Plautdietsch or Mennonite Low German, is a language (or groups of dialects of Low German) spoken in Canada, the United States, Mexico, Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, Honduras, Belize, and Argentina by over 300,000 Mennonites, members of a religious group that fled from Holland and Belgium in the 1500s to escape persecution, and who eventually resettled in these areas. These Mennonites including Russian Mennonites trace their roots to the Low Countries and north Germany, but adopted an East Low German dialect with Dutch (Dietsch = Dutch Diets; Deitsch = German Deutsch) influence while they lived in the Vistula delta area of Royal Prussia, beginning in the early-to-mid 1500s.^[2] Beginning in the late 1700s, the expanding Russian Empire invited Germans and many from the Kingdom of Prussia, including many Mennonites left and created new colonies north of the Black Sea in (present-day Ukraine and other countries), in an area that Russia had recently acquired in one of the Russo-Turkish Wars. Many Mennonites migrated to North America — especially Canada and the United States — and Latin America — especially Paraguay and Mexico — most of them live as rural settlers and added some Spanish and Portuguese words to their own language. A language family is a group of languages related by descent from a common proto-language. ... The Indo-European languages comprise a family of several hundred related languages and dialects [1], including most of the major languages of Europe, as well as many spoken in the Indian subcontinent (South Asia), the Iranian plateau (Southwest Asia), and Central Asia. ... The Germanic languages in Europe are divided into North (blue) and West Germanic (green and orange) Languages  Low Saxon-Low Franconian (Dutch)  High German (standard German, Schwyzerdütsch)  Insular Anglo-Frisian (English, Scots)  Continental Anglo-Frisian (Frisian)  East North Germanic (Danish, BokmÃ¥l Norwegian, Swedish)  West North Germanic (Nynorsk Norwegian... Low German (also called Niederdeutsch, Plattdeutsch or Plattdüütsch) is a name for the regional language varieties of the West Germanic languages spoken mainly in Northern Germany where it is officially called Niederdeutsch (Low German), and in Eastern Netherlands where it is officially called Nedersaksisch (Low Saxon). Low refers to... East Low German is a group of Low German dialects spoken in Northeast Germany as well as by minorities in northern Poland. ... ISO 639-1 is the first part of the ISO 639 international-standard language-code family. ... ISO 639-2 is the second part of the ISO 639 standard, which lists codes for the representation of the names of languages. ... ISO 639-3 is an international standard for language codes. ... Articles with similar titles include the NATO phonetic alphabet, which has also informally been called the “International Phonetic Alphabet”. For information on how to read IPA transcriptions of English words, see IPA chart for English. ... The Unicode Standard, Version 5. ... The Russian Mennonites are a group of Mennonites descended from Dutch and mainly Germanic Prussian Anabaptists who established colonies in South Russia (present-day Ukraine) beginning in 1789. ... It has been suggested that Regents: Low Countries be merged into this article or section. ... East Low German is a group of Low German dialects spoken in Northeast Germany as well as by minorities in northern Poland. ... Dietsch (Diets in modern Dutch) is a colloquial word for the Middle Dutch language. ... For other uses, see Vistula (disambiguation). ... Map of Royal Prussia (light pink) History  - Established October 19, 1466  - Loss of autonomy 1 July 1569  - Annexed August 5, 1772 Royal Prussia (German: ; Polish: ) was a province of the Kingdom of Poland and then the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1569 to 1772. ... The subject of this article was previously also known as Russia. ... Anthem Preußenlied, Heil dir im Siegerkranz (both unofficial) The Kingdom of Prussia at its greatest extent, at the time of the formation of the German Empire, 1871 Capital Berlin Government Monarchy King  - 1701 — 1713 Frederick I (first)  - 1888 — 1918 William II (last) Prime minister  - 1848 Adolf Heinrich von Arnim... For other uses, see Black Sea (disambiguation). ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... North America North America is a continent[1] in the Earths northern hemisphere and (chiefly) western hemisphere. ... Latin America consists of the countries of South America and some of North America (including Central America and some the islands of the Caribbean) whose inhabitants mostly speak Romance languages, although Native American languages are also spoken. ...

Today Plautdietsch is spoken in Paraguay, Mexico, Ukraine, Germany, Canada (particularly Manitoba and Saskatchewan), Brazil, Belize, and the United States. There are two major dialects which trace their division to Ukraine. These two dialects are split between the New Colony and Old Colony Mennonites. Many younger Russian Mennonites in Canada and the United States today speak only English. For example, Homer Groening, the father of Matt Groening (creator of The Simpsons), spoke Plautdietsch as a child in Saskatchewan in the 1920s, but his son Matt never learned the language. Motto: Gloriosus et Liber (Latin: Glorious and free) BC AB SK MB ON QC NB PE NS NL YT NT NU Capital Winnipeg Largest city Winnipeg Official languages English Government - Lieutenant-Governor John Harvard - Premier Gary Doer (NDP) Federal representation in Canadian Parliament - House seats 14 - Senate seats 6 Confederation... Motto: Multis E Gentibus Vires (Latin: The Strength of Many Peoples) Capital Regina Largest city Saskatoon Official languages English Government - Lieutenant-Governor Gordon Barnhart - Premier Lorne Calvert (NDP) Federal representation in Canadian Parliament - House seats 14 - Senate seats 6 Confederation September 1, 1905 (Split from NWT) (9th (province)) Area  Ranked... Molotschna Colony is a former Russian Mennonite settlement in what is now Zaporizhia Oblast in the Ukraine. ... Chortitza is a settlement on Dnieper River in Zaporizhia Oblast. ... Matthew Abram Groening (born February 15, 1954[2] in Portland, Oregon;[1] his family name is pronounced , rhymes with raining) is an Emmy Award-winning American cartoonist and the creator of The Simpsons, Futurama and the weekly comic strip Life in Hell. ... Simpsons redirects here. ... Motto: Multis E Gentibus Vires (Latin: The Strength of Many Peoples) Capital Regina Largest city Saskatoon Official languages English Government - Lieutenant-Governor Gordon Barnhart - Premier Lorne Calvert (NDP) Federal representation in Canadian Parliament - House seats 14 - Senate seats 6 Confederation September 1, 1905 (Split from NWT) (9th (province)) Area  Ranked... The 1920s is a decade that is sometimes referred to as the Jazz Age or the Roaring Twenties, usually applied to America. ...

Certain groups like the Old Colony Mennonites of Mexico have guarded the language better than others. However, as Old Colony Mennonites from Mexico resettle in Canada and the United States, the stability of Plautdietsch in this group may be put to the test in their new homes, especially if the current stigmatisation of Old Colony Mennonites because of their poverty continues, as is the case in some places like Ontario by more prosperous neighbours. This may ultimately lead to an abandonment of the language by this group. Motto: Ut Incepit Fidelis Sic Permanet (Latin: Loyal she began, loyal she remains) Capital Toronto Largest city Toronto Official languages English Government - Lieutenant-Governor James K. Bartleman - Premier Dalton McGuinty (Liberal) Federal representation in Canadian Parliament - House seats 106 - Senate seats 24 Confederation July 1, 1867 (1st) Area [1] Ranked...

Status

There is disagreement whether Plautdietsch is a language or a dialect. Some try to classify it as a dialect of Low German (Plaatdüütsch). Arguments for a dialect:

1. It is a spoken, not written language;
2. It shows similarities with other varieties of Low German;
3. It is intelligible to High German speakers after some acquaintance;
4. The grammar is much like German.

Arguments for classifying it as a language of its own:

1. It has many developments and sound shifts not found in any other German dialect;
2. It is spoken in many countries and areas outside German speaking countries;
3. It has many borrowings from other languages completely adapted into Plautdietsch phonetics, which would not be understood by a speaker of other dialects;
4. It has many idiomatic expressions of its own and usages of particular words different from German. Many idiomatic expressions of German are not used nor understood by a Plautdietsch speaker;
5. With the publication of a Bible translation in 2003 the argument that, since it is not written it cannot be a language, might be disputable.

Varieties

As one might expect from a spoken language which traditionally lacked a consistent writing system, several regional differences have developed. However, the major differences seem to have originated in the beginning 19th century in the two Mennonite settlements in New Russia (today Ukraine), known as Chortitza or Old Colony and Molotschna (New Colony), as noted above. Some of the major differences between these two dialects are: Chortitza is a settlement on Dnieper River in Zaporizhia Oblast. ... Molotschna Colony is a former Russian Mennonite settlement in what is now Zaporizhia Oblast in the Ukraine. ...

A few other differences sometimes related to this issue are: the exact pronunciation of the IPA c sound and words as jenau/jeneiw, but according to some studies, those might be due to education level, influence of Russian and German.

Some Plautdietsch speakers might show a mixture of both dialects. Those, for instance, who trace their origin to the Bergthal Colony in New Russia (Ukraine), a daughter colony of the Old Colony, show all the phonetic distinction of the Old Colony version, but they drop the final -n as the Molotschna speakers do. The Bergthal Colony was a Mennonite settlement in the southern part of the former Russian Empire, now Ukraine. ...

Comparison with related languages

Plautdietsch has a Low German (Low Saxon) base, and as such, it does not show the effects of the High German consonant shift, which separated the High German dialects from the Low German dialects and all other Germanic languages. The basic distinctions between High German and Low German are: High German subdivides into Upper German (green) and Central German (blue), and is distinguished from Low German (yellow). ...

Effects of the High German consonant shift

Like Dutch, Frisian and Low German, Plautdietsch only shows the mutation of th into d.

Vowel Shifts in various Germanic languages

As shown, while Dutch, English and German have experienced similar vowel shifts, Plautdietsch has only merged the old Germanic y sound with i, while long u is retained in the Molotschna dialect. The Old Colony variety has fronted it to the now vacant y.

Unique developments

Vowel sinking

Vowel rounding off

Diphthongization before g, k, ch [IPA x] and r, with possible loss of r

The deletion of r has been completed in most final positions, after front vowels and before alveolar consonants, but is still retained in the infinitive of verbs, after short vowels, and sometimes after back vowels as seen in the example Huarn, Hieena.

Various other vowel equivalences

Palatalization

All words with a g and k (even where it is shifted to ch in German) preceding or following a front vowel (e or i, not counting schwa) have been shifted to j and c (the latter has been written as kj or tj), even if there is another consonant between the vowel and the consonant. An intervocalic g is platalized as ɟ, written gj or dj. (A similar event occurred with English, but not as generalized). Where an e or i has been sunken to a, the palatalized sound is retained. Also where German has a ç sound, Plautdietsch retains it even after lowering a front vowel. The IPA symbol for the Schwa In linguistics, specifically phonetics and phonology, schwa can mean: An unstressed and toneless neutral vowel sound in any language, often but not necessarily a mid-central vowel. ... The voiced palatal plosive is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. ...

Influences and borrowings

German

Most Anabaptists that settled in the Vistula Delta were of Dutch or Northern Germany origins, and were joined by refugees from different parts of Germany and Switzerland, who influenced their developing language. After almost two centuries in West Prussia, German replaced Dutch as church, school and written language and has become a source from where words are borrowed extensively, especially for religious terms. Many of these words show the effects of the High German consonant shift, even though they are adapted into Plautdietsch phonetics. Compare:

Dutch

The following words have been claimed as from Dutch origins:

Old Prussian and Baltic languages

Mejal (from Margell), girl

Kujel (from Kuigel), a male pig

Also the female -sche ending as in Lierasche (female teacher or teacher's wife)

Polish

Russian or Ukrainian

Whereever Mennonites settled, they found new foods and other items they were not familiar with, and when that happened, they took the name that local people used for those items. Following words are claimed to be from Russian or Ukrainian origin:

Bockelzhonn; German: Tomate, English: tomato Arbus/Erbus/Rebus; German: Wassermelone, English: watermelon Schisnikj; German: Knoblauch, English: garlic

English

With the dawn of the 20th century, Mennonites slowly came into contact with technology. For those who had settled in North America in the 1870s, all new words were borrowed from English, and even though many left for South America only 50 years after their arrival, they kept and sometimes adapted these words into the Mennonite Low German Phonetics:

Particularly words for auto parts are taken from English: hood, fender, brakes (along with the more Low German form Brams), spark plugs (pluralized Ploggen), but also words like peanuts, belt, tax.

A special case is the word jleichen. It is an adaption of the English verb "to like", but taken from the German adverb gleich (equivalent of the English adverb like: this is like joking)

Spanish

Plautdietsch speakers living in Spanish speaking countries use many words of Spanish in their daily speech, especially in business and communication (telephone, for instance) vocabulary. Two examples of words which are completely adapted into Mennonite Low German are Burra (Mexican Spanish burro, donkey) and Wratsch (Mexican Spanish huarache, sandal). Both have a Low German plural: Burrasch, Wratschen. The pure Low German words Äsel and Schlorr are seldom used in Mexico.

Spelling

There has been a lot of controversy, too, about the spelling of Plautdietsch. The main criteria have been:

1. Spelling should be as phonetic as possible
2. German spelling rules should be applied whenever possible.

One problematic area has been what letters to use for sounds that do not exist in German. For instance, the palatal c and ʝ sounds. Since they developed out of k and g, respectively, some conclude that they should be logically spelled as kj and gj. Others, especially speakers of the Molotschna dialect, claim that tj and dj are more phonetical.

Other problematic areas: use or not of v for some words with f sound, use or not of Dehnungs-h, when to double consonants or when not.

When comparing different writers, one must take into account the dialect of that writer. The most famous Plautdietsch writer, Arnold Dyck, wrote in the Molotschna dialect, though his origins were from the Old Colony. During his life he made many changes in his spelling system. His developments are the basis for the various spellings used today. In the following table, only his final system is taken into account, as used in his famous Koop enn Bua series, along with Herman Rempel (Kjennn Jie noch Plautdietsch?), Ruben Epp (Plautdietsche Schreftsteckja), J. Thiessen (Mennonite Low German Dictionary), J. J. Neufeld (Daut niehe Tastament) and Ed Zacharias (De Bibel). The latter two claim to write in the Old Colony dialect, as seen by the verb endings, while the other three use the Plautdietsch as spoken by the descenders of the Bergthal Colony, i. e. the Old Colony dialect but with loss of -n endings.

Phonetics

Mennonite Low German has many sounds, including a few not found in any other related language.

Consonants

Where symbols for consonants occur in pairs, the left represents the voiceless consonant and the right represents the voiced consonant. Observations: According to the spelling system of De Bibel these sounds are spelled as follows: In phonetics, a bilabial consonant is a consonant articulated with both lips. ... In phonetics, labiodentals are consonants articulated with the lower lips and the upper teeth, or viceversa. ... Alveolar consonants are articulated with the tongue against or close to the superior alveolar ridge, which is called that because it contains the alveoli (the sockets) of the superior teeth. ... Postalveolar (or palato-alveolar) consonants are consonants articulated with the tip of the tongue between the alveolar ridge (the place of articulation for alveolar consonants) and the palate (the place of articulation for palatal consonants). ... Palatal consonants are consonants articulated with the body of the tongue raised against the hard palate (the middle part of the roof of the mouth). ... Velars are consonants articulated with the back part of the tongue (the dorsum) against the soft palate (the back part of the roof of the mouth, known also as the velum). ... Uvulars are consonants articulated with the back of the tongue against or near the uvula, that is, further back in the mouth than velar consonants. ... Glottal consonants are consonants articulated with the glottis. ... A stop or plosive or occlusive is a consonant sound produced by stopping the airflow in the vocal tract. ... A nasal consonant is produced when the velum—that fleshy part of the palate near the back—is lowered, allowing air to escape freely through the nose. ... Fricatives (or spirants) are consonants produced by forcing air through a narrow channel made by placing two articulators close together. ... In phonetics, a flap or tap is a type of consonantal sound, which is produced with a single contraction of the muscles so that one articulator (such as the tongue) is thrown against another. ... Approximants are speech sounds that could be regarded as intermediate between vowels and typical consonants. ... Laterals are L-like consonants pronounced with an occlusion made somewhere along the axis of the tongue, while air from the lungs escapes at one side or both sides of the tongue. ... In phonetics, a voiceless consonant is a consonant that does not have voicing. ... A voiced consonant is a sound made as the vocal cords vibrate, as opposed to a voiceless consonant, where the vocal cords are relaxed. ...

¹ kj and gj as in Kjoakj and Brigj (church, bridge)

² no letter, but has to be used if a word begins with a vowel or a prefix is added to a word which by itself starts with a vowel: ve'achten (to despise)

³ nj as in Kjinja (children)

4 ng as in Hunga (hunger)

5 [f] could be written f or v: Fada, Voda (cousin, father). The only criteria is the spelling of these words in German. [v] is spelled w as in German: Wota (water)

6 at the beginning of a word and between vowels [z] is written s: sajen, läsen (to say, to read). The [s] sound is written z at the beginning of a word (where some speakers pronounce it ts), ss between vowels and final after a short vowel: Zocka, waussen, Oss (sugar, to grow, ox). At the end of a word after a long vowel or consonant both are written s, the reader has to know the word to pronounce the correct sound: Hos [hoz], Os [os] (rabbit, carrion). The combination of a short o and a voiced s adds still more confusion to this, as in the word Kos [kɔz] (goat).

7 sch and zh as in School and ruzhen (school, rush). sp and st are ʃp and ʃt at the beginning and if a prefix is attached to a word starting with sp or st: spälen, bestalen (to play, to order)

8 j as in Joa (year). The ç sound is written ch after consonants, e, i and äa: Erfolch, Jesecht, Jewicht, läach (success, face, weight, low). After a it is written jch to diferenciate it from the [x] sound: rajcht (right)

9 [x] is written ch, only occurs after back vowels: Dach, Loch (day, hole). [ɣ] is g between vowels and final: froagen, vondoag (to ask, today). At the beginning of a word and before consonants, g has the [g] sound.

10 r is a flap (like the Spanish r), or depending on the person, even a trill (like Spanish rr), before vowels: root, groot, Liera (red, big, teacher), but is pronounced as an approximant (English r) before a consonant, at the end and in the -ren endings of Old Colony speakers: kort, ar, hieren (short, her, to hear). The uvular German r [R] is not heard in Plautdietsch.

11 ɬ is an allophone of l that occurs after vowels in words like Baul and well

Vowels

The vowel inventory of Plautdietch is large, with 13 simple vowels, 10 diphtongs and 1 thriphthong. Note: This page contains IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode. ...

All front and mid vowels are unrounded, except y; all back vowels are rounded.

The u sound has been shifted to y in the Old Colony dialect, leaving the sound only as part of the ua diphthong. However, in certain areas and age groups, there is a heavy tendency to shift the o sound up to u. Articles with similar titles include the NATO phonetic alphabet, which has also informally been called the “International Phonetic Alphabet”. For information on how to read IPA transcriptions of English words, see IPA chart for English. ... Articles with similar titles include the NATO phonetic alphabet, which has also informally been called the “International Phonetic Alphabet”. For information on how to read IPA transcriptions of English words, see IPA chart for English. ... The orthography of a language specifies the correct way of writing in that language. ...

Pronunciation of certain vowels and diphthongs vary from some speakers to others; the diphthong represented by ee for instances is spoken out [oi] or even [ei] by some. Likewise the long vowels represented by au and ei might have a diphthong glide into [ʊ] and [ɪ], respectively.

• English sound equivalent are approximately. Long vowels ä and o do not have a diphthong glide.

Grammar

Low German grammar resembles High German, as the syntax and morphology is nearly the same as High German's. Over the years, Low German has lost many inflections, resulting in a greatly simplified Mennonite Low German. It is still moderately inflectional, having two numbers, three genders, two cases, two tenses, three persons, two moods, two voices, and two degrees of comparison.

Articles

Even though Low German has three genders, in the Nominative case it has only two definite articles (like Dutch and Low Saxon); masculine and feminine articles are homophonous. However, masculine and feminine indefinite articles are still different (like German) and thus, the three genders can still be perfectly established. In the Objective case, the masculine has a special definite article, making it once more different from the feminine, which, like the neuter, does not change. In the plural number, all gender identification is lost (as in German, Dutch and Low Saxon); all plural determiners and adjective endings are homophonous with the feminine singular. The nominative case is a grammatical case for a noun, which generally marks the subject of a verb, as opposed to its object or other verb arguments. ... Definite Article is the title of British comedian Eddie Izzards 1996 performance released on video and CD. The video/DVD and CD performances were both recorded on different nights at the Shaftesbury Theatre in London, England. ... In linguistics, grammatical gender is a morphological category associated with the expression of gender through inflection or agreement. ... The accusative case of a noun is, generally, the case used to mark the direct object of a verb. ...

• In colloquial speech the indefinite article is reduced practically to a "n", or "ne" if feminine. If used so, there is no case distinction. However, when used as a numeral, meaning "one", the diphthong "ee" is heavily stressed and the objective of the masculine gender is used. There is no indefinite plural article; een has no plural.

Some Plautdietsch writers try to use a three case system with the definite articles, without much consistency. The system looks somewhat like this, some might use the dative neuter articles, others might not:

Determiners

All possessives (see under pronouns) are declined like in this way. With the form äa (her/their) an r has to be reinserted before adding endings (äaren, äare).

Nouns

Like High German, Mennonite Low German nouns inflect into two numbers: singular and plural, three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter, but only two cases, nominative, and objective. The historical dative and accusative have merged, even though some writers try to maintain a three cases distinction, which has been lost for most speakers, perhaps centuries ago. The objective case is distinct from the nominative only in 1) personal pronouns: ekj froag am, hee auntwuat mie (I ask him, he answers me) 2) articles and demonstrative and possessive adjectives in the singular masculine gender: de Voda halpt dän Sän (the father helps the son) (observe: nouns are not inflected themselves) and 3) proper names, i. e. traditional Mennonite names: Peeta frajcht Marie-en, Marie auntwuat Peetren (Peter asks Mary, Mary answers Peter) In linguistics, grammatical number is a morphological category characterized by the expression of quantity through inflection or agreement. ... Look up Plural in Wiktionary, the free dictionary Plural is a grammatical number, typically referring to more than one of the referent in the real world. ... The nominative case is a grammatical case for a noun. ... Template:Wiktionarypar objective Objective may be: Objective lens, an optical element in a camera or microscope. ... Dative has several meanings. ... The term accusative may be used in the following contexts: A form of morphosyntactic alignment, as found in nominative-accusative languages. ...

Plurals

The forming of plurals is complicated. Three major procedures can be established: 1) through an ending, -a, -en, -s, -sch or none at all; 2) voicing the final devoiced consonant and 3) fronting (and maybe sinking) a back vowel, which might require palatalization of a velar consonant. A given word could have one or two, all or none of these characteristics.

Examples

No ending, no devoicing, no vowel fronting: de Fesch de Fesch, daut Schop, de Schop, daut Been, de Been (fish, fishes; sheep, sheep; leg, legs)

Devoicing, no ending, no vowel fronting: Frint, Frind; Boajch, Boaj (friend/s, mountain/s)

No ending, no devoicing, vowel fronting: Foot, Feet (foot, feet)

Devoicing and vowel fronting, no ending: Hoot, Heed (hat/s)

-a ending:

only: Licht, Lichta (light/s)

with devoicing: Bilt, Bilda (picture/s)

with vowel fronting: Maun Mana (man, men)

with devoicing, vowel fronting and palatalization: Kaulf, Kjalwa (calf, calves)

-en ending (the -en, -s and -sch endings have no vowel fronting)

only: Näs Näsen, (nose/s)

with devoicing: Tiet, Tieden, Erfoarunk, Erfoarungen (time/s, experience/s)

Words where a historical r is dropped require it to be reinserted: Däa, Däaren (door/s) Polysyllabic words with a vocalized r drop the final a: Sesta, Sestren (sister/s)

An unstressed schwae also is dropped: Gaufel, Gauflen (fork/s) The IPA symbol for the Schwa In linguistics, specifically phonetics and phonology, schwa can mean: An unstressed and toneless neutral vowel sound in any language, often but not necessarily a mid-central vowel. ...

-s ending

This class consists mainly of 1) short masculine and neuter nouns: Baul -s, Oarm -s (ball/s, arm/s)

2) words related with family members: Sän -s, Fru -es, (son/s, woman, women)

and 3) masculine and neuter nouns ending in -el and -en (the latter may drop the n): de Läpel, de Läpels; de Goaden, de Goades (spoon/s; garden/s)

-sch ending

This class consists of masculine and neuter polysyllabic nouns ending with -a: Voda, de Vodasch; daut Massa, de Massasch (father/s, knife, knives)

For someone knowing (High) German, pluralizing is a fairly predictable process, with some exceptions: the -en ending covers pretty much the same words in both languages; the -a ending is the equivalent for the German -er plural, where German has Umlaut, Plautdietsch will have vowel fronting in most cases. The -s and -sch groups are made almost entirely of polysyllabic nouns which in German have no plural ending. In linguistics, umlaut (from German um- around/the other way + Laut sound) is a process whereby a vowel is pronounced more like a vowel or semivowel in a following syllable. ...

The most problematic words are those with an -e plural ending in German. Although the entire class with no ending is made out of them, many other words are threated differently. For example, the plurals for Stool and Stock (chair and stick) are Steela and Stakja (compare German Stuhl, Stühle; Stock, Stöcke). Since they have their vowels fronted there seems to be no reason for the -a ending. Many others have been moved into the -en class: Jeboot, Jebooten (commandment/s, German: Gebot, Gebote). With some not so common words, there is no certainty about the correct plural, different speakers create them in different ways: the plural of Jesaz (law) could be Jesaza or Jesazen (German: Gesetz, Gesetze).

Possession

The classical genitive is no longer used except in a few relic expressions. Instead, possession is expressed as in many German dialects with the his genitive, i. e. naming the possessor in the objective case with the possessive adjective and the possessed object: Dän Maun sien Hus (the man's house). With proper nouns, and when the possessor is determined by a possessive adjective, the possessor is in the nominative case instead: Peeta sien Hus (Peter's house); mien Voda sien Hus (my father's house). Very long possessive clauses can be created: Mien Voda siene Mutta äare Mutta es miene Uagrootmutta (my father's mother's mother is my great grandmother). The genitive case is a grammatical case that indicates a relationship, primarily one of possession, between the noun in the genitive case and another noun. ... The his genitive was a linguistic phenomenon in the syntax of the English language. ... The accusative case of a noun is, generally, the case used to mark the direct object of a verb. ... The nominative case is a grammatical case for a noun, which generally marks the subject of a verb, as opposed to its object or other verb arguments. ...

For inanimate or generalized constructions, the preposition von or a composition are used instead: De Lichta von de Staut/ de Stautslichta (the lights of the city).

Diminutive

The diminutive is formed adding -kje to the noun: de Jung, daut Jungkje; de Mejal, daut Mejalkje (the boy, the little boy; the girl, the little girl). All diminutive nouns take the neuter gender, with two exceptions: de Oomkje, de Mumkje, two forms very used commonly for mister/man/husband and mistress/woman/wife, they seem to be created originally as diminutive forms of Oom and Mumm (uncle and aunt). Today they are not seen as diminutives anymore, so they keep their respective masculine and feminine gender.

With nouns ending in t or k, only -je is added; a few nouns ending in kj, an additional s is inserted: de Staut, daut Stautje, daut Buak, daut Buakje; daut Stekj, daut Stekjsje (the (little) city, the (little) book, the (little) piece).

Plural diminished nouns take -s ending: Jungkjes, Mejalkjes; however, if the original plural requires fronting of a back vowel or has an -a ending, these features are retained before adding the diminutive suffix: de Stool, de Steela --> daut Stoolkje, de Steelakjes (chair/s, little chair/s)

Pronouns

Personal pronouns

Some pronouns have two forms, different persons may use one or other form, or even alternate between them. Daut is used at the beginning of a sentence, but may be replaced for et in other positions.

Possessive adjectives of the masculine (nominative case) or neuter gender. Otherwise they are declined like the indefinite article and determiners (see under article section).

Demonstrative pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns are frequently used instead of the personal pronouns. When used so, some people use special objective forms for feminine and plural. When used strictly demonstrative, only the singular masculine has a special objective form.

Verbs

Mennonite Low German verbs have six tenses. The present and first past tenses are inflected, while the second and third past and both future tenses are different words marked by auxiliary verbs. Verbs can have two moods: Declarative and Imperative, two voices: active and passive, and three persons:1st pers. sing., 2nd pers. sing., 3rd pers. sing., and plural.

Weak verbs

The basic conjugation pattern is as follows:

To determine the stem, take the infinitive and drop the -en ending. There are a few modifications to this basic pattern: 1) If the stem ends with a plosive or fricative voiced consonant (d, g, j, soft s, w, zh), that consonant is devoiced in the 2nd and 3d persons of the present, since voiceless t and st automatically force the preceding consonant (compare the sound of the letter d in English lived and liked). 2) If the stem ends with a voiceless consonant (ch, f, jch, k, kj, p, hard s, sch, t) that consonants devoices the d, sd, d, den endings of the past tense (into t, st, t, ten) for the same reason. 3) If the stem ends with two consonants, the second one being a nasal or lateral, a schwa e is inserted to ease pronunciation. 4)Verbs with a diphthong and r have a special treatment, the r is dropped before endings are attached, and the st/sd of the second person is replaced by sch/zh. A stop or plosive or occlusive is a consonant sound produced by stopping the airflow in the vocal tract. ... Note: This page contains phonetic information presented in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) using Unicode. ... A voiced consonant is a sound made as the vocal cords vibrate, as opposed to a voiceless consonant, where the vocal cords are relaxed. ... In phonetics, a voiceless consonant is a consonant that does not have voicing. ... (adj. ... The term lateral can refer to: an anatomical definition of direction. ... The IPA symbol for the Schwa In linguistics, specifically phonetics and phonology, schwa can mean: An unstressed and toneless neutral vowel sound in any language, often but not necessarily a mid-central vowel. ... In phonetics, a diphthong (also gliding vowel) (Greek δίφθογγος, diphthongos, literally with two sounds, or with two tones) is a monosyllabic vowel combination involving a quick but smooth movement from one vowel to another, often interpreted by listeners as a single vowel sound or phoneme. ...

Examples of a regular verbs: spälen (to play), lachen (to laugh), läwen (to live), odmen (to breath) and roaren (to cry). The first one follows strictly the basic pattern, the others show the various adjustments needed as described above.

If the inverted word order is used, the -en ending of the plural wie, jie (but not see) form is dropped, and a root-only form, identical to the 1st person singular, is used.

Strong verbs

As in English and Dutch, some verbs have a vowel change in past tense and past participle. As in German, some verbs might have a vowel change in second and third person of the singular in present tense as well. A few verbs that are strong in German are weak in Plautdietsch, but many German weak verbs are strong in Plautdietsch, however, when compared with Dutch and English, those are strong, too.

GENERALITIES: Vowel changes in present tense are somewhat predictable: long ie and u change into short i; long ä/o change into e or a; diphthongs äa and oa are simplified to a.

The first and third person of the past tense are identical (as in weak verbs).

With only a few exceptions (like the verb sajen), all voiced consonants are devoiced in the three persons of the singular past, the nasal ng and nj are retained in second person, but devoiced in first and third person.

The past tense has the same vowel through all persons.

If there is a vowel change from ä to e or a in the present tense, that feature is retained in the singular imperative.

The plural form for wie/jie in the inverted word order keep the final consonant voiced.

Auxiliary, Modal and Anomalous Verbs

A small groups of verbs are more irregular: the auxiliaries sennen and haben, the modal verbs, and a few verbs that originally where monosylabic and with time a -nen ending has evolved:

Participles

The present participle, formed of the infinitive plus a -t ending, is not often used. It appears in idiomatic expressions like aunhoolent bliewen (to persist), and in a few adjective forms, which have to be inflected for number, gender and case, the -t is devoiced into -d: koaken, koakendet Wota (to boil, boiling water).

The past participle of weak verbs is formed with je- plus the stem of the verb plus -t. A voiced consonant is devoiced to go along with t. The r after a long vowel is dropped. For the example weak verbs given above the past participles are: jespält, jelacht, jejäft, jeroat.

The past participle for strong and anomalous verbs is hard to predict, they could be formed in five or six different ways:

1. some are like the weak verbs: jejäft, jesajcht (given, said);
2. others are formed of je- plus infinitive: jestonen (stood);
3. some, including modal verbs, of je- plus first person past tense: jehaut; jesocht, jekunt (had, sought, been able);
4. others of je- plus plural past: jefungen (found);
5. Those with an ee or oo in past tense are simplified to ä/o: jeschräwen, jedonen (written, done)
6. the past participle of sennen is jewast (been)

Adjectives are frequently made from the past participle by attaching an adjective inflection ending and voicing the final t; if the preceding consonant is voiced, with -en participles the e is dropped:

molen, jemolt, een jemoldet Bilt (to draw, drawn, a drawn picture)

koaken, jekoakt, eene jekoakte Ieedschock (to boil, boiled, a boiled potato)

stälen, jestolen, een jestolna Hunt (to steal, stolen, a stolen dog)

Compound tenses

Except for the present and simple past, all other tenses are constructed with the aid of the auxiliary verbs sennen, haben, woaren:

Some intransitive verbs take sennen instead of haben as auxiliary verbs if they: 1) indicate a motion from one place to another, or 2) indicate a change of condition, or 3) the verbs sennen (to be) and bliewen (to keep being, to remain). Example: ekj sie jekomen, ekj sie oolt jeworden, ekj sie jewast (I have come, I have become old, I have been).

Adjectives

Mennonite Low German also shows a rich inflectional system in its adjectives. Although once even richer, simplification has done its work here too, leaving Mennonite Low German with only three genders: feminine, masculine and neuter, and two comparison degrees: Comparative and Superlative. Low German (also called Niederdeutsch, Plattdeutsch or Plattdüütsch) is a name for the regional language varieties of the West Germanic languages spoken mainly in Northern Germany where it is officially called Niederdeutsch (Low German), and in Eastern Netherlands where it is officially called Nedersaksisch (Low Saxon). Low refers to... Low German (also called Niederdeutsch, Plattdeutsch or Plattdüütsch) is a name for the regional language varieties of the West Germanic languages spoken mainly in Northern Germany where it is officially called Niederdeutsch (Low German), and in Eastern Netherlands where it is officially called Nedersaksisch (Low Saxon). Low refers to... Look up feminine in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... The word masculine can refer to: the property of being biologically male masculinity, a traditionally male gender role the masculine grammatical gender This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... The word neuter can refer to: the property of being neither biologically male or female: being asexual the sterilization (castration, spaying, etc. ... In grammar the comparative is the form of an adjective or adverb which denotes the degree or grade by which a person, thing, or other entity has a property or quality greater or less in extent than that of another. ... For the noun case, see superlative case. ...

The plural of all genders is identical to the feminine singular.

Strong and weak neuter declension: after the definite article daut or the demonstratives daut and dit (neuter form of that, this) the t is dropped and a form identical to the feminine and plural is used. In other situations, as with indefinite articles, possessive adjectives or without article, the strong form is used. In linguistics, declension is the inflection of nouns, pronouns and adjectives to indicate such features as number (typically singular vs. ...

The objective is used only in the masculine singular. However, if a preposition-article compound is used with a neuter noun, then the objective would be used. Example: em grooten Hus, but: en daut groote Hus, en een grootet Hus.

There is no predicate form for the superlative, a preposition-article compound with the objective or weak neuter is used: aum woamsten, or: oppet woamste, or newly just the neuter form without preposition: daut woamste: Zemorjes es et woam, opp Meddach woat et woama, no Meddach es et aum woamsten/ oppet woamste/ daut woamste (in the morning it is warm, at noon it is getting warmer, after noon it is the warmest)

The predicate form is used in predicate sentences for all genders: De Maun es oolt, de Fru es oolt, daut Hus es oolt (the man is old, the woman is old, the house is old)

Prepositions

Plautdietsch preposition inventory is rich. Some of the most common:

• aun, on, in: de Klock henjt aun de Waunt (he watch is hanging on the wall)
• äwa, over, about
• besied, beside, next to
• bie, by, at
• bowa, over
• buta, except, besides
• derch, through
• en, in
• fa, for
• hinja,
• hinjaraun (placed at the end)
• jäajen, against
• mank, among
• met, with
• no, to, after
• onen, without
• opp, on
• to, to
• tweschen, between
• unja, under
• ver
• von

Numerals

Observation: the numeral eent (one) is declined like the indefinite article (masculine een [objective eenen], feminine eene, neuter een) or a demonstrative or possessive pronoun (eena [objective eenen], eene, eent for the respective genders); when counting, the neuter pronoun form eent is used.

Instead of fiew, alw, twalw, some speakers say fief, alf, twalf (5, 11, 12).

The ordinal for 11th and 12th are: alfta, twalfta; from 13-19 use the ordinal + da: drettieenda (13th) ; from 20-99 use the ordinal + sta: fiew un twintichsta (25th). All ordinal numbers are declined like an adjective, the forms given here are masculine nominative.

The partitive numbers for 1/10, 1/11, 1/12 are een Tieedel, een Alftel, een Twalftel, for 13-19 add -del to the ordinal number, for 20-99 add -stel.

Syntax

Mennonite Low German shows similarity with High German in the word order. The basic word order is subject-verb-object as English. Indirect objects precede direct objects as in English John gives Mary a present. But that is where similarities end. A dependent verb, i. e. an infinitive or past participle comes at the end of the sentence where an Englishman would place it immediately after the main verb, as shown in the following: In linguistic typology, subject-verb-object (SVO) is the sequence subject verb object in neutral expressions: Sam ate oranges. ...

Mennonite Low German word order: Jehaun haft dän Desch jemoakt (John has the table made). English word order: John has made the table.

Mennonite Low German, like High German has been referred to as verb-second (V2) word order. In embedded clauses, words relating to time or space, can be placed at the sentence's beginning, but then the subject has to move after the main verb to keep that verb in second position. This pattern is demonstrated here: Verb-second (V2) word order, in syntax, is the effect that in some languages the second constituent of declarative main clauses is always a verb, while this is not necessarily the case in other types of clauses. ...

Mennonite Low German word order: Nu sie ekj schaftich. More Examples: Dan jeef de Kjennich siene Deena eenen Befäl. (Then the king gave his servants an order)

Also, effects tend to be placed last in the sentence. Example: En daut Kuffel wia soo väl Wota, daut et äwarand (In the cup, there was so much water, that it overflowed).

Mennonite Low German has syntactic patterns not found in High German, or at least not as often, such as the repetition of a subject, by a pronoun. Example: Mien Hoot dee haft dree Akjen. My hat it has three corners.

Questons, orders and exclamations have a verb first word order: Hast du daut oole Hus aun de fefte Gauss jeseenen? (have you seen the old house on fifth street?). All questions are arranged like this. There is no auxiliary verb to form questions. If there is a question word, that word precedes the verb: Wua es dien Voda jebuaren (where is your father born?). As in English, when using verbs in the imperative mood, it is not necessary to specify the person addressed, but it can be added for emphasis: brinj (du) mie emol dän Homa (please, (you,) bring the hammer to me). The word emol is frequently asked to soften the order as a word for please. Example of an exclamation: Es daut vondoag oba kolt! (is it cold today!).

Dependant clauses

As in High German, in dependent clauses, the verb goes at the end:

Ekj well morjen miene Mutta besieekjen, wan ekj Tiet hab. (I want to visit my mother, if I have time) . Observe the construction of: if I have time.

However, when a dependent clause has an infinitive or past participle, this rule is no longer strictly applied; there is a strong tendency to move the finite (main) verb before the infinitive or participle, the direct object (or even a long circunstancial complement):

Example: German word order requires a sentence structure like: hee fruach mie, auf ekj miene Mutta jistren daut Jelt jejäft haud. (Translation: he asked me, if I had given the money yesterday to my mother.) Even though that sounds right and perfectly understandable, most speakers would rearrange these same words as follows: hee fruach mie, auf ekj miene Mutta jistren haud daut Jelt jejäft. Another example: hee sajcht, daut sien Brooda jrod no de Staut jefoaren es/ hee sajcht, daut sien Brooda jrod es no de Staut jefoaren (hee says that his brother has just gone to the city). Observe: the verb precedes a prepositional phrase, but an adverb is still placed before it.

Writing

The Lord's Prayer in Dutch and two Low German dialects, Plautdietsch and Low German.

See also

Plautdietsch test of Wikipedia at Wikimedia Incubator

• East Low German
• Pennsylvania German
• Hutterite German (not closely related linguistically, but also used primarily by a religious group)
• Alexanderwohl Mennonite Church, a Low German Mennonite Church, Kansas, USA

Image File history File links Incubator-notext. ... Wikipedia (IPA: , or ( ) is a multilingual, web-based, free content encyclopedia project, operated by the Wikimedia Foundation, a non-profit organization. ... Incubator logo The Wikimedia Incubator is a wiki run by Wikimedia Foundation. ... East Low German is a group of Low German dialects spoken in Northeast Germany as well as by minorities in northern Poland. ... Pennsylvania German, or more commonly Pennsylvania Dutch, (Deitsch, Pennsylvania Deutsch, Pennsilfaanisch-Deitsch, Pennsilfaani-Deitsch, Pennsilweni-Deitsch, Pennsilfaanisch), is a West Central German variety spoken by 150,000 to 250,000 people in North America. ... Hutterite German (Hutterisch) is an Upper German dialect of the Austro-Bavarian variety of the German language, which is spoken by Hutterite communities in Canada and the United States. ... The Alexanderwohl Mennonite Church of Goessel, Kansas is a congregation affiliated with the Mennonite Church USA. The church has a long and illustrious history going back to the 16th century in Europe. ...

Notes

1. ^ Probably less than 300,000 Plautdietsch speakers out of nearly 8 million Low German speakers. Epp, pp. 102-5.
2. ^ De Smet 1983

References

• De Smet, Gilbert 1983: 'Niederländische Einflüsse im Niederdeutschen', in: Gerhard Cordes and Dieter Möhn (eds.), Handbuch zur niederdeutschen Sprach- und Literaturwissenschaft, Berlin: Erich Schmidt Verlag, ISBN 3-503-01645-7, pp. 730 - 761.
• Epp, Reuben The Story of Low German & Plautdietsch, Reader's Press, 1996. ISBN 0-9638494-0-9
• Kjenn jie noch Plautdietsch, Herman Rempel, 1987
• De Bibel, United Bible Societies, 2003

Further reading

• De Bibel, Kindred Productions, 2003. ISBN 0-921788-97-5
• Epp, Reuben The Spelling of Low German and Plautdietsch, Reader's Press, 1996. ISBN 978-0-9638494-1-0
• Rempel, Herman Kjenn Jie Noch Plautdietsch? A Mennonite Low German Dictionary, PrairieView Press, 1995. ISBN 1-896199-13-5
• Thiessen, Jack Mennonite Low German Dictionary / Mennonitisch-Plattdeutsches Wörterbuch, University of Wisconsin, 2003. ISBN 0-924119-09-8

External links

• Plautdietsch at Ethnologue
• Was ist Plautdietsch (in German)
• Plautdietsch-Freunde e.V. (Germany based NGO, world wide documentation and promotion of Plautdietsch)
• Opplautdietsch.de - Plautdietsch Radio e.V. Detmold, Germany
• Plautdietsch.ca - written and audio resources
• Dialect Literature and Speech, Low German from the Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia
• Pennsylvania German vs Plautdietsch among Mennonites
• Plautdietsch online Dictionary and grammar guide
• Peter Wiens - a German Plautdietsch blogger
• Plautdietsch course (project)