The philosophes (French for philosophers) were a group of intellectuals of the 18th century Enlightenment. A philosopher is a person who thinks deeply regarding people, society, the world, and/or the universe. ... (17th century - 18th century - 19th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 18th century refers to the century that lasted from 1701 through 1800. ... ...

This word has not been fully accepted into the English language for as many uses as it is in French because it is formed according to a paradigm which was not taken up by English. An explanatory analogy is that the word photographe is French for 'photographer', rather than 'photograph'. The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. ... Since the late 1960s, the word paradigm (IPA: ) has referred to a thought pattern in any scientific discipline or other epistemological context. ...

Overview of the philosophes

Newton's formulation of the three laws of motion and law of universal gravitation prompted many Europeans to approach all study of nature through reason and logic. The philosophes were a result of this new approach to learning who encouraged reason, knowledge and education as a way of overcoming superstition and ignorance. Philosophes Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert edited the Encyclopédie (1751-1772,) which represented the philosophe belief that everything could be known, classified and understood by man. It also questioned religious authority and criticized social injustice. They believed that the role of philosophy was to change the world, not just to discuss it. The newton (symbol: N) is the SI unit of force. ... The number 13 is often avoided in public buildings, also floors, doors and this Santa Anita Park horse stall. ... Portrait of Diderot by Louis-Michel van Loo, 1767 Denis Diderot (October 5, 1713 – July 31, 1784) was a French philosopher and writer. ... Jean le Rond dAlembert, pastel by Maurice Quentin de la Tour Jean le Rond dAlembert (November 16, 1717 – October 29, 1783) was a ... The neutrality of this article is disputed. ... Events Adam Smith is appointed professor of logic at the University of Glasgow March 25 - For the last time, New Years Day is legally on March 25 in England and Wales. ... Year 1772 was a leap year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ...

Because it was illegal to openly criticize the church and state in France, many wrote plays, novels, histories, dictionaries, and encyclopedias with subtle messages attached. An example is Montesquieu's Persian Letters. Montesquieu can refer to: Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu Several communes of France: Montesquieu, in the Hérault département Montesquieu, in the Lot-et-Garonne département Montesquieu, in the Tarn-et-Garonne département This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages... Wikisource has original text related to this article: Persian Letters Persian Letters is a satirical story of two Persian brothers, Usbek and Rica, traveling through France by Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu. ...

These philosophes influenced rulers, such as Frederick II, the Great of Prussia, Catherine II, the Great of Russia, Maria Theresa of Austria, and Joseph II of Austria. Frederick II of Prussia (German: ; January 24, 1712 – August 17, 1786) of Hohenzollern dynasty, ruled the Kingdom of Prussia from 1740 to 1786. ... Catherine II of Russia Catherine II of Russia, called the Great (Russian: Екатерина II Великая, Yekaterina II Velikaya; 2 May 1729–17 November 1796 [O.S. 6 November]) — sometimes referred to as an epitome of the enlightened despot — reigned as Empress of Russia for some 34 years, from June 28, 1762 until... Maria Theresa, Empress of Austria, Queen of Hungary and Bohemia The worlds most famous coin, a silver thaler of Maria Theresa, dated 1780 Maria Theresa (German: ; May 13, 1717–November 29, 1780) was Empress of Austria and Queen of Hungary and Bohemia. ... Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II Joseph II (March 13, 1741 - February 20, 1790) was a Holy Roman Emperor (1765 - 1790). ...

Although many philosophes disagreed with each other over certain principles the two major tenets the philosophes accepted were deism, and toleration. Deism is a religious philosophy and movement that became prominent in England, France, and the United States in the 17th and 18th centuries. ... Toleration is an individual and collective attitude and a practice of allowing people to be and act differently from oneself or ones group. ...

Deism

Many philosophes rejected organized religion as a means of holding back human progress. Those philosophes critical to religion claimed that Christianity prevents humans from seeking improvement in their conditions by teaching ideas such as predestination and original sin. Through doctrinal conflicts over minor differences in interpretation of biblical passages Religion promotes intolerance and bigotry. These philosophes did not espouse atheists, however. Most seemed to believe that God was more like a divine watchmaker who created the world to be rational and orderly. The best method to worship God, the philosophes contended, is to seek knowledge through logical and rational means. Deism is a religious philosophy and movement that became prominent in England, France, and the United States in the 17th and 18th centuries. ... The 18th-century French author Baron dHolbach was one of the first self-described atheists. ...

Toleration

Many philosophes believed that toleration was the means to a virtuous life. They believed that toleration would combat the religious fanaticism that prevented humans from bettering their condition. This movement towards toleration was led by Voltaire in his Treatise on Tolerance and Gotthold Lessing in his play Nathan the Wise Toleration is an individual and collective attitude and a practice of allowing people to be and act differently from oneself or ones group. ... For the singer/songwriter of the same name, see Voltaire (musician). ... Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (January 22, 1729 - February 15, 1781), writer, philosopher, publicist, and art thinker, is the most outstanding German representative of the Enlightenment era. ... Nathan the Wise (original German title Nathan der Weise) is a play by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, published in 1779. ...

Other common causes

Most philosophes denouced slavery because it deprived people of their most basic rights. One of the most well known "anti-slavery" philosophes is Josiah Wedgwood, a potter. He designed and produced thousands of anti-slavery medallions, which some fashionable people wore or put up on display in their homes. Some of the other things philosophes denounced are: torture and/or cruel punishments for crimes, inhumane treatment of the mentally ill, and mercantilism. A certain group of philosophes called "physiocrats" searched for "natural laws" to explain economics. These "physiocrats" opposed mercantilism (a closed trading system that influenced the economic policies of most governments at the time), many argued that land, not the gold and silver that many kings were hoarding, was the true source of wealth. Through this they encouraged farming and a free market, a market in which all goods could be bought and sold without restraint.

Famous philosophes

• Jean le Rond d'Alembert
• Denis Diderot
• Montesquieu
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau
• Voltaire
• Caesar Chesneau Dumarsais

Jean le Rond dAlembert, pastel by Maurice Quentin de la Tour Jean le Rond dAlembert (November 16, 1717 – October 29, 1783) was a ... Portrait of Diderot by Louis-Michel van Loo, 1767 Denis Diderot (October 5, 1713 – July 31, 1784) was a French philosopher and writer. ... Montesquieu in 1728. ... Jean-Jacques Rousseau (June 28, 1712 – July 2, 1778) was a Genevan philosopher of the Enlightenment whose political ideas influenced the French Revolution, the development of socialist theory, and the growth of nationalism. ... For the singer/songwriter of the same name, see Voltaire (musician). ... César Chesneau, sieur Dumarsais or Du Marsais (July 17, 1676 — June 11, 1756), was a French philosopher and grammarian. ...

References

• The philosophes
• Kagan, Donald et al. The Western Heritage, since 1300: Sixth Edition, Prentice-Hall, 1998. ISBN 0-13-617374-8