection is that which it is better to have than not to have." It was not an attribute of God but a property of creation: all things partook of it to a greater or lesser degree. A thing's perfection depended on what sort of perfection it was eligible for. In general, that was perfect which had attained the fullness of the qualities possible for it. Hence "whole" and "perfect" meant more or less the same ("totum et perfectum sunt quasi idem"). Blessed John Duns Scotus (c. ...

Descartes.

This was a teleological concept, for it implied an end (goal or purpose). God created things that served certain purposes, created even those purposes, but He himself did not serve any purpose. Since God was not finite, He could not be called perfect: for the concept of perfection served to describe finite things. Perfection was not a theological concept, but an ontological one, because it was a feature, in some degree, of every being. The 9th-century thinker Paschasius Rodbertus wrote: "Everything is the more perfect, the more it resembles God." Still, this did not imply that God himself was perfect. René Descartes, painting by Frans Hals, ca. ... René Descartes, painting by Frans Hals, ca. ... Descartes redirects here. ... Teleology (Greek: telos: end, purpose) is the philosophical study of design, purpose, directive principle, or finality in nature or human creations. ... It has been suggested that Teleology be merged into this article or section. ... Theology finds its scholars pursuing the understanding of and providing reasoned discourse of religion, spirituality and God or the gods. ... This article is about ontology in philosophy. ... In ontology, a being is anything that can be said to be, either transcendantly or immanently. ... As a means of recording the passage of time the 9th century was the century that lasted from 801 to 900. ...

Spinoza.

The concept of perfection, as an attribute of God, entered theology only in modern times, through René Descartes — and in the plural, as the "perfections" of God. Spinoza The two-dimensional work of art depicted in this image is in the public domain in the United States and in those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100 years. ... Spinoza The two-dimensional work of art depicted in this image is in the public domain in the United States and in those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100 years. ... Baruch Spinoza Benedictus de Spinoza (November 24, 1632 _ February 21, 1677), named Baruch Spinoza by his synagogue elders and known as Bento de Spinoza or Bento dEspiñoza in the community in which he grew up. ... Theology finds its scholars pursuing the understanding of and providing reasoned discourse of religion, spirituality and God or the gods. ... Descartes redirects here. ... Look up plural in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

After Descartes, the concept of perfection as a principal concept in philosophy was upheld by other great 17th-century thinkers. In Benedict Spinoza's philosophy, however, there was no personal God, and perfection became a property of — even a synonym for — the existence of reality (that is, for the essence of things). (16th century - 17th century - 18th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 17th century was that century which lasted from 1601-1700. ... Baruch Spinoza Benedictus de Spinoza (November 24, 1632 _ February 21, 1677), named Baruch Spinoza by his synagogue elders and known as Bento de Spinoza or Bento dEspiñoza in the community in which he grew up. ...

Leibniz wrote: "As M. Descartes states, existence itself is perfection." Leibniz added: "Perfection, I call any simple quality, if it is positive and absolute, such that, if it expresses something, it does so without limits." Gottfried Leibniz Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (July 1, 1646 in Leipzig - November 14, 1716 in Hannover) was a German philosopher, scientist, mathematician, diplomat, librarian, and lawyer of Sorb descent. ...

Leibniz.

At the same time, Leibniz also construed perfection, in his Monadology, in an utterly different way: "Only that is perfect which possesses no limits, that is, only God." This concept would last out the entire 17th century. Subsequently Immanuel Kant would describe perfection as "omnitudo realitatis" ("the omnitude of reality"). Thus perfection, which during the Middle Ages could be a property of any individual being, in 17th-century philosophy became as well, and indeed preeminently, a property of God. Image File history File links Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_Leibniz. ... Image File history File links Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_Leibniz. ... Gottfried Leibniz Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (July 1, 1646 in Leipzig - November 14, 1716 in Hannover) was a German philosopher, scientist, mathematician, diplomat, librarian, and lawyer of Sorb descent. ... The Monadology (Monadologie, 1714) is one of Gottfried Leibniz’s works that best define his philosophy, monadism. ... Kant redirects here. ... The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times, beginning with the Renaissance. ... (16th century - 17th century - 18th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 17th century was that century which lasted from 1601-1700. ...

Leibniz's pupil and successor, Christian Wolff, took up this concept of perfection — but with a difference. Wolff ascribed perfection not to being as a whole, but once again to its individual constituents. He gave, as examples, an eye that sees faultlessly, and a watch that runs faultlessly. He also distinguished variants — perfectio simplex and composita, primaria and secundaria — and differentiated the magnitude of perfection (magnitudo perfectionis). Christian Wolff is the name of at least two notable individuals: an eighteenth-century philosopher and mathematician - see Christian Wolff (philosopher) a twentieth_century composer _ see Christian Wolff (composer) a German actor This is a disambiguation page &#8212; a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the...

Wolff's pupil, Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten, derived perfection from rules, but anticipated their collisions (regularum collisio) leading to exceptions (exceptio) and limiting the perfection of things. Baumgarten distinguished perfection simplex and composita, interna and externa, transcendentalis and accidentalis; and, positing so broad a construction, he arrived at the conclusion that "everything is perfect." Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten (June 17, 1714 _ May 26, 1762) was a German philosopher. ...

In short, Wolff and his pupils had returned to the ontological concept of perfection that the Scholastics had used. The theological concept of perfection had lived only from Descartes to Leibniz, in the 17th century. This article is about ontology in philosophy. ... Scholastic redirects here. ... Theology finds its scholars pursuing the understanding of and providing reasoned discourse of religion, spirituality and God or the gods. ...

Thanks to Wolff's school, the concept of perfection lasted in Germany through the 18th century. In other western countries, however, especially France and Britain, in that century the concept of perfection was already in decline. It was ignored by the French Grande Encyclopédie. La Grande Encyclopédie, inventaire raisonné des sciences, des lettres, et des arts (The Great Encyclopedia: a systematic inventory of science, letters, and the arts) is a 31-volume encyclopedia published in France from 1886 to 1902 by H. Lamirault, and later by the Société anonyme de la grande...

The history of the concept of perfection had undergone great evolutions — from "Nothing in the world is perfect", to "Everything is perfect"; and from "Perfection is not an attribute of God", to "Perfection is an attribute of God."

With Christian Wolff's school, every thing had become perfect. This was a singular moment in the history of the ontological concept of perfection; and soon thereafter, that history came to an end.^[8] Christian Wolff is the name of at least two notable individuals: an eighteenth-century philosopher and mathematician - see Christian Wolff (philosopher) a twentieth_century composer _ see Christian Wolff (composer) a German actor This is a disambiguation page &#8212; a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the... This article is about ontology in philosophy. ...

One term, many concepts

The foregoing discussion shows that the term "perfection" has been used to designate a variety of concepts. For other uses, see Concept (disambiguation). ...

• The word "perfection" has a special meaning in mathematics, where it gives a proper name to certain numbers that demonstrate uncommon properties.

• In physics and chemistry, "perfection" designates a model — a conceptual construct for bodies that in reality do not precisely correspond to the model.

• Elsewhere, the term "perfection" is used consistently with the word's etymology ("perfect" = "finished"). That is perfect which lacks nothing. This is how the term has been used in ontology (a perfect being), ethics (a perfect life) and medicine (perfect health). In these fields, the concept is understood variously as ideal model or as actual approximation to the model.

• Also called "perfect" is that which completely achieves its purpose. Christian Wolff gave examples from biology (perfect vision) and technology (a clock that runs neither slow nor fast). Here "perfection" is less fictitious model than actual approximation to the model.

• That is "perfect", which completely fulfills its functions. In social discourse, one speaks of a perfect artist, engineer or carpenter. The term is used similarly in art criticism, when speaking of perfect technique or of the perfect likeness of a portrait. Here again, "perfection" is either ideal model or approximate realization of the model.

• In aesthetics and art theory, perfection is ascribed to what is fully harmonious — to what is constructed in accordance with a single principle (e.g., the Parthenon, the Odyssey).

Except for the first, mathematical sense, all these concepts of "perfection" show a kinship, and oscillate between ideal and approximation. For other meanings of mathematics or uses of math and maths, see Mathematics (disambiguation) and Math (disambiguation). ... This article is about the philosophical issues relating to a certain class of nominative words. ... For other uses, see Number (disambiguation). ... A magnet levitating above a high-temperature superconductor demonstrates the Meissner effect. ... For other uses, see Chemistry (disambiguation). ... Model may refer to more than one thing : For models in society, art, fashion, and cosmetics, see; role model model (person) supermodel figure drawing modeling section In science and technology, a model (abstract) is understood as an abstract or theoretical representation of a phenomenon,see; geologic modeling model (economics) model... Etymologies redirects here. ... This article is about ontology in philosophy. ... For other uses, see Ethics (disambiguation). ... For the chemical substances known as medicines, see medication. ... An abstract model (or conceptual model) is a theoretical construct that represents something, with a set of variables and a set of logical and quantitative relationships between them. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with estimation. ... Purpose in its most general sense is the anticipated aim which guides action. ... Christian Wolff is the name of at least two notable individuals: an eighteenth-century philosopher and mathematician - see Christian Wolff (philosopher) a twentieth_century composer _ see Christian Wolff (composer) a German actor This is a disambiguation page &#8212; a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the... For the song by Girls Aloud see Biology (song) Biology studies the variety of life (clockwise from top-left) E. coli, tree fern, gazelle, Goliath beetle Biology (from Greek: βίος, bio, life; and λόγος, logos, speech lit. ... By the mid 20th century humans had achieved a mastery of technology sufficient to leave the surface of the Earth for the first time and explore space. ... An abstract model (or conceptual model) is a theoretical construct that represents something, with a set of variables and a set of logical and quantitative relationships between them. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with estimation. ... This article is about the philosophical concept of Art. ... The Parthenons facade showing an interpretation of golden rectangles in its proportions. ... The Mona Lisa Although today the word art usually refers to the visual arts, the concept of what art is has continuously changed over centuries. ... Harmony is the use and study of pitch simultaneity, and therefore chords, actual or implied, in music. ... For other uses, see Parthenon (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Odyssey (disambiguation). ... iDEAL is an Internet payment method in The Netherlands, based on online banking. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with estimation. ...

However, the expression, "perfect", is also used colloquially — as a superlative ("perfect idiot", "perfect scoundrel", "perfect storm"). Here, perfectum is confused with excellens. A colloquialism is an informal expression, that is, an expression not used in formal speech or writing. ... For the noun case, see superlative case. ...

Perfection has also been construed as that which is the best. In theology, when Descartes and Leibniz termed God "perfect", they had in mind something other than model; than that which lacks nothing; that achieves its purpose; that fulfills its functions; or that is harmonious.^[9] Theology finds its scholars pursuing the understanding of and providing reasoned discourse of religion, spirituality and God or the gods. ... René Descartes René Descartes (IPA: , March 31, 1596 &#8211; February 11, 1650), also known as Cartesius, worked as a philosopher and mathematician. ... Gottfried Leibniz Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (July 1, 1646 in Leipzig - November 14, 1716 in Hannover) was a German philosopher, scientist, mathematician, diplomat, librarian, and lawyer of Sorb descent. ... This article discusses the term God in the context of monotheism and henotheism. ... An abstract model (or conceptual model) is a theoretical construct that represents something, with a set of variables and a set of logical and quantitative relationships between them. ... Purpose in its most general sense is the anticipated aim which guides action. ... Harmony is the use and study of pitch simultaneity, and therefore chords, actual or implied, in music. ...

Notes

Władysław Tatarkiewicz Władysław Tatarkiewicz (April 3, 1886, Warsaw – April 4, 1980, Warsaw) was a Polish philosopher, historian of philosophy, historian of art, esthetician, and author of works in ethics. ...

References

• Władysław Tatarkiewicz, O doskonałości, Warsaw, Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1976. An English translation by Christopher Kasparek, On Perfection, was serialized in Dialectics and Humanism: the Polish Philosophical Quarterly, vol. VI, no. 4 (autumn 1979), pp. 5-10; vol. VII, no. 1 (winter 1980), pp. 77-80; vol. VII, no. 2 (spring 1980), pp. 137-39; vol. VII, no. 3 (summer 1980), pp. 117-24; vol. VII, no. 4 (autumn 1980), pp. 145-53; vol. VIII, no. 1 (winter 1981), pp. 187-92; and vol. VIII, no. 2 (spring 1981), pp. 11-12.

Kasparek's translation has subsequently appeared in the book: Władysław Tatarkiewicz, On perfection, Warsaw University Press, Center of Universalism, 1992, pp. 9-51. The book is a collection of papers by and about the late Professor Tatarkiewicz.

Władysław Tatarkiewicz Władysław Tatarkiewicz (April 3, 1886, Warsaw – April 4, 1980, Warsaw) was a Polish philosopher, historian of philosophy, historian of art, esthetician, and author of works in ethics. ... Christopher Kasparek (born 1945) is a writer and a translator from Polish into English. ... Władysław Tatarkiewicz Władysław Tatarkiewicz (April 3, 1886, Warsaw – April 4, 1980, Warsaw) was a Polish philosopher, historian of philosophy, historian of art, esthetician, and author of works in ethics. ...

Quotations

• Antoine de Saint-Exupéry is reputed to have said: "Perfection [in design] is achieved, not when there is nothing more to add, but when there is nothing left to take away."

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