A photovoltaic module that is composed of individual PV cells. A PV array is a linked assembly of modules.

A photovoltaic array is a linked collection of photovoltaic modules, one of which is shown in the picture to the right. Each photovoltaic (PV) module is made of multiple interconnected solar cells. The cells convert solar energy into direct current electricity. PV modules are sometimes, rather confusingly, called solar panels, although that term better applies to solar-thermal water or air heating panels. PV modules distinguish themselves from solar cells in that they are conveniently sized and packaged in weather-resistant housings for easy installation and deployment in residential, commercial, and industrial applications. The application and study of photovoltaic devices is known as photovoltaics. solar panel by BP solar at a german autobahn bridge. ... solar panel by BP solar at a german autobahn bridge. ... Photovoltaic tree in Styria, Austria The CIS Tower, Manchester, England, was clad in PV panels at a cost of £5. ... A solar cell, made from a monocrystalline silicon wafer A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a device that converts light energy into electrical energy. ... Solar power describes a number of methods of harnessing energy from the light of the sun. ... Direct current (DC or continuous current) is the continuous flow of electricity through a conductor such as a wire from high to low potential. ... Lightning strikes during a night-time thunderstorm. ... Solar Panel made by BP Solar The solar panels (photovoltaic arrays) on this small yacht at sea can charge the 12 V batteries at up to 9 Amps in full, direct sunlight. ... A solar heater A laundromat in California with solar hot water panels on the roof. ... Photovoltaic tree in Styria, Austria The CIS Tower, Manchester, England, was clad in PV panels at a cost of £5. ...

Solar cells work because of the photovoltaic effect. Certain materials are able to convert sunlight into electricity. They absorb some of the energy of the Sun and cause current to flow between two oppositely charged layers. Individual solar cells provide a relatively small amount of power, but electrical output can be significant when cells are connected together in a PV module. The cells, modules, and arrays can be connected in series or parallel, or typically a combination, to create a desired peak voltage output. A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is a semiconductor device consisting of a large-area p-n junction diode, which, in the presence of sunlight is capable of generating usable electrical energy. ... The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System. ...

History

In 1839, during the Industrial Revolution, Alexandre Edmond Becquerel, father of the Nobel Laureate Henri Becquerel, discovered the photovoltaic effect which explains how electricity can be generated from sunlight. He claimed that "shining light on an electrode submerged in a conductive solution would create an electric current."^[1]. However, despite extensive research and developments after this discovery, photovoltaic power continued to be very inefficient. As such, photovoltaic cells were used mainly for the purposes of measuring light. Just under one hundred years later, Albert Einstein received the Nobel prize in physics in 1921 for explaining the photoelectric effect, which allowed practical use of photo cells to be put into use. In 1941, Russell Ohl invented the solar cell, following the invention of the transistor. A Watt steam engine. ... Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel (March 24, 1820 - May 11, 1891) was a French physicist who studied the solar spectrum, magnetism, electricity, and optics. ... A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is a semiconductor device consisting of a large-area p-n junction diode, which, in the presence of sunlight is capable of generating usable electrical energy. ... An electrode is an electrical conductor used to make contact with a metallic part of a circuit (e. ... En [ [ ciencia ] ] y [ [ ingeniería ] ], los conductores son los materiales de los cuales contenga las cargas movibles [ [ electricidad ] ]. Cuando una diferencia potencial eléctrica se impresiona a través de puntos separados en un conductor, las cargas móviles dentro del conductor se fuerzan para moverse, y una corriente el... Dissolving table salt (NaCl) in water This article is about a chemical solution; for other uses of the term solution, see solution (disambiguation). ... Electric current is by definition the flow of electric charge. ... The efficiency of an entity (a device, component, or system) in electronics and electrical engineering is defined as useful power output divided by the total electrical power consumed (a fractional expression). ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Electromagnetic radiation. ... Russell Ohl is generally recognized for patenting the modern solar cell (US2402662, Light sensitive device). Ohl was a notable semiconductor researcher prior to the invention of the transistor. ... Assorted discrete transistors A transistor is a semiconductor device, commonly used as an amplifier. ...

Applications

The solar panels on this small yacht at sea can charge the 12 volt batteries at up to 9 amperes in full, direct sunlight.

Solar photovoltaic panels are frequently applied in satellite power. However, costs of production have been reduced in recent years for more widespread use through production and technological advances. For example, single crystal silicon solar cells have largely been replaced by less expensive multicrystalline silicon solar cells, and thin film silicon solar cells have also been developed recently at lower costs of production yet (see Solar cell). Although they are reduced in energy conversion efficiency from single crystalline Si wafers, they are also much easier to produce at comparably lower costs. Image File history File links Solar_panels_on_yacht_at_sea. ... Image File history File links Solar_panels_on_yacht_at_sea. ... An Earth observation satellite, ERS 2 For other uses, see Satellite (disambiguation). ... A solar cell, made from a monocrystalline silicon wafer A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a device that converts light energy into electrical energy. ...

Together with a storage battery, photovoltaics have become commonplace for certain low-power applications, such as signal buoys or devices in remote areas or simply where connection to the electricity mains would be impractical. In experimental form they have even been used to power automobiles in races such as the World solar challenge across Australia. Many yachts and land vehicles use them to charge on-board batteries. Four double-A (AA) rechargeable batteries In science and technology, a battery is a device that stores chemical energy and makes it available in an electrical form. ... Photovoltaic tree in Styria, Austria The CIS Tower, Manchester, England, was clad in PV panels at a cost of £5. ... A sea lion on navigational buoy #14 in San Diego Harbor Green can #11 near the mouth of the Saugatuck river. ... In the scientific method, an experiment (Latin: ex-+-periri, of (or from) trying), is a set of actions of going to the bathroom. ... The Nuna 3 of the hattrick winning Dutch Nuna team The World Solar Challenge is a solar powered-car race over 3021 km through central Australia from Darwin to Adelaide. ... A modern yacht A yacht (From Dutch Jacht meaning hunt) pron. ...

PV performance

Larger solar arrays can provide electricity to habitations in isolated, sunny areas.

At high noon on a cloudless day at the equator, the power of the sun is about 1 kW/m², on the Earth's surface, to a plane that is perpendicular to the sun's rays. As such, PV arrays could track the sun through each day to greatly enhance energy collection. However, tracking devices add cost, and require maintenance, so it is more common for PV arrays to have fixed mounts that tilt the array and face due South in the Northern Hemisphere. In the Southern Hemisphere, they should point due North. The tilt angle, from horizontal, can be varied for season, but if fixed, should be set to give optimal array output during the peak electrical demand portion of a typical year. ImageMetadata File history File links Download high resolution version (2592x1944, 2281 KB) A solar panel in Marla, Cirque de Mafate, Réunion Copyright © 2005 David Monniaux Template:Cc-by-sa-2. ... ImageMetadata File history File links Download high resolution version (2592x1944, 2281 KB) A solar panel in Marla, Cirque de Mafate, Réunion Copyright © 2005 David Monniaux Template:Cc-by-sa-2. ... Look up Power in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... The kilowatt (symbol: kW) is a unit for measuring power, equal to one thousand watts. ...

Other factors affect PV performance. Accounting for clouds, and the fact that most of the world is not on the equator, and that the sun sets in the evening, the correct measure of solar power is insolation: the average number of kilowatt-hours per square meter per day. For the weather and latitudes of the United States and Europe, typical insolation ranges from 4 KWh/m²/day in northern climes to 6.5 KWh/m²/day in the sunniest regions. Typical solar panels have an average efficiency of 12%, with the best commercially available panels at 20%. Thus, a photovoltaic installation in the southern latitudes of Europe or the United States may expect to produce 1 KWh/m²/day. A typical "150 Watt" solar panel is about a square meter in size: such a panel may be expected to produce 1 KWh every day, on average, after taking account the weather and the latitude. TOA and surface insolation, annual mean Insolation is the incoming solar radiation that reaches a planet and its atmosphere or, by extension, any object exposed to solar rays, such as watts per square meter of Sun-facing cross section, across the entire electromagnetic spectrum; most of that power is in...

In the Sahara desert, with less cloud cover and a better solar angle, one can obtain closer to 8.3 kWh/m²/day. The unpopulated area of the Sahara desert is over 9 million km², which if covered with solar panels would provide 750 terawatts total power. The Earth's current energy consumption rate is around 13.5 TW at any given moment (including oil, gas, coal, nuclear, and hydroelectric power).^[1] Coal Coal (IPA: ) is a fossil fuel formed in swamp ecosystems where plant remains were saved by water and mud from oxidization and biodegradation. ... A nuclear power station. ... Hydroelectric dam diagram The waters of Llyn Stwlan, the upper reservoir of the Ffestiniog Pumped-Storage Scheme in north Wales, can just be glimpsed on the right. ...

Photovoltaic cells' electrical output is extremely sensitive to shading. When even a small portion of a cell, module, or array is shaded, while the remainder is in sunlight, the output falls dramatically due to internal 'short-circuiting' (the electrons reversing course through the shaded portion of the P-N junction). Therefore it is extremely important that a PV installation is not shaded at all by trees, architectural features, flag poles, or other obstructions.

Module output and life are also degraded by increased temperature. Allowing ambient air to flow over, and if possible behind, PV modules reduces this problem. However, effective module lives are typically 25 years or more [2], so replacement costs should be considered as well.

Solar photovoltaic panels on spacecraft

Solar panels on the Stardust spacecraft (NASA image)

Main article: Solar panels on spacecraft

Solar panels can be used on spacecraft, particularly when they are in the inner part of the solar system. They have been designed to pivot on spacecraft, so that they will always be in the direct path of solar rays. In order to optimize the amount of energy generated, solar panels on spacecraft can be equipped with a Fresnel lens, which concentrates sunlight. Because of these efforts to maximize electric production, and the fact that the Sun is mostly the only source of energy, the construction of solar cells on spacecraft could be one of the highest costs. When journeying to outer parts of the solar system (or beyond), nuclear reactors or radioisotope thermal generators are preferred, as the Sun's rays are too weak at such massive distances to power a spacecraft. An artists rendering of Stardust Spacecraft by NASA This article contains material and/or images that originally came from a NASA website. ... An artists rendering of Stardust Spacecraft by NASA This article contains material and/or images that originally came from a NASA website. ... An artists rendering of Stardust (NASA image) The Stardust capsule with cometary and interstellar samples landed at the U.S. Air Force Utah Test and Training Range at 10:10 UTC (15 January 2006) in the Bonneville Salt Flats. ... This article does not cite its references or sources. ... The Space Shuttle Discovery as seen from the International Space Station. ... Major features of the Solar System (not to scale; from left to right): Pluto, Neptune, Uranus, Saturn, Jupiter, the asteroid belt, the Sun, Mercury, Venus, Earth and its Moon, and Mars. ... A pivot is that on which something turns. ... Fresnel Lens displayed in the Musée national de la marine in Paris, France A Fresnel lens is a type of lens invented by Augustin-Jean Fresnel (pronounced fre-NELL in scientific and lighting applications, although often incorrectly pronounced FREZ-nell). ... In chemistry, concentration is the measure of how much of a given substance there is mixed with another substance. ... Prism splitting light High Resolution Solar Spectrum Sunlight in the broad sense is the total spectrum of the electromagnetic radiation given off by the Sun. ... In large construction projects, such as skyscrapers, cranes are essential. ... A radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) is a simple electrical generator which obtains its power from radioactive decay. ...

The ESA is researching the possibility of solar power satellites that would generate electricity in space and then beam it to Earth via laser or microwaves. In addition, solar power is being considered to be used as a propulsion mechanism in lieu of chemical propulsion. This article is about the European Space Agency. ... An artists depiction of a solar satellite, which could send energy wirelessly to a space vessel or planetary surface. ... Experiment with a laser (likely an argon type) (US Military) In physics, a laser is a device that emits light through a specific mechanism for which the term laser is an acronym: light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. ... This article does not cite its references or sources. ... A remote camera captures a close-up view of a Space Shuttle Main Engine during a test firing at the John C. Stennis Space Center in Hancock County, Mississippi Spacecraft propulsion is used to change the velocity of spacecraft and artificial satellites, or in short, to provide delta-v. ... A chemical substance is any material substance used in or obtained by a process in chemistry: A chemical compound is a substance consisting of two or more chemical elements that are chemically combined in fixed proportions. ...

Theory and construction

A solar panel on top of a parking meter. Note that this particular installation is shaded, and may not perform as desired.

Crystalline silicon and gallium arsenide are typical choices of materials for solar cells. Gallium arsenide crystals are grown especially for photovoltaic use, while silicon crystals are available in less-expensive standard ingots. These ingots are produced mainly for consumption in the microelectronics industry. Polycrystalline silicon has lower conversion efficiency but also lower cost. ImageMetadata File history File links Download high resolution version (960x1280, 459 KB) Picture of a ticket parking meter in Edinburgh. ... ImageMetadata File history File links Download high resolution version (960x1280, 459 KB) Picture of a ticket parking meter in Edinburgh. ... General Name, Symbol, Number silicon, Si, 14 Chemical series metalloids Group, Period, Block 14, 3, p Appearance dark gray, bluish tinge Atomic mass 28. ... This article is about the chemical compound. ... Look up material in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... [[Image:[[Gold bars|Gold ingots. ... Microelectronics is a subfield of electronics. ... Polycrystalline silicon or polysilicon or poly-Si or simply poly (in context) is a material consisting of multiple small silicon crystals, and has long been used as the conducting gate material in MOSFET and CMOS processing technologies. ...

During the manufacturing process, crystalline silicon ingots are sliced into wafer-thin disks, polished to remove slicing damage, dopants are introduced into the soup, and metallic conductors are deposited onto each surface: a thin grid on the sun-facing side and usually a flat sheet on the other.^[3] Solar panels are constructed of these cells cut into appropriate shapes, protected from radiation and handling damage on the front surface by bonding on a cover glass, and cemented onto a substrate (either a rigid panel or a flexible blanket). Electrical connections are made in series to achieve a desired output voltage and/or in parallel to provide a desired amount of current source capability. The cement and the substrate must be thermally conductive, because the cells heat up from absorbing infrared energy that is not converted to electricity. Since cell heating reduces the operating efficiency it is desirable to minimize the heating. The resulting assemblies are called solar panels or solar arrays. This article or section is not written in the formal tone expected of an encyclopedia article. ... A dopant, also called doping agent and dope, is an impurity element added to a semiconductor lattice in low concentrations in order to alter the optical/electrical properties of the semiconductor. ... For alternative meanings see metal (disambiguation). ... In science and engineering, conductors are materials that contain movable charges of electricity. ... GRID can refer to : GRID computing short for gay-related immune deficiency, a former name for AIDS. See also homosexuality and medical science General Repository for Interaction Datasets, a database of biological interactions hosted at Mount Sinai Hospital in Toronto, Canada This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid... Damage is i love sean michael herring physical harm that is caused to something, especially harm that impairs its function or appearance. ... Glass can be made transparent and flat, or into other shapes and colors as shown in this sphere from the Verrerie of Brehat in Brittany. ... In the most general sense of the word, cement is a binder, a substance which sets and hardens independently, and can bind other materials together. ... Image of two girls in mid-infrared (thermal) light (false-color) Infrared (IR) radiation is electromagnetic radiation of a wavelength longer than that of visible light, but shorter than that of radio waves. ...

See also

• Photovoltaics
• Battery
• Solar fan
• Fountain pump
• Hybrid vehicle
• Solar cell
• Solar tracker
• Solar cars
• Tribrid vehicle

Photovoltaic tree in Styria, Austria The CIS Tower, Manchester, England, was clad in PV panels at a cost of £5. ... Four double-A (AA) rechargeable batteries In science and technology, a battery is a device that stores chemical energy and makes it available in an electrical form. ... It has been suggested that this article be split into multiple articles accessible from a disambiguation page. ... Three traditional fountain features: a low jet, a pair of raised basins, and sculpture with a water theme, here hippocamps (Villa Borghese Gardens, Rome) A traditional fountain is an arrangement where water issues from a source (Latin fons), fills a basin of some kind, and is drained away. ... A hybrid vehicle (HV) is a vehicle that uses two or more distinct power sources such as: An on-board rechargeable energy storage system (RESS) and a fueled power source for vehicle propulsion Human powered bicycle with battery assist A sail boat with electric power[1] The term most commonly... A solar cell, made from a monocrystalline silicon wafer A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a device that converts light energy into electrical energy. ... A backyard installation of passive single–axis trackers, DC rated at 2340 watts. ... A solar car is an electric vehicle powered by solar energy obtained from solar panels on the surface of the car. ... A tribrid vehicle is a third generation in alternative propulsion vehicles, that is, a bivalent hybrid vehicle with turbine (second generation), that also obtains energy from the ambient environment (solar panel, windmill or sail). ...

Notes

• ^  History.
• ^  Solar Power Construction.
• History of Solar Photovoltaic Power and Solar Panels.
• ENF.cn.
• Solar Electric Panels: Overview

• Gallery of solar panels on residencies

References