FACTOID # 12: Americans and Icelanders go to the cinema 5 times a year, on average. The average Japanese person goes only once.
 
 Home   Encyclopedia   Statistics   Countries A-Z   Flags   Maps   Education   Forum   FAQ   About 
 
WHAT'S NEW
RELATED ARTICLES
People who viewed "Photovoltaics" also viewed:
RECENT ARTICLES
More Recent Articles »
 

SEARCH ALL

FACTS & STATISTICS    Advanced view

Search encyclopedia, statistics and forums:

 

 

(* = Graphable)

 

 


Encyclopedia > Photovoltaics
 Sustainable development Portal
Photovoltaic 'tree' in Styria, Austria
Photovoltaic 'tree' in Styria, Austria
Energy Portal

Photovoltaics, or PV for short, is a solar power technology that uses solar cells or solar photovoltaic arrays to convert light from the sun directly into electricity. Photovoltaics is also the field of study relating to this technology and there are many research institutes devoted to work on photovoltaics.[1][2] The manufacture of photovoltaic cells has expanded dramatically in recent years.[3][4][5] Total nominal 'peak power' of installed PV is currently over 5.6 GWp. Most of this consists of grid-tied electrical system. Such installations may be ground-mounted (and sometimes integrated with farming and grazing)[6] or building integrated.[7] Financial incentives, such as preferential feed-in tariffs for solar-generated electricity and net metering, have supported solar PV installations in many countries including Germany, Japan, and the United States.[8] Image File history File links Sustainable_development. ... ImageMetadata File history File links Download high resolution version (2592x1944, 2281 KB) A solar panel in Marla, Cirque de Mafate, Réunion Copyright © 2005 David Monniaux Template:Cc-by-sa-2. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 450 × 600 pixel Image in higher resolution (1944 × 2592 pixel, file size: 1. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 450 × 600 pixel Image in higher resolution (1944 × 2592 pixel, file size: 1. ... Styria redirects here. ... Image File history File links Portal. ... Solar power from a parabolic reflector. ... A solar cell, made from a monocrystalline silicon wafer A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a device that converts light energy into electrical energy. ... Solar Panel (photovoltaic array) A photovoltaic array or solar photovoltaic panel is a flat collection of solar cells used for converting solar energy into electricity. ... Sol redirects here. ... Electricity (from New Latin ēlectricus, amberlike) is a general term for a variety of phenomena resulting from the presence and flow of electric charge. ... A Grid-tied electrical system, also called Tied to grid or Grid tie system, is a semi autonomous electrical generation system which links to the mains to feed excess generation capacity back to the local mains electrical grid. ... Net metering is a electricity policy for consumers who own, generally small, renewable energy facilities, such as wind or solar power, or uses vehicle-to-grid systems. ...

Contents

Current development

Photovoltaic cells produce electricity directly from sunlight
Average solar irradiance, watts per square metre. The small black dots show the area of solar panels needed to generate all of the worlds energy using 8% eff. PVs.
Average solar irradiance, watts per square metre. The small black dots show the area of solar panels needed to generate all of the worlds energy using 8% eff. PVs.
Map of solar electricity potential in Europe
Map of solar electricity potential in Europe

Photovoltaics, or PV for short, is a technology in which light is converted into electrical power. It is best known as a method for generating solar power by using solar cells packaged in photovoltaic modules, often electrically connected in multiples as solar photovoltaic arrays to convert energy from the sun into electricity. found the file on www. ... found the file on www. ... Image File history File links Solar_land_area. ... Image File history File links Solar_land_area. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 629 × 600 pixels Full resolution (800 × 763 pixel, file size: 685 KB, MIME type: image/png) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Photovoltaics ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 629 × 600 pixels Full resolution (800 × 763 pixel, file size: 685 KB, MIME type: image/png) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Photovoltaics ... Solar power describes a number of methods of harnessing energy from the light of the sun. ... A solar cell, made from a monocrystalline silicon wafer A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a device that converts light energy into electrical energy. ... A photovoltaic module is composed of individual PV cells. ... Solar Panel (photovoltaic array) A photovoltaic array or solar photovoltaic panel is a flat collection of solar cells used for converting solar energy into electricity. ... Sol redirects here. ... Electricity (from New Latin ēlectricus, amberlike) is a general term for a variety of phenomena resulting from the presence and flow of electric charge. ...


Photovoltaics can refer to the field of study relating to this technology, and the term photovoltaic denotes the unbiased operating mode of a photodiode in which current through the device is entirely due to the transduced light energy. Virtually all photovoltaic devices are some type of photodiode.[citation needed] Photodiode closeup A photodiode A photodiode is a semiconductor diode that functions as a photodetector. ...


Solar cells produce direct current electricity from light, which can be used to power equipment or to recharge a battery. The first practical application of photovoltaics was to power orbiting satellites and other spacecraft and pocket calculators, but today the majority of photovoltaic modules are used for grid connected power generation. In this case an inverter is required to convert the DC to AC. There is a smaller market for off grid power for remote dwellings, roadside emergency telephones, remote sensing, and cathodic protection of pipelines. Direct current (DC or continuous current) is the continuous flow of electricity through a conductor such as a wire from high to low potential. ... Recharge is the process where water moves downward from surface water to groundwater. ... Symbols representing a single Cell (top) and Battery (bottom), used in circuit diagrams. ... The Space Shuttle Discovery as seen from the International Space Station. ... A calculator is a device for performing numerical calculations. ... A photovoltaic module is composed of individual PV cells. ... For other uses, see Inverter (logic gate) and Inverter. ... For the purported psychic ability to sense remotely, see Remote viewing right Synthetic aperture radar image of Death Valley colored using polarimetry In the broadest sense, remote sensing is the short or large-scale acquisition of information of an object or phenomenon, by the use of either recording or real... Aluminium anodes mounted on a steel jacket structure Cathodic protection (CP) is a technique to control the corrosion of a metal surface by making that surface the cathode of an electrochemical cell. ...


Cells require protection from the environment and are packaged usually behind a glass sheet. When more power is required than a single cell can deliver, cells are electrically connected together to form photovoltaic modules, or solar panels. A single module is enough to power an emergency telephone, but for a house or a power plant the modules must be arranged in arrays. Although the selling price of modules is still too high to compete with grid electricity in most places, significant financial incentives in Japan and then Germany triggered a huge growth in demand, followed quickly by production. Although module prices rose and plateaued[9], it is expected that costs and prices will fall to 'grid parity' in many places around 2010. A photovoltaic module is composed of individual PV cells. ...


Many corporations and institutions are currently developing ways to increase the practicality of solar power. While private companies conduct much of the research and development on solar energy, colleges and universities and institutes also work on solar-powered devices. Most research is being carried out in Germany, Japan, USA and Australia. Solar power has received less research funding than other sources, but is seen as the most likely largest source of electricity in 15 years in the United States. [10] For other uses, see Corporation (disambiguation). ... Institutions are structures and mechanisms of social order and cooperation governing the behavior of two or more individuals. ... A private company is a company that is independently owned. ... College (Latin collegium) is a term most often used today to denote an educational institution. ... For the community in Florida, see University, Florida. ...


The most important issue with solar panels is capital cost (installation and materials). Because of much increased demand, the price of silicon has risen and shortages occurred in 2005 and 2006. Newer alternatives to standard crystalline silicon modules including casting wafers instead of sawing [11], thin film (CdTe[12], CIGS[13], amorphous Si[14], microcrystalline Si), concentrator modules, 'Sliver' cells, and continuous printing processes. Due to economies of scale solar panels get less costly as people use and buy more — as manufacturers increase production to meet demand, the cost and price is expected to drop in the years to come. As of early 2006, the average cost per installed watt for a residential sized system was about USD 6.50 to USD 7.50, including panels, inverters, mounts, and electrical items.[15] In 2007 investors began offering free solar panel installation in return for a 25 year contract to purchase electricity at a fixed price, normally set at or below current electric rates.[1][16][17] This is the amount on which you first claim CCA. The capital cost of a depreciable property is usually the total of the purchase price, not including the cost of land (which is not depreciable);the part of your legal, accounting, engineering, installation, and other fees that relates to the... The supply and demand model describes how prices vary as a result of a balance between product availability at each price (supply) and the desires of those with purchasing power at each price (demand). ... Professor Andrew Blakers, Director of the Australian National University Centre for Sustainable Energy Systems, is involved with the development of SLIVER Cell (TM) photovoltaic technology which uses just one tenth of the costly silicon used in conventional solar panels while matching power, performance, and efficiency. ... In economics, returns to scale and economies of scale are related terms that describe what happens as the scale of production increases. ...


A less common form of the technologies is thermophotovoltaics, in which the thermal radiation from some hot body other than the sun is utilized. Photovoltaic devices are also used to produce electricity in optical wireless power transmission. Thermophotovoltaic (TPV) energy conversion is a direct conversion process from heat differentials to electricity via photons. ... “Radiant heat” redirects here. ... Wireless energy transfer is wireless transfer of electromagnetic energy via electromagnetic induction. ...


Worldwide installed photovoltaic totals

See also: Deployment of solar power to energy grids
Wikinews

Annual global sales of photovoltaic technology have grown to approximately 5.6 gigawatts peak (GWp). Deployment of solar power depends largely upon local conditions and requirements. ... Image File history File links WikiNews-Logo. ... Wikinews is a free-content news source and a project of the Wikimedia Foundation. ...


The three leading countries (Japan, Germany and the USA) represent 90% of the total worldwide PV installations. China is building a 1.5 GWp PV plant, though.


Germany was the fastest growing major PV market in the world in 2005 and 2006. In 2006, Over 1GWp of PV were installed. The German PV industry generates over 10,000 jobs in production, distribution and installation. Over 90% of solar PV installations are in grid-tied applications in Germany. The balance is off-grid (or stand alone) systems.[18]


Photovoltaic power capacity is measured as maximum power output under standardized test conditions in "Wp" (watts peak).[19] (actual peak power may exceed this nominal peak power). Solar photovoltaic arrays have capacity factors of around 19%, which is lower than many other industrial sources of electricity.[20][21][22] Therefore the 2006 installed base peak output would have provided an average output of approximately 1 GW (19% × 5,600). This represented 0.06 percent of global demand at the time.[23] The capacity factor of a power plant is the amount of electricity that it produces over a period of time, divided by the amount of electricity it could have produced if it had run at full power over that time period. ...

Installed PV Power as of the end of 2006
# Country Cumulative PV Capacity (MWp) Wp/capita Installed in 2006 (MWp)
Off grid On grid Total Off grid On grid Total
World 577 5,112 5,689 0.853 79.8 1,648 1,728
EU25 107.4 3,311 3,418 6.935 7.134 1,239 1,246
1 Germany 32 3,031 3,063 37.211 3 1,150 1,153
2 Japan 89 1,419 1,508 11.804 2 285 287
3 United States 275 340 615 2.029 60 100 160
4 Spain 15.2 102.9 118.1 2.618 1 59.5 60.5
5 Australia 58.79 11.51 70.3 3.332 6.95 2.77 9.72
6 Italy 12.9 45 57.9 0.979 0.6 11 11.6
7 Netherlands 5.069 46.157 51.226 3.127 0.15 0.3 0.45
8 South Korea 5.9 28.8 34.7 0.715 0.4 21.0 21.4
9 France 20.376 12.311 32.687 0.510 0.3 6.114 6.414
10 Austria 3.11 25.911 29.021 3.490 0.215 4.785 5
11 Luxembourg — 23.603 23.603 50.542 — 0.042 0.042
12 Mexico 21.5 0.04 21.54 0.202 — — —
13 Canada 18.976 1.508 20.484 0.620 3.354 0.384 3.738
14 United Kingdom 1.074 12.553 13.627 0.225 0.15 2.6 2.75
15 Greece 5.081 1.613 6.694 0.601 1.049 0.201 1.25
16 Sweden 4.233 0.654 4.887 0.534 0.25 0.4 0.65
17 Belgium 0.053 4.108 4.161 0.398 — 2.103 2.103
18 Finland 3.779 0.287 4.066 0.768 — 0.064 0.064
19 Portugal 2.691 0.775 3.466 0.326 0.25 0.227 0.477
20 Denmark 0.325 2.555 2.88 0.528 0.03 0.2 0.23
21 Cyprus 0.45 0.526 0.976 1.142 0.08 0.44 0.52
22 Czech Republic 0.15 0.621 0.771 0.075 — 0.241 0.241
23 Poland 0.319 0.112 0.431 0.011 0.027 0.087 0.114
24 Slovenia 0.098 0.265 0.363 0.179 — 0.183 0.183
25 Ireland 0.3 — 0.3 0.070 — — <0.1
26 Hungary 0.09 0.065 0.155 0.015 — — <0.1
27 Slovakia 0.064 — 0.064 0.012 0.004 — 0.004
28 Malta — 0.048 0.048 0.118 — 0.033 0.033
29 Lithuania 0.04 — 0.04 0.012 0.023 — 0.023
30 Estonia 0.008 — 0.008 0.006 0.005 — 0.005
31 Latvia 0.006 — 0.006 0.003 0.001 — 0.001
# Country Off grid On grid Total Wp/capita Off grid On grid Total
Cumulative PV Capacity (MWp) Installed in 2006 (MWp)

Source: Eurobserv'er' Photovoltaic energy barometer 2007 / SEIA / PV Power / [24], IEA PVPS website ,


Applications of PV

PV power stations

Main article: Photovoltaic power stations

The Table below provides details of some of the largest photovoltaic plants in the world. As shown, Germany has a 10 MW photovoltaic system in Pocking, and a 12 MW plant in Arnstein, with a 40 MW power station planned for Muldentalkreis. Portugal has an 11 MW plant in Serpa and a 62 MW power station is planned for Moura. A 20 MW power plant is also planned for Beneixama, Spain. The photovoltaic power station proposed for Australia will use heliostat concentrator technology and will not come into service until 2010. It is expected to have a capacity of 154 MW when it is completed in 2013.[25] Several large photovoltaic power stations have been built, mainly in Europe. ...

World's largest PV power plants[26]
DC Peak Power Location Description GW·h/year
154 MW** Mildura/Swan Hill, Australia[27] Heliostat Concentrator Photovoltaic technology
(see Solar power station in Victoria)		 n.a.
62 MW** Moura, Portugal[28] [29] BP, Yingli Green Energy 88
40 MW* Muldentalkreis, Germany[30] [31] 550,000 thin-film modules (First Solar) (see Waldpolenz Solar Park) 40
20 MW** Beneixama, Spain[32][33][34] Tenesol, Aleo and Solon solar modules with Q-Cells cells 30
15 MW** Nellis AFB, Nevada[35] PowerLight PowerTracker system 25
12 MW Arnstein, Germany[36] 1408 SOLON mover
(see Erlasee Solar Park)		 14
11 MW Serpa, Portugal[37] 52,000 solar modules
(see Serpa solar power plant)		 n.a.
10 MW Pocking, Germany 57,912 solar modules
(see Pocking Solar Park)		 11.5
9.5 MW Milagro, Spain see Monte Alto photovoltaic power plant 14
* Project finish date: 2009; ** Under construction, as of October 2007

Mildura is a city in Victoria, Australia. ... Swan Hill is a town in the north west of Victoria, Australia. ... A large new Solar power station for Victoria is planned. ... Coat of Arms Moura is a municipality in Portugal with a total area of 456 km² and a total population of 10,038 inhabitants. ... The Muldentalkreis is a district in the Free State of Saxony, Germany. ... Building approval has been given for the Waldpolenz Solar Park, which will be the world’s biggest photovoltaic (PV) power system, at a former military air base to the east of Leipzig in Germany. ... Location Coordinates : Time Zone : CET (GMT +1) - summer: CEST (GMT +2) General information Native name Beneixama (Valencian) Spanish name Beneixama Administration Country Spain Autonomous Community Valencian Community Province Alicante Comarca Alt Vinalopó Geography Land Area 34. ... Map showing the locations of Nellis AFB and the NTTR Nellis Air Force Base (IATA: LSV, ICAO: KLSV) is a United States Air Force base, in Clark County, Nevada, on the northeast side of Las Vegas. ... This article is about the U.S. State of Nevada. ... Arnstein (disambiguation) Categories: | ... The Erlasee Solar Park, also sometimes called the Gut Erlasee Solar Park, is located in one of the sunniest regions of Germany. ... District Beja Mayor   - Party João Manuel Rocha da Silva Communist Area 1104. ... Solar power plant near Serpa, Construction of the 11 megawatt Serpa solar power plant began in June 2006 and was completed as planned in January 2007. ... Pocking is a town in the district of Passau, in Lower Bavaria, Germany. ... The Pocking Solar Park is a 10 Megawatt (MWp) solar power plant which is among the largest photovoltaic solar power plants in the world. ... Milagro (Spanish for miracle) is a city located in Guayas, Ecuador. ... The Monte Alto photovoltaic power plant in Spain has a generating capacity of 9. ...

PV in buildings

Main article: Building-integrated photovoltaic
Photovoltaic solar panels on a house roof.

Building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) are increasingly incorporated into new domestic and industrial buildings as a principal or ancillary source of electrical power,[38] and are one of the fastest growing segments of the photovoltaic industry.[39] Typically, an array is incorporated into the roof or walls of a building, and roof tiles with integrated PV cells can now be purchased. Arrays can also be retrofitted into existing buildings; in this case they are usually fitted on top of the existing roof structure. Alternatively, an array can be located separately from the building but connected by cable to supply power for the building. The CIS Tower, Manchester, England, was clad in PV panels at a cost of £5. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ...


Where a building is at a considerable distance from the public electricity supply (or grid) - in remote or mountainous areas – PV may be the preferred possibility for generating electricity, or PV may be used together with wind, diesel generators and/or hydroelectric power. In such off-grid circumstances batteries are usually used to store the electric power. Look up grid in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... The term off the grid refers to a method of construction that relies on renewable energy sources rather than traditional public utility sources provided by the utility grid. ...


PV in transport

Main article: Photovoltaics in transport

PV has traditionally been used for auxiliary power in space. PV is rarely used to provide motive power in transport applications, but is being used increasingly to provide auxiliary power in boats and cars. Photovoltaic power is used in many forms of transport either for demonstration as motive power or in limited commercial use as auxiliary power. ...


PV in standalone devices

Solar powered parking meter.
Solar powered parking meter.

PV has been used for many years to power calculators and novelty devices. Improvements in battery technology made it possible to power a calculator for several years between battery changes, making solar calculators less attractive. In contrast, solar powered remote fixed devices have seen increasing use recently, due to increasing cost of labour for connection of mains electricity or a regular maintenance programme. In particular, parking meters [40], emergency telephones [41], and temporary traffic signs. ImageMetadata File history File links Download high resolution version (960x1280, 459 KB) Picture of a ticket parking meter in Edinburgh. ... ImageMetadata File history File links Download high resolution version (960x1280, 459 KB) Picture of a ticket parking meter in Edinburgh. ...


Economics of PV

 This section may contain original research or unverified claims.
Please improve the article by adding references. See the talk page for details. (September 2007)
US average daily solar energy insolation received by a latitude tilt photovoltaic cell.

Image File history File links Emblem-important. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1501x1164, 263 KB) Licensing File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1501x1164, 263 KB) Licensing File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ...

Power costs

The PV industry is beginning to adopt levelized cost of energy (LCOE) as the unit of cost. The results of a sample calculation can be found on pp. 52, 53 of the 2007 DOE report describing the plans for solar power 2007-2011 [2]. For a 10 MW plant in Phoenix, AZ, the LCOE is estimated at $0.15 to 0.22/kWh.


The table below is a pure mathematical calculation. It illustrates the calculated total cost in US cents per kilowatt-hour of electricity generated by a photovoltaic system as function of the investment cost and the efficiency, assuming some accounting parameters such as cost of capital and depreciation period. The row headings on the left show the total cost, per peak kilowatt (kWp), of a photovoltaic installation. The column headings across the top refer to the annual energy output in kilowatt-hours expected from each installed peak kilowatt. This varies by geographic region because the average insolation depends on the average cloudiness and the thickness of atmosphere traversed by the sunlight. It also depends on the path of the sun relative to the panel and the horizon. Not to be confused with insulation. ...


Panels are usually mounted at an angle based on latitude, and often they are adjusted seasonally to meet the changing solar declination. Solar tracking can also be utilized to access even more perpendicular sunlight, thereby raising the total energy output. The calculated values in the table reflect the total cost in cents per kilowatt-hour produced. They assume a 10% total capital cost (for instance 4% interest rate, 1% operating and maintenance cost, and depreciation of the capital outlay over 20 years). (Normally, photovoltaic modules have a 25 year warranty, but they should be fully functional even after 30-40 years.) In astronomy, declination (abbrev. ... A backyard installation of passive single–axis trackers, DC rated at 2340 watts. ... An interest rate is the price a borrower pays for the use of money he does not own, and the return a lender receives for deferring his consumption, by lending to the borrower. ... Declining-balance depreciation of a $50,000 asset with $6,500 salvage value over 20 years. ...

20 years 2400
kWh/kWp y		 2200
kWh/kWp y		 2000
kWh/kWp y		 1800
kWh/kWp y		 1600
kWh/kWp y		 1400
kWh/kWp y		 1200
kWh/kWp y		 1000
kWh/kWp y		 800
kWh/kWp y
200 $/kWp 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.3 1.4 1.7 2.0 2.5
600 $/kWp 2.5 2.7 3.0 3.3 3.8 4.3 5.0 6.0 7.5
1000 $/kWp 4.2 4.5 5.0 5.6 6.3 7.1 8.3 10.0 12.5
1400 $/kWp 5.8 6.4 7.0 7.8 8.8 10.0 11.7 14.0 17.5
1800 $/kWp 7.5 8.2 9.0 10.0 11.3 12.9 15.0 18.0 22.5
2200 $/kWp 9.2 10.0 11.0 12.2 13.8 15.7 18.3 22.0 27.5
2600 $/kWp 10.8 11.8 13.0 14.4 16.3 18.6 21.7 26.0 32.5
3000 $/kWp 12.5 13.6 15.0 16.7 18.8 21.4 25.0 30.0 37.5
3400 $/kWp 14.2 15.5 17.0 18.9 21.3 24.3 28.3 34.0 42.5
3800 $/kWp 15.8 17.3 19.0 21.1 23.8 27.1 31.7 38.0 47.5
4200 $/kWp 17.5 19.1 21.0 23.3 26.3 30.0 35.0 42.0 52.5
4600 $/kWp 19.2 20.9 23.0 25.6 28.8 32.9 38.3 46.0 57.5
5000 $/kWp 20.8 22.7 25.0 27.8 31.3 35.7 41.7 50.0 62.5

Grid parity

Grid parity, the point at which photovoltaic electricity is equal to or cheaper than grid power, is achieved first in areas with abundant sun and high costs for electricity such as in California and Japan.[42] Grid parity has been reached in Hawaii and other islands that otherwise use diesel fuel to produce electricity. George W. Bush has set 2015 as the date for grid parity in the USA.[43][44] Type F mains power plug & socket The term mains usually refers to the general purpose alternating current (AC) electrical power supply (as in “Ive connected the appliance to the mains”). The term is not usually used in the United States and Canada. ... Official language(s) English Capital Sacramento Largest city Los Angeles Largest metro area Greater Los Angeles Area  Ranked 3rd  - Total 158,302 sq mi (410,000 km²)  - Width 250 miles (400 km)  - Length 770 miles (1,240 km)  - % water 4. ... Official language(s) English, Hawaiian Capital Honolulu Largest city Honolulu Area  Ranked 43rd  - Total 10,931 sq mi (29,311 km²)  - Width n/a miles (n/a km)  - Length 1,522 miles (2,450 km)  - % water 41. ... This article is about the fuel. ... George Walker Bush (born July 6, 1946) is the forty-third and current President of the United States of America, originally inaugurated on January 20, 2001. ...


In Italy, PV power has been cheaper than retail grid electricity since 2006. One kWh in Italy costs 21.08  €-cents. [3] Italy has an average of 1,600 kWh/m² sun power per year (Sicily has even more, at 1,800 kWh/m²). Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... The kilowatt-hour (symbol: kW·h) is a unit for measuring energy. ... Sicily ( in Italian and Sicilian) is an autonomous region of Italy and the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, with an area of 25,708 km² (9,926 sq. ...


Financial incentives

Main article: PV financial incentives

The political purpose of incentive policies for PV is to grow the industry even where the cost of PV is significantly above grid parity, to allow it to achieve the economies of scale necessary to reach grid parity. The policies are implemented to promote national energy independence, high tech job creation and reduction of CO2 emissions. The political purpose of PV financial incentives is to grow the photovoltaics industry even where the cost of PV is significantly above grid parity, to allow it to achieve the economies of scale necessary to reach grid parity. ...


Three incentive mechanisms are used (often in combination):

  • investment subsidies: the authorities refund part of the cost of installation of the system,
  • Feed-in Tariffs (FIT)/Net metering: the electricity utility buys PV electricity from the producer under a multiyear contract at a guaranteed rate.
  • Renewable Energy Certificates ("RECs")

With investment subsidies, the financial burden falls upon the taxpayer, while with feed-in tariffs the extra cost is distributed across the utilities' customer bases. While the investment subsidy may be simpler to administer, the main argument in favour of feed-in tariffs is the encouragement of quality. Investment subsidies are paid out as a function of the nameplate capacity of the installed system and are independent of its actual power yield over time, thus rewarding the overstatement of power and tolerating poor durability and maintenance. Some electric companies offer rebates to their customers, such as Austin Energy in Texas, which offers $4.50/watt installed up to $13,500.[45] A Feed-in Tariff (FiT, FiL, Feed-in Law or Solar Premium) is a procurement mechanism designed to promote the uptake off renewable energy through government legislation. ... Net metering is a electricity policy for consumers who own, generally small, renewable energy facilities, such as wind or solar power, or uses vehicle-to-grid systems. ... Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs), also known as Green tags, Renewable Energy Credits, or Tradable Renewable Certificates (TRCs), are the property rights to the environmental benefits from generating electricity from renewable energy sources. ... Austin Energy is the public utility providing electrical power service to a 421 square mile area including Austin, Texas and parts of the surrounding area in Travis and Williamson counties. ... Official language(s) No official language See languages of Texas Capital Austin Largest city Houston Largest metro area Dallas–Fort Worth–Arlington Area  Ranked 2nd  - Total 261,797 sq mi (678,051 km²)  - Width 773 miles (1,244 km)  - Length 790 miles (1,270 km)  - % water 2. ...


With feed-in tariffs, the financial burden falls upon the consumer. They reward the number of kilowatt-hours produced over a long period of time, but because the rate is set by the authorities, it may result in perceived overpayment. The price paid per kilowatt-hour under a feed-in tariff exceeds the price of grid electricity. "Net metering" refers to the case where the price paid by the utility is the same as the price charged.


Where price setting by supply and demand is preferred, RECs can be used. In this mechanism, a renewable energy production or consumption target is set, and the consumer or producer is obliged to purchase renewable energy from whoever provides it the most competitively. The producer is paid via an REC. In principle this system delivers the cheapest renewable energy, since the lowest bidder will win. However uncertainties about the future value of energy produced are a brake on investment in capacity, and the higher risk increases the cost of capital borrowed.


The Japanese government through its Ministry of International Trade and Industry ran a successful programme of subsidies from 1994 to 2003. By the end of 2004, Japan led the world in installed PV capacity with over 1.1 GW.[4]


In 2004, the German government introduced the first large-scale feed-in tariff system, under a law known as the 'EEG' (Erneuerbare Energien Gesetz) which resulted in explosive growth of PV installations in Germany. At the outset the FIT was over 3x the retail price or 8x the industrial price. The principle behind the German system is a 20 year flat rate contract. The value of new contracts is programmed to decrease each year, in order to encourage the industry to pass on lower costs to the end users. The programme has been more successful than expected with over 1GW installed in 2006, and political pressure is mounting to decrease the tariff to lessen the future burden on consumers.


Subsequently Spain, Italy, Greece and France introduced feed-in tariffs. None have replicated the programmed decrease of FIT in new contracts though, making the German incentive relatively less and less attractive compared to other countries. The French FIT offers a uniquely high premium (EUR 0.55/kWh) for building integrated systems. California, Greece, France and Italy have 30-50% more insolation than Germany making them financially more attractive.


In 2006 California approved the 'California Solar Initiative', offering a choice of investment subsidies or FIT for small and medium systems and a FIT for large systems. The small-system FIT of $0.39 per kWh (far less than EU countries) expires in just 5 years, and the residential investment incentive is overwhelmed by a newly required time-of-use tariff, with a net cost increase to new systems. All California incentives are scheduled to decrease in the future depending as a function of the amount of PV capacity installed. The California Solar Initiative program pays incentives to solar photovoltaic (PV) projects in the three California Investor-Owned Utilities service territories. ...


At the end of 2006, the Ontario Power Authority (Canada) began its Standard Offer Program, the first in North America for small renewable projects (10MW or less). This guarantees a fixed price of $0.42 CDN per kWh over a period of twenty years. Unlike net metering, all the electricity produced is sold to the OPA at the SOP rate. The generator then purchases any needed electricity at the current prevailing rate (e.g., $0.055 per kWh). The difference should cover all the costs of installation and operation over the life of the contract. Net metering is a electricity policy for consumers who own, generally small, renewable energy facilities, such as wind or solar power, or uses vehicle-to-grid systems. ...


The price per kilowatt hour or per peak kilowatt of the FIT or investment subsidies is only one of three factors that stimulate the installation of PV. The other two factors are insolation (the more sunshine, the less capital is needed for a given power output) and administrative ease of obtaining permits and contracts.


Unfortunately the complexity of approvals in California, Spain and Italy has prevented comparable growth to Germany even though the return on investment is better.


In some countries, additional incentives are offered for BIPV compared to stand alone PV.

  • France + EUR 0.25/kWh (EUR 0.30 + 0.25 = 0.55/kWh total)
  • Italy + EUR 0.04-0.09 kWh
  • Germany + EUR 0.05/kWh (facades only)

Environmental impacts

Unlike fossil fuel based technologies, solar power does not lead to any harmful emissions during operation, but the production of the panels leads to some amount of pollution. Also, placement of photovoltaics affects the environment. If they are located where photosynthesizing plants would normally grow, they simply substitute one potentially renewable resource (biomass) for another. It should be noted, however, that the biomass cycle converts solar radiation energy to electrical energy with significantly less efficiency than photovoltaic cells alone. However, if they are placed on the sides of buildings (such as in Manchester) or fences, or rooftops (as long as plants would not normally be placed there), or in the desert they are purely additive to the renewable power base. Fossil fuels or mineral fuels are hydrocarbons found within the top layer of the earth’s crust. ... See biomass (ecology) for the use of the term in ecology, where it refers to the cumulation of living matter Switchgrass, a tough plant used in the biofuel industry in the United States Rice chaff. ... This article is about the City of Manchester in England. ...


Greenhouse gases

Life cycle greenhouse gas emissions are now in the range of 25-32 g/kWh and this could decrease to 15 g/kWh in the future.[46] For comparison, a combined cycle gas-fired power plant emits some 400 g/kWh and a coal-fired power plant 915 g/kWh and with carbon capture and storage some 200 g/kWh. Nuclear power emits 25 g/kWh on average; only wind power is better with a mere 11 g/kWh. In the context of the energy industry, life cycle analysis refers to the holistic approach of including all tangible and perhaps some intangible costs of energy production from the initial project conception to the final step of returning the land to its original or next use state. ... Top: Increasing atmospheric CO2 levels as measured in the atmosphere and ice cores. ... The kilowatt-hour (symbol: kW·h) is a unit for measuring energy. ... A combined cycle is characteristic of a power producing engine or plant that employs more than one thermodynamic cycle. ... Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is an approach to mitigating global warming by capturing carbon dioxide (CO2) from large point sources such as power plants and subsequently storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere. ...


Cadmium

One issue that has often raised concerns is the use of cadmium in Cadmium telluride (CdTe) modules (not all PV technologies use CdTe). Cadmium in its metallic form is a toxic substance that has the tendency to accumulate in ecological food chains. The amount of cadmium used in PV modules is relatively small (5-10 g/m2) and with proper emission control techniques in place the cadmium emissions from module production can be almost zero. Current PV technologies lead to cadmium emissions of 0.3-0.9 microgram/kWh over the whole life-cycle.[46] Most of these emissions actually arise through the use of coal power for the manufacturing of the modules, and coal and lignite combustion leads to much higher emissions of cadmium. Life-cycle cadmium emissions from coal is 3.1 microgram/kWh, lignite 6.2, and natural gas 0.2 microgram/kWh. General Name, Symbol, Number cadmium, Cd, 48 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 12, 5, d Appearance silvery gray metallic Standard atomic weight 112. ... Cadmium telluride (CdTe) is a crystalline compound formed from cadmium and tellurium with a zinc blende (cubic) crystal structure (space group F43m). ... If the input of a toxic substance to an organism is greater than the rate at which the substance is lost, the organism is said to be bioaccumulating that substance. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... In the metric system, a microgram is 1/1,000,000 of a gram, or 1/1000 of a milligram, is one of the smallest units of weight/mass commonly used. ... Coal Coal is a fossil fuel extracted from the ground by mining. ... In the metric system, a microgram is 1/1,000,000 of a gram, or 1/1000 of a milligram, is one of the smallest units of weight/mass commonly used. ... This article is about the fossil fuel. ... In the metric system, a microgram is 1/1,000,000 of a gram, or 1/1000 of a milligram, is one of the smallest units of weight/mass commonly used. ...


Energy returned on energy invested

A key indicator of environmental performance is the ratio of electricity generated divided by the energy required to build and maintain the equipment. Of course, little is gained if it takes as much energy to produce the modules as they produce in their lifetimes. This ratio is called the energy returned on energy invested (EROEI) This should not be confused with the economic return on investment, which varies according to local energy prices, subsidies available and metering techniques. A related concept is the energy pay-back time, i.e. the time required to produce an amount of energy as great as what was consumed during production. In physics, energy economics and ecological energetics, EROEI (Energy Returned on Energy Invested), ERoEI, or EROI (Energy Return On Investment), is the ratio of the amount of usable energy acquired from a particular energy resource to the amount of energy expended to obtain that energy resource. ...


Crystalline silicon PV systems presently have energy pay-back times of 1.5-2 years for South-European locations and 2.7-3.5 years for Middle-European locations. For silicon technology clear prospects for a reduction of energy input exist, and an energy pay-back of 1 year may be possible within a few years. Thin film technologies now have energy pay-back times in the range of 1-1.5 years (S.Europe).[46] With lifetimes of such systems of at least 30 years, the EROEI is in the range of 10 to 30.


Advantages

US annual average solar energy received by a latitude tilt photovoltaic cell.
  • The 89 petawatts of sunlight reaching the earth's surface is plentiful - almost 6,000 times more - compared to the 15 terawatts of average power consumed by humans.[47] Additionally, solar electric generation has the highest power density (global mean of 170 W/m²) among renewable energies.[47]
  • Solar power is pollution free during use. Production end wastes and emissions are manageable using existing pollution controls. End-of-use recycling technologies are under development.[48]
  • Facilities can operate with little maintenance or intervention after initial setup.
  • Solar electric generation is economically competitive where grid connection or fuel transport is difficult, costly or impossible. Examples include satellites, island communities, remote locations and ocean vessels.
  • When grid-connected, solar electric generation can displace the highest cost electricity during times of peak demand (in most climatic regions), can reduce grid loading, and can eliminate the need for local battery power for use in times of darkness and high local demand; such application is encouraged by net metering. Time-of-use net metering can be highly favorable to small photovoltaic systems.
  • Grid-connected solar electricity can be used locally thus reducing transmission/distribution losses (transmission losses were approximately 7.2% in 1995).[49]
  • Once the initial capital cost of building a solar power plant has been spent, operating costs are low compared to existing power technologies.

Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1501x1164, 263 KB) Licensing File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1501x1164, 263 KB) Licensing File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... This page lists examples of the power in watts produced by various different sources of energy. ... This page lists examples of the power in watts produced by various different sources of energy. ... Net metering is a electricity policy for consumers who own, generally small, renewable energy facilities, such as wind or solar power, or uses vehicle-to-grid systems. ... This is the amount on which you first claim CCA. The capital cost of a depreciable property is usually the total of the purchase price, not including the cost of land (which is not depreciable);the part of your legal, accounting, engineering, installation, and other fees that relates to the... Operating costs are the recurring expenses which are related to the operation of a business, or a device, component, piece of equipment or facility. ...

Disadvantages

  • Solar electricity can currently be more expensive than electricity generated by other sources.
  • Solar electricity is not available at night and may be unavailable due to weather conditions; therefore, a storage or complementary power system is required for off-grid applications.
  • Limited power density: Average daily insolation in the contiguous U.S. is 3-7 kW·h/m²[50][51][52] and on average lower in Europe.
  • Solar cells produce DC which must be converted to AC (using a grid tie inverter) when used in currently existing distribution grids. This incurs an energy loss of 4-12%.[53]

Intermittent power sources are sources of electric power generation that may be variable or intermittent, primarily sources of renewable energy such as wind and solar generated electricity. ... Direct current (DC or continuous current) is the continuous flow of electricity through a conductor such as a wire from high to low potential. ... City lights viewed in a motion blurred exposure. ... A grid-tie inverter is an electrical device that allows solar power users to complement their grid power with solar power. ...

Photovoltaics companies

See also: List of photovoltaics companies

Major photovoltaics companies include BP Solar, Yingli Green Energy, Kyocera, Q-Cells, Sanyo, Sharp Solar, SolarWorld and Suntech.[54][55][56] This is a List of photovoltaics companies, who manufacture and/or supply solar cells and/or photovoltaic modules. ... BP has been involved in solar power since 1973 and its subsidiary, BP Solar, is now one of the worlds largest solar power companies with production facilities in the United States, Spain, India and Australia, employing a workforce of over 2,000 people worldwide. ... Kyocera Corporation ) (TYO: 6971 , NYSE: KYO) is a Japanese company based in Kyoto, Japan. ... Established in 1999, Q-Cells is a leading solar cell manufacturer, in terms of production output. ... Sanyo Electric Co. ... Sharp Solar produces both single and multi-crystalline solar cells and for some years has been the worlds leading manufacturer of photovoltaic (PV) modules. ... SolarWorld AG is a fast growing German company dedicated to manufacture and market photovoltaic products worldwide by integrating all components of the solar value chain, from feedstock to module production, from trade with solar panels to the construction of solar power plants. ... Dr Shi Zhengrong (施正荣)is the founder,[1] chairman and chief executive officer of Suntech Power. ...


BP has been involved in solar power since 1973 and its subsidiary, BP Solar, is now one of the world's largest solar power companies with production facilities in the United States, Spain, India and Australia, employing a workforce of over 2,000 people worldwide.[57] BP solar is a major worldwide manufacturer and installer of photovoltaic solar cells for electricity.[58] The company has begun constructing two new solar photovoltaic (PV) solar cell manufacturing plants, one at its European headquarters in Tres Cantos, Madrid, and the second at its joint venture facility, Tata BP Solar, in Bangalore, India.[59] This article is about the energy corporation. ... Solar power describes a number of methods of harnessing energy from the light of the sun. ... BP has been involved in solar power since 1973 and its subsidiary, BP Solar, is now one of the worlds largest solar power companies with production facilities in the United States, Spain, India and Australia, employing a workforce of over 2,000 people worldwide. ... A solar cell, a form of photovoltaic cell, is a device that uses the photoelectric effect to generate electricity from light, thus generating solar power (energy). ... A solar cell, a form of photovoltaic cell, is a device that uses the photoelectric effect to generate electricity from light, thus generating solar power (energy). ... This article is about the Spanish capital. ... For other uses, see Bangalore (disambiguation). ...



Yingli Green Energy is one of the leading vertically integrated photovoltaic (PV) product manufacturers in China. Yingli Green Energy is currently one of the largest manufacturers of PV products in China as measured by annual production capacity, with an annual production capacity of 200 megawatts of polysilicon ingots and wafers, 200 megawatts of PV cells and 200 megawatts of PV modules, as of July 2007. Yingli Green Energy sells PV modules under its own brand name, Yingli Solar, to PV system integrators and distributors located in various markets around the world, including Germany, Spain, China and the United States.


Kyocera Corporation has announced a plan to increase its solar cell production to 500 MW per year in 2010. 500 MW is about three times the current output of 180 MW, and the company will reinforce production bases in Japan, the US, Europe and China, investing a total of about ¥30 billion through FY2010. Through this production enhancement, Kyocera looks to meet increasing demand across the world for solar cells.[60][61] Kyocera Corporation ) (TYO: 6971 , NYSE: KYO) is a Japanese company based in Kyoto, Japan. ...


Q-Cells is the world's second largest cell manufacturer, based in Thalheim, Germany.[62] Established in 1999, Q-Cells is a leading solar cell manufacturer, in terms of production output. ...


Renewable Energy Corporation (REC) is based in Norway, and was established in 1996. Over a relatively short period, REC has become the world's largest producer of polysilicon and wafers for PV applications. REC is involved in all steps of the value chain, from production of solar grade silicon to wafer, cell and module production. The company has customers all over the globe and seven production plants in three different countries. It operates on three different continents and has approximately 1,100 employees.[63] Renewable Energy Corporation (REC) is a Norwegian solar energy company established in 1996. ...


Sanyo Electric produced $213 million worth of solar cells at its plant in Hungary in 2006, and expects to triple its production capacity to 720,000 units in 2008.[64] Sanyo Electric Co. ...


Sharp Solar is the world's largest photovoltaic module and cell manufacturer, which manufactures in Japan, and near Wrexham, UK. Sharp Solar produces both single and multi-crystalline solar cells which are used for many applications, from satellites to lighthouses, and industrial applications to residential use. Sharp began researching solar cells in 1959 with mass production first beginning in 1963. Production capacity amounted to 324 MW in 2004.[65][66] Sharp Solar produces both single and multi-crystalline solar cells and for some years has been the worlds leading manufacturer of photovoltaic (PV) modules. ... A solar cell, made from a monocrystalline silicon wafer A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a device that converts light energy into electrical energy. ...


SolarWorld is headquartered in Bonn, Germany, and purchased Shell Solar's crystalline silicon activities in 2006. SolarWorld AG is a fast growing German company dedicated to manufacture and market photovoltaic products worldwide by integrating all components of the solar value chain, from feedstock to module production, from trade with solar panels to the construction of solar power plants. ...


Suntech Power is based in Wuxi, China, where construction of a 1 GW module plant has begun. Year-end production capacity for 2007 is expected to be 480 MW.[67] Dr Shi Zhengrong (施正荣)is the founder,[1] chairman and chief executive officer of Suntech Power. ...


United Solar Ovonic, a wholly owned subsidiary of Energy Conversion Devices Ovonics currently employs 700 people and expects to increase its production of thin-film amorphous photovoltaics from 117 MW/yr at the end of 2007 to over 300 MW/yr by the end of 2010. They are best known for producing building-integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) roofing systems (roofing shingle photovoltaics) and continuous roll-to-roll manufacturing of thin-film amorphous silicon alloy multi-junction solar cells.[68] Ovonics (coined from Ovshinsky and electronics) is a field of electronics that uses materials able to change from an electrically nonconducting state to a semiconducting state shown by glass of special composition upon application of a certain minimum voltage. ... Solar Shingles (or Photovoltaic Shingles) are a new type of solar energy system that, at first glance, look like regular asphalt shingles but are actually photovoltaic cells (PV). ...


WS Energia[5] , The DoubleSun system, developed by WS Energia, duplicates the energy production of commercial PV modules with a reliable, easy to make, easy to build solar concentrator. Combining the benefits of solar concentration, provided through flat metallic mirrors, with the benefits of solar tracking systems, provided by state of the art solar trackers.


Solar Systems,is constructing a 154MW HCPV Heliostat Concentrator Photovoltaic solar power station in Victoria, Australia. It will use Boeing Spectrolab GaAs photovoltaic triple junction cells having 30% efficiency. An active cooling system keeps the cells at 60 degrees Celsius there optimum operating temperature. [69]


Teksolar a specialist technical consultancy firm established in the year 2000 that focuses on providing goal-orientated advice and expert analysis to institutions in the photovoltaics (PV) industry.


Photovoltaic Industry Associations

Photovoltaics research institutes

There are many research institutions and departments at universities around the world who are active in photovoltaics research. Countries which are particularly active include Germany, Spain, Japan, Australia, China, and the USA.


Some universities and institutes which have a photovoltaics research department.

The Fraunhofer Society (German Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft) is a German research organization named after the German physicist Joseph von Fraunhofer, with 58 institutes spread over Germany each focusing on different fields of applied science, as opposed to the Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, which works mostly on basic science. ... Uniwalk is the main walkway stretching through the whole Kensingtion campus The University of New South Wales, also known as UNSW or colloquially as New South, is a university situated in Kensington, a suburb in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. ... The Australian National University, or ANU, is a public university located in Canberra, Australia. ... Helsinki University of Technology (TKK) (Finnish: Teknillinen korkeakoulu; Swedish: Tekniska högskolan) is the premier technical university in Finland and the largest in the Nordic Countries with over 15000 students. ... Sheffield Hallam University (SHU) is a university in Sheffield, England. ... Queens University, generally referred to simply as Queens, is a coeducational, non-sectarian, public university located in Kingston, Ontario, Canada. ... University at Albany Sapientia et sua et docendi causa (Wisdom both for its own sake and for the sake of teaching) The University at Albany, located in Albany, New York, USA, is a university center of the State University of New York. ...

See also

Active solar is a term which refers to the use of solar energy to actively convert the energy in sunlight into other forms. ... Deployment of solar power depends largely upon local conditions and requirements. ... Electranet is a proposed smart power transmission grid which would allow people to sell electricity into the grid without any artificial caps. ... Green technology is a technology that offers a more environmentally friendly solution compared to an existing technology. ... A Grid-tied electrical system, also called Tied to grid or Grid tie system, is a semi autonomous electrical generation system which links to the mains to feed excess generation capacity back to the local mains electrical grid. ... The use of solar cells for the generation of electricity has been mainly limited by their poor efficiency and high exploitation costs. ... It has been suggested that Wind turbines (UK domestic) be merged into this article or section. ... A photoelectrochemical cell uses electromagnetic radiation including visible light to produce hydrogen, in a similar way to electrolysis of water. ... Photovoltaic cells produce electricity directly from sunlight Photovoltaic and renewable energy engineering is an area of significant research, development, and demonstration in Australia. ... Photovoltaic power is used in many forms of transport either for demonstration as motive power or in limited commercial use as auxiliary power. ... Renewable energy utilizes natural resources such as sunlight, wind, tides and geothermal heat, which are naturally replenished. ... Proportion of renewable energy in the EU countries, 2004 The countries of the European Union are currently the leading world power in the development and application of renewable energy. ... A solar car is an electric vehicle powered by solar energy obtained from solar panels on the surface of the car. ... Solar thermal energy is a technology for harnessing solar energy for practical applications from solar heating to electrical power generation. ... Solar power from a parabolic reflector. ... A solar cell, made from a monocrystalline silicon wafer A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a device that converts light energy into electrical energy. ... A photovoltaic module is composed of individual PV cells. ...

References

  1. ^ School of Photovoltaic and Renewable Energy Engineering
  2. ^ Arizona State University Photovoltaic Testing Laboratory
  3. ^ German PV market
  4. ^ BP Solar to Expand Its Solar Cell Plants in Spain and India
  5. ^ Large-Scale, Cheap Solar Electricity
  6. ^ GE Invests, Delivers One of World's Largest Solar Power Plants
  7. ^ Building integrated photovoltaics
  8. ^ German PV market
  9. ^ Solar Module Price Environment
  10. ^ Solar Power Wins Enthusiasts but Not Money Registration required. "The trade association for the nuclear power industry recently asked 1,000 Americans what energy source they thought would be used most for generating electricity in 15 years. The top choice? Not nuclear plants, or coal or natural gas. The winner was the sun, cited by 27 percent of those polled." "Propelled by government incentives in Germany and Japan, as well as a growing number of American states, sales of solar panels made of silicon that convert sunlight directly into electricity, known as photovoltaic cells, have taken off, lowering manufacturing costs and leading to product refinements." "Yet research on solar power and methods for storing intermittent energy has long received less spending, both in the United States and in other industrialized countries, than energy options with more political support."
  11. ^ A Better Way to Make Solar Power
  12. ^ Company Information Overview
  13. ^ The technology at a glance
  14. ^ Converting sunlight to electricity
  15. ^ Solar Photovoltaic Panels
  16. ^ MMA Renewable Ventures Solar Energy Program
  17. ^ U.S. Retailers Save with Solar PV & Energy Efficiency
  18. ^ German PV market
  19. ^ Antonio Luque and Steven Hegedus (2003). Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0471491969. 
  20. ^ Nuclear Energy Institute 'Up Front - Nuclear facts'
  21. ^ UtiliPoint International, Inc. 'Issue alert - What is a megawatt?
  22. ^ PB plc - 'Solar power'
  23. ^ Total electric power consumption
  24. ^ Photovoltaic energy barometer 2007 - EurObserv’ER Systèmes solaires Le journal des énergies renouvelables n° 178, s. 49-70, 4/2007
  25. ^ Solar Systems Facts Sheet
  26. ^ World's largest photovoltaic power plants
  27. ^ 154 MW Victoria (Australia) Project
  28. ^ Portugal plans biggest solar station
  29. ^ THE WORLD'S LARGEST PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER PLANT IN MOURA, PORTUGAL
  30. ^ Large photovoltaic plant in Muldentalkreis
  31. ^ World’s largest solar power plant being built in eastern Germany
  32. ^ Large photovoltaic plant in Beneixama
  33. ^ Photovoltaic plant in Beneixama
  34. ^ Image of world's largest solar plant
  35. ^ Solar PV Takes Off at U.S. Air Force Base
  36. ^ The largest photovoltaic plant
  37. ^ GE, SunPower, Catavento team on plant. BusinessWeek (2007-03-28). Retrieved on 2007-03-29.
  38. ^ buildingsolar.com: Building Integrated Photovoltaics, Wisconsin Public Service Corporation, accessed: 2007-03-23.
  39. ^ Terrasolar, accessed: 2007-03-23.
  40. ^ http://www.roadtraffic-technology.com/contractors/parking/parkeon/ Parkeon parking meters
  41. ^ Security Products, Dec 2006, p42
  42. ^ Going for grid parity2005 article
  43. ^ Gaining on the grid
  44. ^ The Path to Grid Parity (Graphic)
  45. ^ Solar Rebate Program
  46. ^ a b c Alsema, E.A.; Wild - Scholten, M.J. de; Fthenakis, V.M. Environmental impacts of PV electricity generation - a critical comparison of energy supply options ECN, September 2006; 7p. Presented at the 21st European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference and Exhibition, Dresden, Germany, 4-8 September 2006.
  47. ^ a b Vaclav Smil - Energy at the Crossroads
  48. ^ Environmental Aspects of PV Power Systems
  49. ^ U.S. Climate Change Technology Program - Transmission and Distribution Technologies
  50. ^ NREL Map of Flat Plate Collector at Latitude Tilt Yearly Average Solar Radiation
  51. ^ Solar Energy Technologies Program: Solar FAQs US Department of Energy. Retrieved on 24 August, 2007,
  52. ^ Solar panel achieves high efficiency
  53. ^ Renewable Resource Data Center - PV Correction Factors
  54. ^ ENF Brand Awards
  55. ^ Photovoltaic Solar Cells
  56. ^ World solar cell manufacturers
  57. ^ Solar Power Profitability: BP Solar
  58. ^ Welcome to BP Solar
  59. ^ BP Solar to Expand Its Solar Cell Plants in Spain and India
  60. ^ Kyocera to Triple Solar Cell Production to 500 MW in FY2010
  61. ^ Solar firm to double capacity
  62. ^ Q-cells
  63. ^ Evergreen Solar and Q-Cells Announce Partnership with REC
  64. ^ Japan's Sanyo expands Hungary solar plant
  65. ^ Sharp Solar Modules
  66. ^ Sharp Solar celebrates five years as world number one
  67. ^ Suntech Reports First Quarter 2007 Financial Results
  68. ^ Solar: Overview
  69. ^ Solar: HCPV

Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 87th day of the year (88th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 88th day of the year (89th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

External links

Publicly funded free data sources

  • EU PV Technology Platform - forum for stakeholders to influence EU policy,
  • PV Status Report 2006 : Comprehensive global overview by Arnulf Jager-Waldau, European Commission.
  • Trends in photovoltaic applications in selected IEA countries between 1992 and 2004
  • http://www.iea-pvps.org/products/download/rep_ar06.pdf IEA PVPS annual report 2006
  • Information pertaining to photovoltaic solar electricity in each of the IEA PVPS member countries
  • US Department of Energy Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
  • DSIRE Listing of US state, local, utility, and federal incentives for renewable energy and energy efficiency.
  • Energy Saving Trust (UK) - What is Solar electricity?
  • Find Solar US solar estimator and solar pro locator (joint partnership with DOE).

Trade Press and commercial databases In physics and engineering, including mechanical and electrical engineering, energy efficiency is a dimensionless number, with a value between 0 and 1 or with times 100 given in percent. ...

  • Database of solar cells manufacturers
  • Solarbuzz Online news
  • Photon International International PV magazine, also has local editions for Germany and Spain
  • Renewable Energy World magazine covers PV among other forms of renewable energy
  • ENF Ltd PV Market Research and Industry Directory
  • Home Power Magazine
  • New York Times ongoing series on moving to a clean energy future

Others

  • solar-is-future.com - Information about Solar Power and Photovoltaics
  • Live monitoring see also Google Solar Panel Project
  • Real-Time Performance Diagnostics
  • Power Consumption of a Home
  • How Stuff Works: Solar cells.
  • Photovoltaics
  • Energy Atlas of the West
  • World's largest photovoltaic power plants
  • World’s largest solar power plant being built in eastern Germany
  • Global Solar Completed 1.4 MW Solar Power Station; Signs Agreement to Enlarge System to 2.4 MW
  • Plastic solar panels reach 6% efficiency

  Results from FactBites:
 
Renewable Energy - Solar Energy, radiant/light energy, heat/thermal energy (0 words)
Photovoltaic energy is the conversion of sunlight into electricity through a photovoltaic (PVs) cell, commonly called a solar cell.
A photovoltaic cell is a nonmechanical device usually made from silicon alloys.
When DC from photovoltaic cells is used for commercial applications or sold to electric utilities using the electric grid, it must be converted to alternating current (AC) using inverters, solid state devices that convert DC power to AC.
Solar Photovoltaic (213 words)
Photovoltaic devices use semiconducting materials to convert sunlight directly into electricity.
Solar radiation, which is nearly constant outside the Earth's atmosphere, varies with changing atmospheric conditions (clouds and dust) and the changing position of the Earth relative to the sun.
This map shows solar photovoltaics resource potential on Federal lands and the lower 48 states.
  More results at FactBites »


 

COMMENTARY     


Share your thoughts, questions and commentary here
Your name
Your comments
Please enter the 5-letter protection code

Want to know more?
Search encyclopedia, statistics and forums:
 


Lesson Plans | Student Area | Student FAQ | Reviews | Press Releases |  Feeds | Contact
The Wikipedia article included on this page is licensed under the GFDL.
Images may be subject to relevant owners' copyright.
All other elements are (c) copyright NationMaster.com 2003-5. All Rights Reserved.
Usage implies agreement with terms.