NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Petroleum electric hybrid vehicle

A Petroleum Electric Hybrid Vehicle (PEHV) is a vehicle using an on-board rechargeable energy storage system (RESS) and a fueled power source for vehicle propulsion. The different propulsion power systems may have common subsystems or components. The HV provides better fuel economy than a conventional vehicle because the engine is smaller and may be run at speeds providing more efficiency. Other techniques may be used to recover or reduce waste energy (such as regenerative braking and shutting down the combustion engine). A rechargeable energy storage system or RESS is a system that stores energy for delivery of electric energy and which is rechargeable. ... Ground propulsion is a different term than transport, because it refers to solid bodies being propelled. ...

The term hybrid when used in relation with cars also has other uses. Prior to its modern meaning of hybrid propulsion, the word hybrid was used in the United States to mean a vehicle of mixed national origin; generally, a European car fitted with American mechanical components. This meaning has fallen out of use. In the import scene, hybrid was often used to describe an engine swap. Some have also referred to flexible-fuel vehicles as hybrids because they can use a mixture of different fuels — typically gasoline and ethanol alcohol fuel. // In biology, hybrid has two meanings. ... This article is 150 kilobytes or more in size. ... The Import scene or Import racing scene refers to the subculture that revolves around modifying imported brand cars (commonly referred to as imports), especially those of Japanese brands, for street racing in the United States. ... An engine swap is the process of removing a cars engine and replacing it with another; this is done either because of failure, or to install a different engine - more powerful, maybe more up to date and maintainable. ... A flexible-fuel vehicle or dual-fuel vehicle is an automobile or truck (lorry) that can typically alternate between two sources of fuel. ... Ethanol, also known as ethyl alcohol, drinking alcohol or grain alcohol, is a flammable, colorless, slightly toxic chemical compound with a distinctive perfume-like odor, and is the alcohol found in alcoholic beverages. ... Gasoline on the left, alcohol on the right at a filling station in Brazil Rising energy prices and global warming have led to increased interest in alternative fuels. ...

Technology

PEHVs most commonly use internal combustion engines and electric batteries to power electric motors. Modern mass-produced hybrids prolong the charge on their batteries by capturing kinetic energy via regenerative braking. Many PEHVs shut down the combustion engine at idle, and re-start the combustion engine when needed. As well, when cruising or in other situations where just light thrust is needed, "full" hybrids can use the combustion engine to generate electricity by spinning an electrical generator (often a second electric motor^[1]) to either recharge the battery or directly feed power to an electric motor that drives the vehicle. This contrasts with all-electric cars which use batteries charged by an external source such as the grid, or a range extending trailer. Nearly all hybrids still require gasoline or diesel as their sole fuel source though other fuels such as ethanol or plant based oils have also seen occasional use. An internal combustion engine is an engine that is powered by the expansion of hot combustion products of fuel directly acting within an engine. ... Four double-A batteries In science and technology, a battery is a device that stores energy and makes it available in an electrical form. ... Rotating magnetic field as a sum of magnetic vectors from 3 phase coils An electric motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. ... Mass production is the production of large amounts of standardised products on production lines. ... The kinetic energy of an object is the extra energy which it possesses due to its motion. ... Regenerative braking is any technology which allows a vehicle to recapture and store part of the kinetic energy that would otherwise be lost to heat when braking. ... Petroleum electric Hybrid vehicles make use of both an on-board rechargeable energy storage system (RESS) and a fueled power source for vehicle propulsion. ... An electrical generator is a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy, generally using electromagnetic induction. ... The Toyota RAV4 EV was powered by twenty-four 12 volt batteries, with an operational cost equivalent of over 165 miles per gallon at 2005 US gasoline prices. ... Genset trailers are gassoline fueled trailers with generators which can be hitched up to an electric vehicle and provide the average energy required to give the vehicle unlimited range. ... Fuel is any material that is capable of releasing energy when its chemical or physical structure is changed or converted. ... Ethanol, also known as ethyl alcohol, drinking alcohol or grain alcohol, is a flammable, colorless, slightly toxic chemical compound with a distinctive perfume-like odor, and is the alcohol found in alcoholic beverages. ...

In 2007, several manufacturers have announced that future vehicles will use aspects of hybrid technology to reduce fuel consumption without the use of electric motors (the hybrid drivetrain) to drive the vehicle. Regenerative braking can be used to recapture energy and stored to power electrical accessories, such as air conditioning. Shutting down the engine at idle can also be used to reduce fuel consumption and reduce emissions without the addition of a hybrid drivetrain. In both cases, some of the advantages of hybrid technology are gained while additional cost and weight may be limited to the addition of larger batteries and starter motors. There is no standard terminology for such vehicles, although they may be termed mild hybrids. Mild hybrids are essentially conventional vehicles with oversized starter motors, allowing the engine to be turned off whenever the car is coasting, braking, or stopped, yet restart quickly and cleanly. ...

History

In 1898 Ferdinand Porsche designed the Lohner-Porsche carriage, a series-hybrid vehicle that broke several Austrian speed records, and also won the Exelberg Rally in 1901 with Porsche himself driving. Over 300 of the Lohner-Porsche carriages were sold to the public. As a series-hybrid, a gasoline engine powers a generator, which powered electric wheel motors. A large and heavy battery pack acted as an intermediate load-leveling device. This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ...

The 1915 Dual Power made by the Woods Motor Vehicle electric car maker had a four cylinder internal combustion engine and an electric motor. Below 15 mph (25 km/h) the electric motor alone drove the vehicle, drawing power from a battery pack, and above this speed the "main" engine cut in to take the car up to its 35 mph (55 km/h) top speed. About 600 were made up to 1918. ^[2] Woods Motor Vehicle Company was a manufacturer of Brass Era electric automobiles in Chicago, Illinois. ...

There have also been air engine hybrids where a small petrol engine powered a compressor. Several types of air engines also increased the range between fill-ups with up to 60% by absorbing ambient heat from its surroundings.^[3] The air engine is an emission-free piston engine using compressed air. ...

In 1959 the development of the first transistor-based electric car—the Henney Kilowatt—heralded the development of the electronic speed control that paved the way for modern hybrid electric cars. The Henney Kilowatt was the first modern production electric vehicle and was developed by a cooperative effort between National Union Electric Company, Henney Coachworks, Renault, and the Eureka Williams Company. Although sales of the Kilowatt were dismal, the development of the Kilowatt served was a historical "who's who" of electric propulsion technology. This article belongs in one or more categories. ... Renault S.A. is a French vehicle manufacturer producing cars, vans, buses, tractors, and trucks. ...

A more recent working prototype of the electric-hybrid vehicle was built by Victor Wouk (one of the scientists involved with the Henney Kilowatt and also brother of author Herman Wouk ). Wouk's work with electric hybrid vehicles in the 1960s and 1970s earned him the title as the "Godfather of the Hybrid"^[4]). Wouk installed a prototype electric-hybrid drivetrain into a 1972 Buick Skylark provided by GM for the 1970 Federal Clean Car Incentive Program, but the program was killed by the EPA in 1976 while Eric Stork, the head of the EPA at the time, was accused of a prejudicial coverup^[5]. Since then, hobbyists have continued to build hybrids but none was put into mass production by a major manufacturer until the waning years of the twentieth century. Victor Wouk (1919-2005) was an American scientist and pioneer in the development of electric and hybrid vehicles. ... Herman Wouk (May 27, 1915 â€”) is a bestselling American author with a number of notable novels to his credit, including The Caine Mutiny, The Winds of War, and War and Remembrance. ... The Buick Skylark was a passenger car produced by the Buick division of General Motors. ...

The regenerative-braking hybrid, the core design concept of most production hybrids, was developed by Electrical Engineer David Arthurs around 1978 using off-the shelf components and an Opel GT. However the voltage controller to link the batteries, motor (a jet-engine starter motor), and DC generator was Mr. Arthurs'. The vehicle exhibited ~75 mpg fuel efficiency and plans for it (as well as somewhat updated versions) are still available through the Mother Earth News web site. The Mother Earth News' own 1980 version claimed nearly 84 mpg. The Opel GT is a two-seat sports car introduced by Opel in 1968. ...

The Bill Clinton administration initiated the Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles (PNGV)^[6] program on September 29, 1993 that involved Chrysler, Ford, General Motors, USCAR, the DoE, and other various governmental agencies to engineer the next efficient and clean vehicle. The NRC cited automakers’ moves to produce hybrid electric vehicles as evidence that technologies developed under PNGV were being rapidly adopted on production lines, as called for under Goal 2. Based on information received from automakers, NRC reviewers questioned whether the “Big Three” would be able to move from the concept phase to cost effective, pre-production prototype vehicles by 2004, as set out in Goal 3.^[7] William Jefferson Bill Clinton (born William Jefferson Blythe III[1] on August 19, 1946) was the 42nd President of the United States, serving from 1993 to 2001. ... September 29 is the 272nd day of the year (273rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1993 (MCMXCIII) was a common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar and marked the Beginning of the International Decade to Combat Racism and Racial Discrimination (1993-2003). ...

The program was replaced by the hydrogen focused FreedomCAR initiative^[8] of George W. Bush's administration in 2001. The focus of the FreedomCAR initiative being to fund research too high risk for the private sector to engage in with the long term goal of developing emission / petroleum free vehicles. FreedomCAR is a USA national program developing more energy efficient and environmentally friendly highway transportation technologies that will enable America to use less petroleum. ...

In the intervening period, the widest use of hybrid technology was actually in diesel-electric locomotives. It is also used in diesel-electric submarines, which operate in essentially the same manner as hybrid electric cars. However, in this case the goal was to allow operation underwater without consuming large amounts of oxygen, rather than economizing on fuel. Since then, many submarines have moved to nuclear power, which can operate underwater indefinitely, though a number of nations continue to rely on diesel-electric fleets. A modern Diesel locomotive. ... German UC-1 class World War I submarine A model of GÃ¼nther Priens Unterseeboot 47 (U-47), German WWII Type VII diesel-electric hunter Typhoon class nuclear ballistic missile submarine USS Virginia, a Virginia-class nuclear attack (SSN) submarine A submarine is a watercraft that can operate underwater... General Name, Symbol, Number oxygen, O, 8 Chemical series nonmetals, chalcogens Group, Period, Block 16, 2, p Appearance colorless (gas) very pale blue (liquid) Standard atomic weight 15. ... A nuclear power station. ...

Automotive hybrid technology became successful in the 1990s when the Honda Insight and Toyota Prius became available. These vehicles have a direct linkage from the internal combustion engine to the driven wheels, so the engine can provide acceleration power. The 2000s saw development of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), which can be recharged from the electrical power grid and do not require conventional fuel for short trips. The Renault Kangoo was the first production model of this design, released in France in 2003. However, the environmental benefits of plug-in hybrids depend somewhat on the source of the electrical power. In particular, electricity generated with wind would be cleaner than electricity generated with coal, the most polluting source. On the other hand, electricity generated with coal in a central power plant is still much cleaner than pure gasoline propulsion, due to the much greater efficiencies of a central plant. Furthermore, coal is only one source of centrally generated power, and in some places such as California is only a minor contributor, overshadowed by natural gas and other cleaner sources. The Honda Insight is a 2-seater hatchback hybrid automobile manufactured by Honda. ... Hybrid Synergy Drive The Toyota Prius is the first mass-produced and marketed hybrid automobile/car. ... The number of US survey respondents willing to pay $4,000 more for a plug-in hybrid car increased from 17% in 2005 to 26% in 2006. ... Power line redirects here. ... The Renault Kangoo and Kangoo Express is a van and leisure activity vehicle produced by Renault since 1997. ...

The Prius has been in high demand since its introduction. Newer designs have more conventional appearance and are less expensive, often appearing and performing identically to their non-hybrid counterparts while delivering 40% better fuel efficiency. The Honda Civic Hybrid appears identical to the non-hybrid version, for instance, but delivers about 50 US mpg (4.7 L/100km). The redesigned 2004 Toyota Prius improved passenger room, cargo area, and power output, while increasing energy efficiency and reducing emissions. The Honda Insight, while not matching the demand of the Prius, is still being produced and has a devoted base of owners. Honda has also released a hybrid version of the Accord. Main article: Honda Civic The Honda Civic Hybrid is a hybrid version of the Honda Civic sedan. ... Motto: (Out Of Many, One) (traditional) In God We Trust (1956 to date) Anthem: The Star-Spangled Banner Capital Washington D.C. Largest city New York City None at federal level (English de facto) Government Federal constitutional republic - President George Walker Bush (R) - Vice President Dick Cheney (R) Independence from... Miles per gallon (MPG, or mpg) is a measure of fuel efficiency - the number of miles the car can run on one gallon of fuel. ... The litre or liter (U.S. spelling, see spelling differences) is a unit of volume. ... km redirects here. ... The Honda Accord is an automobile manufactured by Honda. ...

2005 saw the first hybrid sport utility vehicle (SUV) released, Ford Motor Company's Ford Escape Hybrid. Toyota and Ford entered into a licensing agreement in March 2004 allowing Ford to use 20 patents from Toyota related to hybrid technology, although Ford's engine was independently designed and built. In exchange for the hybrid licenses, Ford licensed patents involving their European diesel engines to Toyota. Toyota announced model year 2005 hybrid versions of the Toyota Highlander and Lexus RX 400h with 4WD-i which uses a rear electric motor to power the rear wheels negating the need for a differential. Toyota also plans to add hybrid drivetrains to every model it sells in the coming decade. A fourth-generation (2006-) Ford Explorer, the best-selling mid-size SUV in the United States A sport utility vehicle, or SUV, is a passenger vehicle which combines the towing capability of a pickup truck with the passenger-carrying space of a sedan. ... Ford Motor Company, (Fomoco on mechanical parts), is an American multinational corporation and the worlds third largest automaker based on vehicle sales in 2005. ... The Ford Escape Hybrid, launched in 2004, is a gas-electric hybrid powered version of the Ford Escape sport utility vehicle developed by the Ford Motor Company. ... The Toyota Highlander (called the Kluger in Japan and Australia) is a crossover SUV assembled by the Toyota Motor Corporation under the Toyota brand name in its KyÅ«shÅ«, Japan assembly plant. ... The Lexus RX 400h is an automobile assembled by Toyota Motor Corp. ...

For 2007 Lexus offers a hybrid version of their GS sport sedan dubbed the GS450h with "well in excess of 300hp". The 2007 Camry Hybrid becomes available starting Summer 2006 in USA and Canada. The initial batch of Camry Hybrids are built in Japan; starting October 2006, Toyota Motor Manufacturing, Kentucky (TMMK) will also produce these hybrids. Also, Nissan announced the release of the Altima hybrid (technology supplied by Toyota) around 2007. 2007 Toyota Camry Hybrid The Toyota Camry Hybrid is a hybrid version of Toyotas popular Camry sedan, introduced for the 2007 model year in May 2006. ... Nissan Motor Co. ... For the Final Fantasy Tactics character, see Altima (Final Fantasy Tactics). ...

An R.L. Polk survey of 2003 model year cars showed that hybrid car registrations in the United States rose to 43,435 cars, a 25.8% increase from 2002 numbers. California, the nation's most populous state at one-eighth of the total population, had the most hybrid cars registered: 11,425. The proportionally high number may be partially due to the state's higher gasoline prices and stricter emissions rules, which hybrids generally have little trouble passing. Official language(s) English Capital Sacramento Largest city Los Angeles Area Ranked 3rd - Total 158,302 sq mi (410,000 kmÂ²) - Width 250 miles (400 km) - Length 770 miles (1,240 km) - % water 4. ...

Honda, which offers Insight, Civic and Accord hybrids, sold 26,773 hybrids in the first 11 months of 2004. Toyota has sold a cumulative 306,862 hybrids between 1997 and November 2004, and Honda has sold a total of 81,867 hybrids between 1999 and November 2004.^[9]

Hybrids currently available

This is a list of hybrid vehicles in chronological order of production: // 1907 AL (French car) 1989 Audi 100 Duo 1994 Audi 80 Duo 1996 AC Propulsion tzero (primarily electric vehicle; 80 mile PbA, 300 mile Li-ion(2003) EV-mode) 1997 Toyota Prius (first commercially mass-produced and marketed...

Automobiles and light trucks

A number of manufacturers currently produce hybrid automobiles and light trucks, including Ford, General Motors, Honda, Mazda, Nissan, Peugeot, Renault and Toyota. For a list, see List of hybrid vehicles. Ford Motor Company, (Fomoco on mechanical parts), is an American multinational corporation and the worlds third largest automaker based on vehicle sales in 2005. ... General Motors Corporation (NYSE: GM), also known as GM, is an American automobile maker with worldwide operations and brands including Buick, Cadillac, Chevrolet, GMC, Holden, Hummer, Opel, Pontiac, Saturn, Saab and Vauxhall. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Mazda Motor Corporation ) (TYO: 7261 ) is a Japanese automotive manufacturer based in Hiroshima, Japan. ... Nissan Motor Co. ... Peugeot is a major French car brand, part of PSA Peugeot CitroÃ«n. ... Renault S.A. is a French vehicle manufacturer producing cars, vans, buses, tractors, and trucks. ... Toyota Motor Corporation ), or Toyota is a Japanese multinational corporation and the worlds second largest[3] automaker making automobiles, trucks, buses, robots and providing financial services through its division Toyota Financial Services. ... This is a list of hybrid vehicles in chronological order of production: // 1907 AL (French car) 1989 Audi 100 Duo 1994 Audi 80 Duo 1996 AC Propulsion tzero (primarily electric vehicle; 80 mile PbA, 300 mile Li-ion(2003) EV-mode) 1997 Toyota Prius (first commercially mass-produced and marketed...

Microhybrids are small hybrid cars (see city car). It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Urban car. ...

Combined sales of hybrids in the US rose 54% in February 2007 to more than 22,792 22,998 units, up 52% from the results in February 2006. The figures do not include sales of GM hybrids, which the automaker does not yet break out, but do reflect the addition of the Nissan Altima Hybrid, now sold in eight states. ^[10] For the Final Fantasy Tactics character, see Altima (Final Fantasy Tactics). ...

Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ...

Locomotives

In May 2003 JR East started test runs with the so called NE (new energy) train and validated the system's functionality (series hybrid with lithium ion battery) in cold regions. In 2004, RailPower Technologies had been running pilots in the US with the so called Green Goats which led to orders by the Union Pacific and Canadian Pacific Railways starting in early 2005[2], [3],[4] Hybrid Locomotive is a Locomotive or Multiple Unit Train that uses an on-board rechargeable energy storage system (RESS) and a fuelled power source for propulsion. ... Yamanote Line, Tokyo JR Yamanote Line train in Tokyo, Japan Above Yurakucho in Tokyo East Japan Railway Company (東日本旅客鉄道 Higashi-Nihon Ryokyaku Tetsudo or JR東日本; JR Higashi-Nihon) is a Japanese private railroad company, one of the seven JR companies. ... RailPower Technologies TSX: P is a Canadian company that builds environmentally friendly hybrid yard locomotives, founded by Frank Donnelly and Gerard Koldyk. ... The Union Pacific Railroad (NYSE: UNP) is the largest railroad in the United States. ... The Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR; AAR reporting marks CP, CPAA, CPI), known as CP Rail between 1968 and 1996, is a Canadian Class I railway that is operated by Canadian Pacific Railway Limited. ...

Railpower^[11] offers hybrid road switchers, as does GE.^[12] Diesel-electric locomotives may not always be considered hybrids, not having energy storage on board, unless they are fed with electricity via a collector for short distances (for example, in tunnels with emission limits), in which case they are better classified as dual-mode vehicles. A modern US switcher, an EMD SW1500. ... A number of vehicles use a diesel-electric powerplant for providing locomotion. ... A dual-mode vehicle is a vehicle that can run on power from two different sources, typically electricity from overhead lines or ground level power supply and in parallel or alternating from an internal combustion engine burning liquid fuels or gas. ...

Buses

In the United Kingdom, a local manufacturer has introduced a development of the London 'Double-Decker', a new interpretation of the traditional red buses that are a feature of the extreme traffic density in London. These buses use a small diesel engine with electric storage through a lithium ion battery pack. The use of a 1.9 litre diesel instead of the typical 7.0 litre engine in a traditional bus demonstrates the possible advantages of serial hybrids in extremely traffic-dense environments. A number of vehicles use a diesel-electric powerplant for providing locomotion. ...

The use of a battery pack allows a much smaller installed IC-power output, because the smaller power unit better reflects the average power requirement in a city environment. The battery pack and relatively high power electric motors provide the required power peaks for acceleration, and the high installed power of the motors is reflected by a high potental for brake-energy recovery.

This characteristic offers many potential advantages for bus services. The smaller engine helps compensate for the additional package space and weight requirements of an energy store (here the lithium ion batteries). The solely electric drive to the axles avoids the need for complex gearboxes and regulatory software & its development that parallel hybrids such as Prius require. The high electric installed power allows for an equivalently high energy recovery. (Automotive hybrids that use small electric motors parallel to IC engines can only recover a small proprtion of the available kinetic energy. The remainder is lost as heat in the service brakes as with a conventional non hybrid vehicle). Prius may refer to: Hitachi Flora Prius, a personal computer. ...

Based on a London test cycle, a reduction in CO2 emissions of 31% and fuel savings in the range of 40% have been demonstrated, compared with a modern 'Euro-4' compliant bus.Wrightbus [5] A KMB B10TL double-decker with Wright bodywork. ...

These savings make the use of similar hybrid concepts in urban environments increasingly likely and attractive to users such as refuse collection, delivery & courier services. The scale of the possible saving is such that even lead-acid energy storage is viable, depending on the target of the customer. Here, the final choice of system depends on the required compromise of available space in the vehicle; passenger density, purchase price, route mix, for example urban extra-urban mix; and of course legislative framework. Are emissions being taxed (CO2 minimised, NOx etc.)? Or is fuel heavily taxed (Europe vs. USA)? Here different technical solutions may be favoured according to the local legislation. (See also separate entries)

Also in 2005 GE introduced its hybrid shifters on the market. Toyota claims to have started with the Coaster Hybrid Bus in 1997 on the Japanese market. In May 2003 GM started to tour with hybrid buses developed together with Allison. Several hundreds of those buses have entered into daily operation in the US. The Blue Ribbon City Hybrid bus was presented by Hino, a Toyota affiliate, in January 2005. Shifter has multiple meanings: In science fiction, fantasy fiction and roleplaying games, it is often used as a short form of shapeshifter. ... Hino can mean: Hino, Shiga Hino, Tokyo Hino, Tottori Hino District, Tottori Hino Motors, Ltd. ...

New Flyer and Gillig produce hybrid buses using either ISE Corporation ThunderVolt or Allison's electric drive system. The Whispering Wheel bus is another hybrid. New Flyer Industries is the leading bus manufacturer in North America, headquartered in Winnipeg, Manitoba. ... A Gillig Advantage is in service for Harrisonburg Transit on February 18, 2005 in Harrisonburg, Virginia. ... An articulated bus operated by the CTA in Chicago, Illinois, USA. A Go North East Bus parked in a lay-by in Tyne and Wear, England A bus is a large road vehicle intended to carry numerous persons in addition to the driver and sometimes a conductor. ... Allison may refer to: A given name for a Female, Alison, Allyson. ... Whispering wheel is a self-propelled electrically powered wheel designed for propulsion in hybrid or alternative energy vehicles or busses. ...

Trucks

In 2003 GM introduced a diesel hybrid military (light) truck, equipped with a diesel electric and a fuel cell auxiliary power unit. Hybrid light trucks were introduced 2004 by Mercedes (Hybrid Sprinter) and Micro-Vett SPA (Daily Bimodale). International Truck and Engine Corp. and Eaton Corp. have been selected to manufacture diesel-electric hybrid trucks for a US pilot program serving the utility industry in 2004. In mid 2005 Isuzu introduced the Elf Diesel Hybrid Truck on the Japanese Market. They claim that approximately 300 vehicles, mostly route buses are using Hinos HIMR (Hybrid Inverter Controlled Motor & Retarder) system. A number of vehicles use a diesel-electric powerplant for providing locomotion. ... Isuzu Motors Ltd. ...

A promising but as-yet unseen application for hybrid vehicle technology would be in garbage trucks, since these vehicles do stop-start driving and often stand idling. A typical front loader garbage truck in North America A garbage truck in US English; or dustcart, or sometimes dustbin wagon in Commonwealth English, is a truck specially designed to haul waste to landfills and other recycling / disposal facilities. ...

Petroleum electric hybrid truck makers: DAF Trucks, MAN AG with MAN TGL Series, Nissan Motors, Renault Puncher with Renault Puncher. DAF is a Dutch automobile company, with its main offices in Eindhoven. ... MAN AG (formerly called Maschinenfabrik Augsburg-NÃ¼rnberg AG, ISIN: DE0005937007) is a German transportation company. ... The introduction to this article provides insufficient context for those unfamiliar with the subject matter. ... Nissan Motor Co. ... The Renault Puncher, of Renault Trucks, is the vehicle specially dedicated to 20-26 tonnes distribution. ... The Renault Puncher, of Renault Trucks, is the vehicle specially dedicated to 20-26 tonnes distribution. ...

Hybrid technology: ZF Friedrichshafen. ZF Friedrichshafen AG (meaning Zahnradfabrik Friedrichshafen Aktiengesellschaft which was until 1992 the name of the company) is a leading supplier of automobile transmissions. ...

Military vehicles

The United States Army's manned ground vehicles of the Future Combat System all use a hybrid electric drive consisting of a diesel engine to generate electrical power for mobility and all other vehicle subsystems. The United States Army is one of the armed forces of the United States and has primary responsibility for land-based military operations. ... Future Combat Systems (FCS) is the core building block of the US Armyâ€™s Future Force. ...

Taxicabs

Hybrid technology may be particularly appropriate for use as taxicabs, as in many locations they are used in predominantly urban environments; have intensive operating schedules, maximizing fuel savings over the life of the vehicle; and may spend considerable periods of time at idle, where the hybrid engine may allow for the combustion engine to be shut off (while retaining use of electrical accessories). Hybrid taxicabs are primarily based on production passenger vehicles, with modifications (often aftermarket) to meet specialized usage requirements and/or local regulations (security features, for example). Since vehicles in taxicab service may operate for 10-20 hours per day, the reduction in local pollution and noxious emissions may be more significant than that achieved by hybrids in private vehicle use. Taxicab, short forms taxi or cab, is a type of public transport for a single passenger, or small group of passengers, typically for a non-shared ride. ...

In 2005, New York City added six Ford Escape Hybrids to their taxi fleet and city officials said the entire fleet of 13,000 vehicles could be converted within five years.^[13] New York, NY redirects here. ... The Ford Escape Hybrid, launched in 2004, is a gas-electric hybrid powered version of the Ford Escape sport utility vehicle developed by the Ford Motor Company. ...

Hybrid Drivetrain Types

There are many ways to create an electric-internal combustion hybrid. The variety of electric-ICE designs can be differentiated by the structure of the powertrain, the degree of hybridization and the mode of operation. The main categories are series hybrids and parallel hybrids, with combined hybrids having common characteristics of series and parallel designs. Petroleum electric Hybrid vehicles make use of both an on-board rechargeable energy storage system (RESS) and a fueled power source for vehicle propulsion. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (2211x763, 33 KB) Structure of a series hybrid vehicle. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (2211x763, 33 KB) Structure of a series hybrid vehicle. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1488x800, 35 KB) Structure of a parallel hybrid vehicle. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1488x800, 35 KB) Structure of a parallel hybrid vehicle. ...

Hybrids other than electric-internal combustion exist. For example, hydraulic and pneumatic hybrids, where compressed fluids and compressed air, respectively, are used for energy storage with regenerative braking. Regenerative braking is any technology which allows a vehicle to recapture and store part of the kinetic energy that would otherwise be lost to heat when braking. ...

Engines and fuel sources

Gasoline

Gasoline engines are used in most hybrid designs, and will likely remain dominant for the foreseeable future. While petroleum-derived gasoline is the primary fuel, it is possible to mix in varying levels of ethanol created from renewable energy sources. Like most modern ICE-powered vehicles, hybrids can typically use up to about 15% bioethanol. Manufacturers may move to flexible fuel engines, which would increase allowable ratios, but no plans are in place at present. Gasoline engine (also referred to as petrol engine or Otto engine) invented at the end of the 19th century by German engineer Nikolaus Otto is a type of internal combustion engine which is often used for automobiles, aircraft, small mobile vehicles such as lawnmowers or motorcycles, and outboard motors for... Pumpjack pumping an oil well near Lubbock, Texas Ignacy Åukasiewicz - inventor of the refining of kerosene from crude oil. ... World renewable energy in 2005 (except 2004 data for items marked* or **). Enlarge image to read exclusions. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... The neutrality of this article is disputed. ... A flexible-fuel vehicle or dual-fuel vehicle is an automobile or truck (lorry) that can typically alternate between two sources of fuel. ...

Diesel

One type of hybrid vehicle combination uses a diesel engine for power generation. Diesels have advantages when delivering constant power for long periods of time, suffering less wear while operating at higher efficiency. The diesel engine's high torque, combined with hybrid technology, may offer substantially improved mileage. Most diesel vehicles can use 100% pure biofuels (biodiesel), so they can use but do not need petroleum at all for fuel (although mixes of biofuel and petroleum are more common, and petroleum may be needed for lubrication). If diesel-electric hybrids were in use, this benefit would likely also apply. Diesel-electric hybrid drivetrains have begun to appear in commercial vehicles (particularly buses); as of 2007, no light duty diesel-electric hybrid passenger cars are currently available, although prototypes exist. Peugeot is expected to produce a diesel-electric hybrid version of its 308 in late 2008 for the European market.^[14] This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Biofuel is any fuel that is derived from biomass â€” recently living organisms or their metabolic byproducts, such as manure from cows. ... In some countries, filling stations sell bio-diesel more cheaply than conventional diesel. ... Pumpjack pumping an oil well near Lubbock, Texas Ignacy Åukasiewicz - inventor of the refining of kerosene from crude oil. ... Lubrication occurs when opposing surfaces are completely separated by a lubricant film. ...

Diesel-electric hybrids with parallel drivetrains like the Prius may have a substantial cost disadvantage to other options. Diesel engines are generally more expensive than gasoline equivalents, due to the demands for higher compression (although this also makes diesels more durable). If this "diesel premium" is added to any additional expense for the hybrid, the diesel-electric combination may make the payback period for such vehicles even longer and less feasible for many consumers. In addition, the higher torque of diesel engines may obviate one of the advantages of the electric motors. As with regular diesel engines, diesel-electric hybrids may be more appropriate for high-mileage, intensive-use applications, such as buses, trucks, and delivery vehicles, and less appropriate for passenger vehicles. In addition, regular diesel vehicles may get similar mileage to gasoline-electric hybrids, for a smaller premium, and the marginal benefit of "hybridization" may not be viable. Bold text Wiktionary has related dictionary definitions, such as: compressor, compression inthe wkjhrlfidhb;g/df == Compressor may refer to: Gas compressor, a mechanical device that compresses a gas e. ...

Diesels are not widely used for passenger cars in the United States, as US diesel fuel has long been considered very "dirty", with relatively high levels of sulfur and other contaminants in comparison to the Eurodiesel fuel in Europe, where greater restrictions have been in place for many years. Despite the dirtier fuel at the pump, the US has tough restrictions on exhaust, and it has been difficult for car manufacturers to meet emissions levels as higher sulfur levels are damaging to catalytic converters and other emission control systems. However, ultra-low sulfur diesel was mandated and became widely available in the U.S. in October 2006 for highway vehicles, which will allow the use of newer emissions control systems. General Name, Symbol, Number sulfur, S, 16 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 16, 3, p Appearance lemon yellow Standard atomic weight 32. ... Look up exhaust in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... In an automobiles exhaust system, a catalytic converter provides an environment for a chemical reaction where unburned hydrocarbons completely combust. ... Ultra-low sulfur diesel (ULSD) describes a new EPA standard for the sulfur content in on-road diesel fuel sold in the United States, beginning October 15th, 2006, except for California which must be selling it by September 1st, 2006. ...

Diesel-electric motors are common for use as locomotives, but using a serial hybrid design. In locomotives, the diesel engine is used to generate electricity for the electric drivetrain. This configuration allows the internal combustion engine to be operated at more efficient operating parameters, while removing the need for a separate transmission for the ICE unit and allowing the efficient delivery of torque from the electric motors. Such a system may need a smaller diesel engine and allow for better emissions controls, since the operating range of the diesel engine would be optimized for electric generation rather than power delivery through the mechanical transmission and wheels. There have been studies of this type of diesel-electric hybrid, but there are no confirmed attempts to commercialize such a vehicle for passenger use. Great Western Railway No. ...

PSA Peugeot Citroën has unveiled two demonstrator vehicles featuring a diesel-electric hybrid powertrain: the Peugeot 307 and Citroën C4 Hybride HDi (PDF). VW made a prototype diesel-electric hybrid car that achieved 2 litres/100 km (118 mpg US) fuel economy, but has yet to sell a hybrid vehicle. General Motors has been testing the Opel Astra Diesel Hybrid. There have been no concrete dates suggested for these vehicles, but press statements have suggested production vehicles would not appear before 2009. PSA Peugeot CitroÃ«n (PSA) is a vehicle company that owns the marques Peugeot and CitroÃ«n. ... A red Peugeot 307 CC coupÃ© cabriolet with a folding steel roof The Peugeot 307 is a compact automobile produced by the French Peugeot manufacturer since 2001. ... Rear of a CitroÃ«n C4 three-door The CitroÃ«n C4 is a small family car produced by French automaker CitroÃ«n since autumn 2004. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Prototyping. ... General Motors Corporation (NYSE: GM), also known as GM, is an American automobile maker with worldwide operations and brands including Buick, Cadillac, Chevrolet, GMC, Holden, Hummer, Opel, Pontiac, Saturn, Saab and Vauxhall. ... See also Vauxhall Astra and Holden Astra for the usage of the nameplate by other General Motors subsidiaries. ...

So far, production diesel-electric engines have mostly just appeared in mass transit buses. Current manufacturers of diesel-electric hybrid buses include New Flyer Industries, Gillig, Orion Bus Industries, and North American Bus Industries. In 2008, NovaBus will add a diesel-electric hybrid option as well. Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (900x291, 59 KB) Summary Licensing File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Hybrid vehicle Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (900x291, 59 KB) Summary Licensing File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Hybrid vehicle Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner... In the United States of America, transit describes local area common carrier passenger transportation configured to provide scheduled service on fixed routes on a non-reservation basis. ... New Flyer Industries is a leading bus manufacturer in North America, headquartered in Winnipeg, Manitoba. ... A Gillig Advantage is in service for Harrisonburg Transit on February 18, 2005 in Harrisonburg, Virginia. ... A 2006 Orion VII HEV (07. ... North American Bus Industries, commonly known as NABI, is a major transit bus manufacturing company based in Anniston, Alabama and was linked to Ikarus Bus and Crown Coach joint venture. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar next year. ... A Nova LFS operated by Grand River Transit. ...

Benefits

A brake is a device for slowing or stopping the motion of a machine or vehicle, and to keep it from starting to move again. ... Rotating magnetic field as a sum of magnetic vectors from 3 phase coils An electric motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. ... The kinetic energy of an object is the extra energy which it possesses due to its motion. ... Regenerative braking is any technology which allows a vehicle to recapture and store part of the kinetic energy that would otherwise be lost to heat when braking. ... In physics, heat, symbolized by Q, is defined as transfer of thermal energy [1] Generally, heat is a form of energy transfer associated with the different motions of atoms, molecules and other particles that comprise matter when it is hot and when it is cold. ... Fuel efficiency, sometimes also referred to as fuel economy and commonly gas mileage in the United States, is a numeric measure often used to describe the amount of fuel consumed with regard to the distance travelled in a transportation vehicle, such as an automobile. ... Roadway air dispersion is applied to highway segments Roadway air dispersion modeling is the study of air pollutant transport from a roadway or other linear emitter. ... Roadway noise is the most prevalent form of environmental noise. ... Noise mitigation is a set of strategies to reduce unwanted environmental sound. ... Environmental noise can produce irreversible hearing loss Noise health effects, the collection of health consequences of elevated sound levels, constitute one of the most widespread public health threats in industrialized countries. ... Image:Air . ... Respiration can refer to: Cellular respiration, which is the use of oxygen in the metabolism of organic molecules. ...

Incentives for hybrids and taxes for traditional vehicles

In order to encourage the purchase of hybrid vehicles, several incentives have been made into law: Ecotax, short for Ecological taxation, can refer to: A fiscal policy that introduces taxes intended to promote ecologically sustainable activities via economic incentives. ...

America

Canada

United States

January 1 is the first day of the calendar year in both the Julian and Gregorian calendars. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... Within the Australian, Canadian, United Kingdom, and United States tax systems, a tax credit is an item which is treated as a payment already made towards taxes owed. ... January 1 is the first day of the calendar year in both the Julian and Gregorian calendars. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... Seal of the Internal Revenue Service The Internal Revenue Service (IRS) is the United States government agency that collects taxes and enforces the internal revenue laws. ... The Form 1040 is the starting form for personal income tax returns filed in the United States. ... Seal of the House of Representatives The United States House of Representatives (or simply the House) is one of the two chambers of the United States Congress, the other being the Senate. ... NY redirects here. ... Official language(s) English Capital Sacramento Largest city Los Angeles Area Ranked 3rd - Total 158,302 sq mi (410,000 kmÂ²) - Width 250 miles (400 km) - Length 770 miles (1,240 km) - % water 4. ... Official language(s) English Capital Richmond Largest city Virginia Beach Area Ranked 35th - Total 42,793 sq mi (110,862 kmÂ²) - Width 200 miles (320 km) - Length 430 miles (690 km) - % water 7. ... Official language(s) English Capital Tallahassee Largest city Jacksonville Largest metro area Miami Area Ranked 22nd - Total 65,795[1] sq mi (170,304[1] kmÂ²) - Width 361 miles (582 km) - Length 447 miles (721 km) - % water 17. ... A permanent, separated high-occupancy vehicle lane on I-91 in Connecticut A high occupancy vehicle (or HOV) is any vehicle with a driver and one or more (or sometimes two or more, or three or more) passengers. ... The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) is a division of the United States Department of Transportation that specializes in highway transportation. ... August 10 is the 222nd day of the year (223rd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... George Walker Bush (born July 6, 1946) is the 43rd and current President of the United States, inaugurated on January 20, 2001. ... Official language(s) English Capital Sacramento Largest city Los Angeles Area Ranked 3rd - Total 158,302 sq mi (410,000 kmÂ²) - Width 250 miles (400 km) - Length 770 miles (1,240 km) - % water 4. ... Look up Biennial in Wiktionary, the free dictionary Biennial is a term referring to a period of two years, much in the same way centennial refers to 100 years. ... Victorian London was notorious for its thick smogs, or pea-soupers, a fact that is often recreated to add an air of mystery to a period costume drama. ... 2004 is a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Nickname: Capital of Silicon Valley Location of San Jose within Santa Clara County, California. ... Nickname: City of Angels Location within Los Angeles County in the state of California Coordinates: State California County Los Angeles County Incorporated April 4, 1850 Government - Type mayor-council - Mayor Antonio Villaraigosa (D) - City Attorney Rocky Delgadillo - Governing body City Council Area - City 465. ... October 1 is the 274th day of the year (275th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2004 (MMIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Nickname: Monument City, Charm City, Mob Town[1][2], B-more Motto: The Greatest City in America,[3] Get in on it. ... November 3 is the 307th day of the year (308th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 58 days remaining. ... 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... The Boston Globe is the most widely-circulated daily newspaper in Boston, Massachusetts and in the greater New England region. ... Nickname: City on the Hill, Beantown, Athens of America, The Hub (of the Universe)1 Location in Massachusetts, USA Counties Suffolk County - Mayor Thomas M. Menino (D) Area - City 89. ... Nickname: DC, The District Motto: Justitia Omnibus (Justice for All) Location of Washington, D.C., in relation to the states Maryland and Virginia Coordinates: Country United States Federal District District of Columbia Government - Mayor Adrian M. Fenty (D) - City Council Chairperson: Vincent C. Gray (D) Ward 1: Jim Graham (D...

European Union

Netherlands

The new Vehicle Registration Taxes, payable when a car is sold to its first buyer, can earn the owner of a hybrid a discount up to €6000. A vehicle registration plate, also called a license plate or number plate is a metal or plastic plate attached to a motor vehicle or trailer for official identification purposes. ... The euro (â‚¬; ISO 4217 code EUR) is the currency of twelve European Union member states: Austria, Belgium, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain. ...

Republic of Ireland

A vehicle registration plate, also called a license plate or number plate is a metal or plastic plate attached to a motor vehicle or trailer for official identification purposes. ...

United Kingdom

Carbon dioxide is a chemical compound composed of one carbon and two oxygen atoms. ... This article is about the capital of England and the United Kingdom. ... The white-on-red C marks all entrances to the congestion charge zone although in some areas the charge zone is poorly signed, and accidental journeys into the zone can occur The London congestion charge is a fee for some motorists entering the Central London area. ... The Toyota RAV4 EV was powered by twenty-four 12 volt batteries, with an operational cost equivalent of over 165 miles per gallon at 2005 US gasoline prices. ... A fuel cell vehicle is a vehicle that uses a fuel cell to power an electric drive system. ...

Trade-offs, comparisons and criticisms

Expense

Hybrid vehicles are more expensive (the so-called "hybrid premium") than traditional internal-combustion vehicles, due to extra batteries, more electronics and in some cases other design considerations. The trade-off between higher initial cost and lower fuel costs (often referred to as the payback period) is dependent on usage - miles traveled, or hours of operation, and fuel costs. Traditional economy vehicles may result in a lower direct cost for many users (before consideration of any externality). Consumer Reports ran an article in April 2006 stating that hybrids would not pay for themselves over 5 years of ownership. However, this included an error^{[citation needed]} with charging the "hybrid premium" twice. When corrected, the Honda Civic Hybrid and Toyota Prius did have a payback period of slightly less than 5 years. This includes conservative estimates with depreciation (seen as more depreciation than a non-hybrid, although that is not the current norm) and with gas prices. In particular, the Consumer Reports article assumed $2/gallon for 3 years, $3/gallon for one year and $4/gallon the last year. As recent events have shown, this is a volatile market and hard to predict. For 2006, gas prices ranged from low $2 to low $3, averaging about $2.60/gallon. Payback period in business and economics refers to the period of time required for the return on an investment to repay the sum of the original investment. ... In economics, an externality is a cost or benefit from an economic transaction that parties external to the transaction bear. ...

A January 2007 analysis by Intellichoice.com shows that all 22 currently available hybrids will save their owners money over a five year period. The most savings is for the Toyota Prius, which has a five year cost of ownership 40.3% lower than the cost of comparable non-hybrid vehicles.^[20]

Many hybrid owners have justified their purchase through other, more traditional means. Most cars are not purchased solely on an economic basis, as evidenced by the prevalence of automatic transmission, power windows and air-conditioning, not to mention any new car vs. used, luxury cars and even large SUVs owned by office workers. Instead, cars that meet the owner's affordability range are considered, and the one with the best set of features for that owner is selected. In this case, the feature set includes lower contribution to global warming gases (beyond that of simple fuel efficiency gains, for Toyota and some other manufacturers), less pollution which is shown to cause and exacerbate respiratory afflictions like asthma, sending a message to the manufacturers that demand exists for a car that takes environmental effects into consideration, and sending less money to oil-producing countries (a large component of the U.S. trade deficit).

Design considerations

In some cases, manufacturers are producing hybrid vehicles that use the added energy provided by the hybrid systems to give vehicles a power boost, rather than significantly improved fuel efficiency compared to their traditional counterparts.^[21] The trade-off between added performance and improved fuel efficiency is partly controlled by the software within the hybrid system and partly the result of engine, battery and motor sizing. In the future, manufacturers may provide hybrid-owners with the ability to partially control this balance (fuel efficiency vs. added performance) as they wish, through a user-controlled setting.^[22] Toyota announced in January, 2006 that it was considering a "high-efficiency" button.

Hybrids vs. electric vehicles

Battery powered all-electric cars (BEVs) are more popular in Europe than in the U.S. Most European electric vehicles are purchased from manufacturers, while due to unavailability of manufactured vehicles, most U.S. vehicles are owner-built conversions of older conventional vehicles. The major U.S. automobile manufacturers argue that customer demand for pure electric cars is small. In addition, the long suburban commutes common in the U.S. make range an important criterion for electric vehicle design. However, if advances in battery technology allow increased range at comparable cost to gasoline-powered vehicles, manufacturers will likely mass-market electric vehicles. The relative cost of gasoline to an equivalent amount of electrical energy will also be a critical factor in the electric vehicle market. The Toyota RAV4 EV was powered by twenty-four 12 volt batteries, with an operational cost equivalent of over 165 miles per gallon at 2005 US gasoline prices. ... An electric vehicle conversion is the modification of a conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) driven vehicle to battery electric propulsion, creating a battery electric vehicle. ...

Another relevant factor is the ultimate source of power for the electric vehicles. In areas where older coal-fired generators are the source of electrical power, a pure electric vehicle will be responsible for more of some types of pollution — namely sulfates and particulates — than a hybrid vehicle, while less of other types of pollution, such as carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxide emissions (Table 1). Whether greenhouse gas emissions will be lower in such a case is still under debate. (See[7] vs. [8].) In any event, the local pollution effects would be lessened by a fleet of electric cars, because the sources of the pollution would be outside of urban areas. Carbon monoxide, with the chemical formula CO, is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas. ... The term nitrogen oxide is a general term and can be used to refer to any of these oxides (oxygen compounds) of nitrogen, or to a mixture of them: Nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen(II) oxide Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) Dinitrogen monoxide (N2O) (Nitrous oxide) Dinitrogen trioxide (N2O3) Dinitrogen tetroxide (N2O4) Dinitrogen...

A possible advantage of the hybrid vehicle is in not requiring any upgrades to the electric power transmission grid. Since it can't be scaled larger and smaller at will, the grid is sized so as to carry almost the maximum load (i.e. summer air conditioning) with only occasional failures, and thus has much of its capacity idle most of the time. For the electric utilities, it would be advantageous to utilize that excess capacity and thereby generate a greater revenue for their fixed investment, by selling power to consumers to recharge their vehicles. However, this vision very pointedly does not allow for recharging of vehicles during peak usage times; to do so would require substantial upgrades to the capacity of the grid, and again leave the utilities with excess capacity most of the time. On the other hand, to require consumers to refrain from recharging their vehicles during certain times may not be an easy idea to sell to them. Power line redirects here. ...

For now, car manufacturers are focusing on fuel cell-based cars and hybrids. Fuel cell vehicles are being developed in a long-term research environment, rather than with expectations of production at any definite time. Toyota intends all of its vehicles to have a hybrid option by 2012.^{[citation needed]} A fuel cell is an electrochemical device similar to a battery, but differing from the latter in that it is designed for continuous replenishment of the reactants consumed; i. ...

Plug in

After market plug in kits are available for some hybrids from third party manufacturers. These greatly increase mileage per unit of petroleum (although overall energy consumption may be the same). Cost savings, toxic pollution and greenhouse gas production will depend on the local electric regime. If electricity generation is located elsewhere, it may reduce local emissions of toxins, an advantage in urban areas. If electricity generation is localized to the charging site using solar panels, it may be possible to reduce overall emissions. See Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle in general, and plug-ins for the Prius. Aftermarket is an umbrella term for the collective network of vendors who design and sell vehicular components that are intended to replace the stock manufacturers parts in order to alter the appearance or performance of the vehicle. ... A plugin (or plug-in) is a computer program that can, or must, interact with another program to provide a certain, usually very specific, function. ... A kit-car is an automobile that is available in kit form, i. ... In a two-party system a third party is a party other than the two dominant ones. ... Manufacturing is the transformation of raw materials into finished goods for sale, or intermediate processes involving the production or finishing of semi-manufactures. ... Solar Panel made by BP Solar The solar panels (photovoltaic arrays) on this small yacht at sea can charge the 12 V batteries at up to 9 Amps in full, direct sunlight. ... The number of US survey respondents willing to pay $4,000 more for a plug-in hybrid car increased from 17% in 2005 to 26% in 2006. ... Hybrid Synergy Drive The Toyota Prius is the first mass-produced and marketed hybrid automobile/car. ...

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