A personality test aims to describe aspects of a person's character that remain stable throughout a person's lifetime, the individual's character pattern of behavior, thoughts, and feelings. An early model of personality was posited by Greek philosopher/physician Hippocrates. The 20th century heralded a new interest in defining and identifying separate personality types, in close correlation with the emergence of the field of psychology. As such, several distinct tests emerged; some attempt to identify specific characteristics, while others attempt to identify personality as a whole. In psychology, personality is a description of consistent emotional, thought, and behavior patterns in a person. ... For other uses, see Philosophy (disambiguation). ... The Doctor by Samuel Luke Fildes This article is about the term physician, one type of doctor; for other uses of the word doctor see Doctor. ... Hippocrates of Cos II or Hippokrates of Kos (c. ... (19th century - 20th century - 21st century - more centuries) Decades: 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s As a means of recording the passage of time, the 20th century was that century which lasted from 1901–2000 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar (1900–1999... Psychology is an academic and applied discipline involving the scientific study of mental processes and behavior. ...

The four temperaments as illustrated by Johann Kaspar Lavater.

Image File history File links Lavater1. ... Image File history File links Lavater1. ... Johann Kaspar Lavater (November 15, 1741 - January 2, 1801), was a poet and physiognomist. ...

History

Hippocrates recorded the first known personality model, postulating that one's persona is based upon four separate temperaments. Another Greek physician, Galen, extended Hippocrates' theory by applying a body fluid to each temperament: blood, mucus, black bile and yellow bile, respectively. The fluid which was dominant was said to be the person's "humor". This article does not cite its references or sources. ... Galen (Greek: Γαληνός, Galinos; Latin: Claudius Galenus; AD 129 – 200) of Pergamum was a prominent ancient Greek physician, whose theories dominated medical science for over 1300 years. ... Human blood smear: a - erythrocytes; b - neutrophil; c - eosinophil; d - lymphocyte. ... Mucus is a slippery secretion of the lining of various membranes in the body (mucous membranes). ... Melancholia (Greek μελαγχολια) was described as a distinct disease as early as the fifth and fourth centuries BC in the Hippocratic writings. ... Choleric is a temperament in the ancient medical theory of the four humours. ...

The four humors theory was to become a prevalent medical theory for over a millennium after Galen's death. The theory experienced widespread popularity throughout the Middle Ages and was eventually termed humorism (also humoralism). Humoral practitioners actively used the theory to explain many illnesses of the time. Use of various remedies became commonplace, especially when a person was considered to have too much of a particular fluid. For example, blood letting from veins was performed when certain conditions were reported. The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times, beginning with the Renaissance. ...

By the 18th century, medicine was advancing rapidly. The discoveries of the functions of the circulatory, respiratory and digestive systems served to discount the four humors theory as a realistic practice of medicine. However, it remained important in terms of designating personality. Swiss physiognomist Johann Kaspar Lavater used the four humors to advance four specific persona types as dictated by their respective facial structures, expressions and colorations. Lavater also assigned certain characteristics, such as jollity, generosity and kindness to some types, while brooding, introspection and contemplation were assigned to others. He referred to the four temperaments as the sanguine, choleric, melancholic and phlegmatic, preserving the etymology of these terms having their origins in antiquity. (17th century - 18th century - 19th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 18th century refers to the century that lasted from 1701 through 1800. ... medicines, see medication and pharmacology. ... Diagram of the human circulatory system. ... The Respiratory System Among four-legged animals, the respiratory system generally includes tubes, such as the bronchi, used to carry air to the lungs, where gas exchange takes place. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Physiognomy (Gk. ... Johann Kaspar Lavater (November 15, 1741 - January 2, 1801), was a poet and physiognomist. ... A facial is a cosmetic treatment of the face, commonly involving a variety of skin treatments, grooming steps and deep cleansing of the face by various means including: steam, exfoliation, extraction, creams, lotions, masks, peels, and massage. ... This article is about the psychological process of introspecting. ...

German philosopher Immanuel Kant popularized these ideas by organizing the constructs along two axes: "feelings" and "activity". He also summed up the four types in his writings. For the sanguine type he noted: Immanuel Kant (22 April 1724 – 12 February 1804), was a German philosopher from Königsberg in East Prussia (now Kaliningrad, Russia). ...

"...the sanguine person is carefree and full of hope; attributes great importance to whatever he may be dealing with at the moment, but may have forgotten about it the next. He means to keep his promises but fails to do so because he never considered deeply enough beforehand whether he would be able to keep them. He is good natured enough to help others but is a bad debtor and constantly asks for time to pay. He is very sociable, given to pranks, contented, does not take anything very seriously and has many, many friends. He is not vicious but difficult to convert from his sins. He may repent but this contrition (which never becomes a feeling of guilt) is soon forgotten. He is easily fatigued and bored by work but is constantly engaged in mere games -- these carry with them constant change, and persistence is not his forte."

Late 19th/early 20th century physiologist Wilhelm Wundt expounded on the theory further in 1879. He was the first person to separate personality from human body functions. Further, he theorized that temperaments could not simply be limited to the bodily fluids. He believed that no individual was completely of one temperament; rather that everyone typically has varying proportions of two or more. He believed that all four temperaments were basic dimensions of the human personality and that the temperaments fell along axes of "changeability" and "emotionality". Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. ... Leonardo da Vincis Vitruvian Man, an important early achievement in the study of physiology. ... Wilhelm Wundt Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt (August 16, 1832 – August 31, 1920) was a German physiologist and psychologist. ... 1879 (MDCCCLXXIX) was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... Human anatomy or anthropotomy is a special field within anatomy. ...

The rapid growth of the field of psychology beginning in the early 20th century led to increased interest regarding individual personality. Notably, Swiss psychoanalyst Carl Jung categorized mental functioning into sensing, intuition, thinking, and feeling. Psychoanalysis is a family of psychological theories and methods based on the work of Sigmund Freud. ... Carl Jungs autobiographical work Memories , Dreams, Reflections, Fontana edition Carl Gustav Jung (July 26, 1875, Kesswil, – June 6, 1961, Küsnacht) (IPA: ) was a Swiss psychiatrist and founder of analytical psychology. ... The Center for Applications of Psychological Type is a non-profit organization co-founded by Isabel Myers in 1975 for MBTI development, research and training. ... Intuition is an unconscious form of knowledge. ... Thought or thinking is a mental process which allows beings to model the world, and so to deal with it effectively according to their goals, plans, ends and desires. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

In the 1920s and 1930s German-American psychiatrist Karen Horney organized persons into personality types according to a theory of neurosis. In her theory the neurotic individual expresses a more refined form of persona by way of his or her individual needs. She described ten specific needs, and in turn split these into three distinct categories: the Compliant type, the Aggressive type, and the Withdrawing type. Horney noted that these characteristics could be expressed in ordinary, non-neurotic human beings, albeit in a less extreme fashion. The 1920s was a decade sometimes referred to as the Jazz Age or the Roaring Twenties, usually applied to America. ... The 1930s (years from 1930–1939) were described as an abrupt shift to more radical and conservative lifestyles, as countries were struggling to find a solution to the Great Depression, also known in Europe as the World Depression. ... Psychiatry is a medical specialty dealing with the prevention, assessment, diagnosis, treatment, and rehabilitation of mental health conditions. ... Karen Horney Karen Horney [horn-eye], born Danielsen (September 16, 1885, – December 4, 1952) was a German Freudian psychoanalyst of Norwegian and Dutch descent. ... In modern psychology, the term neurosis, also known as psychoneurosis or neurotic disorder, is a general term that refers to any mental imbalance that causes distress, but (unlike a psychosis or personality disorder) does not prevent rational thought or an individuals ability to function in daily life. ... The concept of Needs is often used to refer to things that people must have. ...

Some personality tests

• The first modern personality test was the Woodworth Personal data sheet, which was first used in 1919. It was designed to help the United States Army screen out recruits who might be susceptible to shell shock.

• The Rorschach inkblot test was introduced in 1921 as a way to determine personality by the interpretation of abstract inkblots.

• The Thematic Apperception Test was commissioned by the Office of Strategic Services (O.S.S.) in the 1930s to identify personalities that might be susceptible to being turned by enemy intelligence.

• The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory was published in 1942 as a way to aid in assessing psychopathology in a clinical setting.

• The Insights Discovery Test based on Carl Jung's psychiatry and an update of Hippocrates' "four Humours".

• Myers-Briggs Type Indicator is a 16-type indicator of Carl Jung's Psychological Types, developed during World War II.

• The 16 Personality Factors (16PF) test was developed in 1946 by Raymond Cattell and has become popular in business. In 1963 W.T. Norman suggested that only five factors would be sufficient. In 1981 a group reviewing available personality tests decided that most of the tests which held any promise seemed to measure a subset of five common factors, as Norman had previously claimed. These Big Five personality traits (commonly referred to as "Big Five" or "the five-factor model") are very common in business-oriented personality tests in use today.

• Other personality tests include the Oxford Capacity Analysis, Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory, Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, and the Abika Test.

Year 1919 (MCMXIX) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar). ... The United States Army is the largest branch of the United States armed forces and has primary responsibility for land-based military operations. ... The military term combat stress reaction (CSR) comprises the range of adverse behaviours in reaction to the stress of combat and combat related activities. ... The first of the ten cards in the Rorschach inkblot test. ... Year 1921 (MCMXXI) was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for full calendar). ... The Thematic Apperception Test or TAT is amongst the most widely used, researched, and taught psychological tests. ... The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is the most frequently used personality test in the mental health fields. ... Year 1942 (MCMXLII) was a common year starting on Thursday (the link is to a full 1942 calendar). ... Psychopathology is a term which refers to either the study of mental illness or mental distress the manifestation of behaviours and experiences which may be indicative of mental illness or psychological impairment. ... Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a personality test designed to assist a person in identifying some significant personal preferences. ... Combatants Allied powers: United Kingdom Soviet Union United States Republic of China and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Chiang Kai-shek Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tōjō Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000,000 Total... 16 PF is the standard abbreviation for the 16 Personality Factors multivariately-derived by psychologist Raymond Cattell. ... 1946 (MCMXLVI) was a common year starting on Tuesday. ... Raymond Bernard Cattell (20 March 1905 - 2 February 1998) was a British and American psychologist who theorized the existence of fluid and crystallized intelligences to explain human cognitive ability. ... 1963 (MCMLXIII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (the link is to a full 1963 calendar). ... 1981 (MCMLXXXI) was a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... This does not cite its references or sources. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... The Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, or E.P.Q., measures the three traits described in the personality theory of Hans Eysenck. ... The Abika test, developed by Abika, is a technique for compiling and integrating psychological and personality information. ...

Criticism and controversy

One problem of a personality test is that the users of the test could only find it accurate because of the subjective validation involved. This is where the person only ackknowledge the information that applies to them. This is related to what is called in psychology as the Forer effect. The Forer effect (also called personal validation fallacy or the Barnum effect after P.T. Barnum) is the observation that individuals will give high accuracy ratings to descriptions of their personality that supposedly are tailored specifically for them, but are in fact vague and general enough to apply to a...

Critics have raised issues about the ethics of administering personality tests, especially for non-clinical uses. By the 1960s, tests like the MMPI were being given by companies to employees and applicants as often as to psychiatric patients. Sociologist William H. Whyte was among those who saw the tests as helping to create and perpetuate the oppressive groupthink of the "organization man" mid-20th century corporate capitalistic mentality. Sociology is the study of the social lives of humans, groups and societies. ... William Hollingsworth Holly Whyte (1917- January 12, 1999) was an American sociologist, journalist, and peoplewatcher. ... Groupthink is a type of thought exhibited by group members who try to minimize conflict and reach consensus without critically testing, analyzing, and evaluating ideas. ... Historically, corporatism or corporativism (Italian corporativismo) is a political system in which legislative power is given to civic assemblies that represent economic, industrial, agrarian, and professional groups. ...

Some cognitive psychologists have dismissed the whole idea of personality, considering much behaviour to be content specific. Theorists developed the concept of cognitive styles or Meta programs on this basis, leading to metaprogram tests such as iWAM. Cognitive The scientific study of how people obtain, retrieve, store and manipulate information. ... Meta-programs are programs about programs. ...

Use of personality testing

Research published by David Dunning of Cornell University, Chip Heath of Stanford University and Jerry M. Suls of the University of Iowa reveals that observers who are not involved in any type of relationship with an individual are better judges of the individual's relationships and abilities. These workers have studied a large body of investigations into self-evaluation, indicating that individuals may have flawed views about themselves and their social relationships, sometimes leading to decisions that can impact negatively on other persons' lives and/or their own. Cornell redirects here. ... The Leland Stanford Junior University, commonly known as Stanford University (or simply Stanford), is a private university located approximately 37 miles (60 kilometers) southeast of San Francisco and approximately 20 miles northwest of San José in an unincorporated area of Santa Clara County. ... The University of Iowa, or Iowa for short, is a major national research university located on a 1,900-acre campus in Iowa City, Iowa, USA, on the Iowa River in East Central Iowa. ... Interpersonal relationships are social associations, connections, or affiliations between two or more people. ...

Psychological factors can also have an influence on the stock market. A person's perception of fundamental and technical factors can be influenced by many things including money. Some investors' perceptions are frequently adjusted by economic news, earnings reports, economic data, and political events. This perception of the details of the stock marker depends a great deal on the psychological profiles of investors, in particular their temperaments and their willingness to incur risk. Psychological testing could assist in the accumulation of a collective personal profiles of investors. The New York Stock Exchange A stock market is a market for the trading of company stock, and derivatives of same; both of these are securities listed on a stock exchange as well as those only traded privately. ... Economics offers various definitions for money, though it is now commonly defined as any good or token that functions as a medium of exchange that is socially and legally accepted in payment for goods and services and in settlement of debts. ... For other uses, see Risk (disambiguation). ...

The how-to-get-rich strategies of Donald Trump include comments on the importance of personality in making business deals. He discusses how the knowledge of the personalities of people involved in his deals has contributed to his success. Despite dismissing the relevance of psychological factors in earlier life, he now regards Carl Jung's work as "important to financial success." He has stated that Jung had been a "help in my business as well as in my personal life ...reading Jung will give you insights into yourself and the ways in which you and other people operate." Donald John Trump (born June 14, 1946) is an American business executive, entrepreneur, television personality and author. ...

A study by American Management Association reveals that 39 percent of companies surveyed use personality testing as part of their hiring process. More people are using personality testing to evaluate their business partners, their dates and their spouses. Salespeople are using personality testing to better understand the needs of their customers and to gain a competitive edge in the closing of deals. College students have started to use personality testing to evaluate their roommates. Lawyers are beginning to use personality testing for criminal behavior analysis, litigation profiling, witness examination and jury selection. Sales, or the activity of selling, forms an integral part of commercial activity. ... It has been suggested that this article be split into multiple articles accessible from a disambiguation page. ... English barrister 16th century painting of a civil law notary, by Flemish painter Quentin Massys. ... for other uses please see Crime (disambiguation) A crime is an act that violates a political or moral law. ... A lawsuit is a civil action brought before a court in order to recover a right, obtain damages for an injury, obtain an injunction to prevent an injury, or obtain a declaratory judgment to prevent future legal disputes. ...

See also

• Keirsey Temperament Sorter
• Objective test
• Projective test
• Psychological testing
• Oxford Capacity Analysis (Scientology)

The Keirsey Temperament Sorter (KTS) is a self-assessed personality questionnaire designed to help people better understand themselves, first introduced in the book Please Understand Me. ... Objective tests are different from obtrusive tests, because objective tests are not projective in nature. ... A projective test, in psychology, is a personality test designed to let a person respond to ambiguous stimuli, presumably revealing hidden emotions and internal conflicts. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Scientology is a system of beliefs and practices created by American pulp fiction[1][2] and science fiction [3] author L. Ron Hubbard in 1952 as a self-help philosophy. ...

External links

• A brief history of personality tests
• Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (in German, with a focus on the German version)
• Personality testing through data mining
• A brief history and advice on the "DiSC" personality test
• Personality Type study of an orthodox Christian theological psychology
• Test by Simon Baron-Cohen to determine empathizing and systemizing quotient
• MBTI assessment for Children
• Free Personality Test for Children

Criticism of personality tests

• More on subjective validation
• More on the Forer effect
• Skeptic's Dictionary on common personality tests
• Critisism of inkblot tests