NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth

The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, official Rzeczpospolita Korony Polskiej i Wielkiego Księstwa Litewskiego,^[1] also known as the Most Serene Republic (Commonwealth) of the Two (Both) Nations (Peoples), (Polish: Pierwsza Rzeczpospolita or Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów; Lithuanian: Abiejų tautų respublika) or as the "First Republic", was one of the largest and most populous^[2] countries in 17th-century Europe. Its political structure—that of a semi-federal, semi-confederal aristocratic republic—was formed in 1569 by the Union of Lublin, which united the Crown of the Polish Kingdom and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and lasted in this form until the adoption of the Constitution of May 3, 1791. The Commonwealth covered not only the territories of what is now Poland and Lithuania, but also the entire territory of Belarus and Latvia, large parts of Ukraine and Estonia, and part of present-day western Russia (Smolensk and Kaliningrad oblasts). Originally the official languages of the Commonwealth were Polish and Latin (in the Kingdom of Poland) and Ruthenian and Lithuanian^[3] (in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania). Rzeczpospolita (pronounced: ) is a Polish word for republic or commonwealth, a calque translation of the Latin expression res publica (public affair). The word rzeczpospolita has been used in Poland since at least 16th century, originally a generic term to denote any democratic state. ... Polish (jÄ™zyk polski, polszczyzna) is the official language of Poland. ... For other uses, see Latins and Latin (disambiguation). ... The Kingdom of Poland of the Jagiellons was the Polish state in the years between the death of Casimir III in 1370 and the Union of Lublin in 1569. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (730x810, 414 KB) Coat of Arms of Piast dynasty The eagle was cropped from some {{Polishsymbol}} coat of arms made by Halibutt in Blender and GIMP Based on the excellent French WikipÃ©dia:Projet/Blasons and help from w:User:Snargle... The Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Lithuanian: , Ruthenian: Wialikaje Kniastwa Litowskaje, Ruskaje, Å»amojckaje, Belarusian: , Ukrainian: , Polish: , Latin: ) was an Eastern and Central European state of the 12th[1] /13th century until the 18th century. ... Image File history File links Coat_of_arms_of_Lithuania. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Anthem PreuÃŸenlied, Heil dir im Siegerkranz (both unofficial) The Kingdom of Prussia at its greatest extent, at the time of the formation of the German Empire, 1871 Capital Berlin Government Monarchy King - 1701 â€” 1713 Frederick I (first) - 1888 â€” 1918 William II (last) Prime minister - 1848 Adolf Heinrich von Arnim... Image File history File links Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy. ... Galicia (Ukrainian: Галичина (Halychyna), Polish: Galicja, German: Galizien, Slovak: Halič, Romanian: Galiţia, Hungarian: Gácsország) is the name of a region of Central Europe. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Russia. ... The subject of this article was previously also known as Russia. ... Image File history File links This is a lossless scalable vector image. ... Coat of Arms of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth The Coat of Arms of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was the symbol of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, representing the union of the Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania. ... For other uses, see Motto (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Latins and Latin (disambiguation). ... A cartridge-belt of Polish 18th century infantry, bearing the motto of Pro Fide, Lege and Rege Pro Fide, Lege et Rege (Latin: ) was an 18th century motto of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and then of Poland. ... Throughout the world there are many cities that were once national capitals but no longer have that status because the country ceased to exist, the capital was moved, or the capital city was renamed. ... For other uses, see Krakow (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Warsaw (disambiguation) and Warszawa (disambiguation). ... Hrodna (or Grodno; Belarusian: Го́радня, Гро́дна; Grodno in Polish, Гродно in Russian, Gardinas in Lithuanian) is a city in Belarus on the Nemunas river, close to the borders of Poland and Lithuania (about 15 km and 30 km away respectively). ... For other uses, see Latins and Latin (disambiguation). ... Catholic Church redirects here. ... Orthodox icon of Pentecost. ... Topics in Christianity Preaching Prayer Ecumenism Relation to other religions Movements Music Liturgy Calendar Symbols Art Criticism Christianity Portal This box: Protestantism encompasses the forms of Christian faith and practice that originated with the doctrines of the Reformation. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... For people named Islam, see Islam (name). ... Tatars or Tartars is a collective name applied to the Turkic-speaking people of Europe and Asia. ... For the documentary series, see Monarchy (TV series). ... Mieszko I. BolesÅ‚aw I Chrobry. ... Mieszko I. BolesÅ‚aw I Chrobry. ... The following is a list of Lithuanian rulers â€” grand dukes, kings, and presidents â€” when Lithuania was a sovereign state or was regarded as a separate entity (i. ... The following is a list of Lithuanian rulers â€” grand dukes, kings, and presidents â€” when Lithuania was a sovereign state or was regarded as a separate entity (i. ... A Legislature is a type of representative deliberative assembly with the power to create, amend and ratify laws. ... The Sejm building in Warsaw. ... The Union of Lublin, painted by Jan Matejko The Union of Lublin (Lithuanian: Liublino unija; Belarusian: Лю́блінская ву́нія; Polish: Unia lubelska) - signed on July 1, 1569 in Lublin, united the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into a single state, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, with the official... is the 182nd day of the year (183rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... The Partitions of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Polish: RozbiÃ³r Polski or Rozbiory Polski; Lithuanian: Lietuvos-Lenkijos padalijimai, Belarusian: ÐŸÐ°Ð´Ð·ÐµÐ»Ñ‹ Ð ÑÑ‡Ñ‹ ÐŸÐ°ÑÐ¿Ð°Ð»Ñ–Ñ‚Ð°Ð¹) took place in the 18th century and ended the existence of the sovereign Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. ... is the 217th day of the year (218th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1772 (MDCCLXXII) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a leap year starting on Sunday of the 11-day slower Julian calendar). ... May 3rd Constitution (painting by Jan Matejko, 1891). ... is the 123rd day of the year (124th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1791 (MDCCXCI) was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Tuesday of the 11-day-slower Julian calendar). ... The Partitions of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Polish: RozbiÃ³r Polski or Rozbiory Polski; Lithuanian: Lietuvos-Lenkijos padalijimai, Belarusian: ÐŸÐ°Ð´Ð·ÐµÐ»Ñ‹ Ð ÑÑ‡Ñ‹ ÐŸÐ°ÑÐ¿Ð°Ð»Ñ–Ñ‚Ð°Ð¹) took place in the 18th century and ended the existence of the sovereign Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. ... is the 23rd day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1793 (MDCCXCIII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Saturday of the 11-day slower Julian calendar). ... The Partitions of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Polish: RozbiÃ³r Polski or Rozbiory Polski; Lithuanian: Lietuvos-Lenkijos padalijimai, Belarusian: ÐŸÐ°Ð´Ð·ÐµÐ»Ñ‹ Ð ÑÑ‡Ñ‹ ÐŸÐ°ÑÐ¿Ð°Ð»Ñ–Ñ‚Ð°Ð¹) took place in the 18th century and ended the existence of the sovereign Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. ... is the 297th day of the year (298th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1795 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... This is a list of the countries of the world sorted by area. ... Population density per square kilometre by country, 2006 Population density map of the world in 1994. ... Population density per square kilometre by country, 2006 Population density map of the world in 1994. ... The term Most Serene Republic is a name used for three former countries: The Republic of Venice (the Most Serene Republic of Venice), city-state that existed in Italy from the 9th century until the 18th century. ... Rzeczpospolita (pronounced: ) is a Polish word for republic or commonwealth, a calque translation of the Latin expression res publica (public affair). The word rzeczpospolita has been used in Poland since at least 16th century, originally a generic term to denote any democratic state. ... Aristocrat redirects here. ... Look up republic in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... The Union of Lublin, painted by Jan Matejko The Union of Lublin (Lithuanian: Liublino unija; Belarusian: Лю́блінская ву́нія; Polish: Unia lubelska) - signed on July 1, 1569 in Lublin, united the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into a single state, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, with the official... Crown of the Polish Kingdom, or just colloquially the Crown (Polish:Korona) is the archaic name for territories of Poland, distinguishing them from territories of Grand Duchy of Lithuania or vassal territories like Duchy of Prussia or Duchy of Courland, which had varying degrees of autonomy. ... The Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Lithuanian: , Ruthenian: Wialikaje Kniastwa Litowskaje, Ruskaje, Å»amojckaje, Belarusian: , Ukrainian: , Polish: , Latin: ) was an Eastern and Central European state of the 12th[1] /13th century until the 18th century. ... May 3rd Constitution (painting by Jan Matejko, 1891). ... A view of Smolensk in 1912. ... Kaliningrad (Russian: ; Lithuanian: KaraliauÄius; German , Polish: KrÃ³lewiec; briefly Russified as Kyonigsberg), is a seaport and the administrative center of Kaliningrad Oblast, the Russian exclave between Poland and Lithuania on the Baltic Sea. ... Oblast (Czech: oblast, Slovak: oblasÅ¥, Russian and Ukrainian: , Belarusian: , Bulgarian: Ð¾ÌÐ±Ð»Ð°ÑÑ‚) refers to a subnational entity in some countries. ... For other uses, see Latins and Latin (disambiguation). ... Ruthenian was a historic East Slavic language, spoken in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and later in the East Slavic territories of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. ...

The Commonwealth was an extension of the Polish-Lithuanian Union, a personal union between those two states that had existed from 1386 (see Union of Krewo). The Commonwealth's political system, often called the Noble's democracy or Golden Freedom, was characterized by the sovereign's power being reduced by laws and the legislature (Sejm) controlled by the nobility (szlachta). This system was a precursor of the modern concepts of broader democracy^[4] and constitutional monarchy^[5]^[6]^[7] as well as federation.^[8] The two comprising states of the Commonwealth were formally equal, although in reality Poland was a dominant partner in the union.^[9] The Roman Catholic Church had a significant influence on the affairs of the Commonwealth, the state however was noted for having religious tolerance,^[10] although the degree of it varied with time.^[11] Its economy was mainly based on agriculture. While the Commonwealth's first century was a golden age^[12]^[13] for both Poland and Lithuania, the second century was marked by military defeats, a return to serfdom for the peasants (the second serfdom phenomenon^[14]), and growing anarchy^[7]^[15] in political life. Shortly before its demise, the Commonwealth adopted the world's second-oldest codified national constitution in modern history.^[16] The term Polish-Lithuanian union (or Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) refers to a series of acts and alliances between the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania that lasted for prolonged periods of time and led to the creation of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealthâ€”the Republic of the Two... It has been suggested that Dynastic union be merged into this article or section. ... The Union of Krewo (or Union of Krevo) was a a political and dynastic agreement between Queen Jadwiga of Poland and Grand Prince Jagiello of Lithuania and the begining of the Polish-Lithuanian Union. ... A political system is a system of politics and government. ... Main article: Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth The Nihil novi act adopted by the Polish Diet in 1505 transferred all legislative power from the king to the Diet. ... Golden Liberty (latin: Aurea Libertas, Polish: Złota Wolność, sometimes used in plural form; this phenomena can be also reffered to as Golden Freedoms, Nobles Democracy or Nobles Commonwealth, Polish: Rzeczpospolita Szlachecka) refers to a unique democratic political system in the Kingdom of Poland and later, after the Union of Lublin... Louis XIV, king of France and Navarre (Painting by Hyacinthe Rigaud, 1701). ... The Sejm building in Warsaw. ... StanisÅ‚aw Antoni Szczuka, a Polish nobleman Szlachta ( ) was the noble class in Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the two countries that later jointly formed the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. ... Forms of government Part of the Politics series Politics Portal This box: A constitutional monarchy or limited monarchy is a form of government established under a constitutional system which acknowledges an elected or hereditary monarch as head of state, as opposed to an absolute monarchy, where the monarch is not... This article is about federal states. ... Catholic Church redirects here. ... Freedom of religion is the individuals right or freedom to hold whatever religious beliefs he or she wishes, or none at all. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Serf redirects here. ... Costumes of Slaves or Serfs, from the Sixth to the Twelfth Centuries, collected by H. de Vielcastel, from original Documents in the great Libraries of Europe. ... In the realist theory of International Relations, the anarchical system that all states find themselves in is the lack of clear organisation of states into a hieracical order that is found within states. ... First page of the Codex Argenteus A codex (Latin for block of wood, book; plural codices) is a handwritten book, in general, one produced from Late Antiquity through the Middle Ages. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into modernity. ...

The Duchy of Warsaw, established in 1807, traced its origins to the Commonwealth. Other revival movements appeared during the January Uprising (1863–64) and in the 1920s, with Józef Piłsudski's failed attempt to create a Polish-led Międzymorze ("Between-Seas") federation that would have included Lithuania and Ukraine. Today's Republic of Poland considers itself a successor to the Commonwealth,^[17] whereas the Republic of Lithuania, re-established at the end of World War I, saw the participation of the Lithuanian state in the old Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth mostly in a negative light, at the early stages of regaining its independence,^[18] although the attitude has changed significantly.^{[citation needed]} Coat of arms Map of the Duchy of Warsaw after 1809. ... Polonia (Poland), 1863, by Jan Matejko, 1864, oil on canvas, 156 Ã— 232 cm, National Museum, KrakÃ³w. ... Pilsudski redirects here. ... MiÄ™dzymorze (Myen-dzih-MOH-zheh): name for JÃ³zef PiÅ‚sudskis proposed federation of Poland, Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine. ... This article is about federal states. ... â€œThe Great War â€ redirects here. ...

History

The creation of the Commonwealth by the Union of Lublin in 1569 was one of the signal achievements of Sigismund II Augustus, last king of the Jagiellon dynasty, in an effort to preserve the monarchy by adopting elective monarchy. His death in 1572 was followed by a three-year interregnum during which adjustments were made to the constitutional system that effectively increased the power of the nobility (the szlachta) and established a truly elective monarchy. Main article: Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth The Nihil novi act adopted by the Polish Diet in 1505 transferred all legislative power from the king to the Diet. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 800 Ã— 415 pixelsFull resolution (1891 Ã— 981 pixel, file size: 607 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth StanisÅ‚aw August... Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 800 Ã— 415 pixelsFull resolution (1891 Ã— 981 pixel, file size: 607 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth StanisÅ‚aw August... CioÅ‚ek - is a Polish Coat of Arms. ... Coordinates: , Country Voivodeship Powiat city county Gmina PoznaÅ„ Established 8th century City Rights 1253 Government - Mayor Ryszard Grobelny Area - City 261. ... The Union of Lublin, painted by Jan Matejko The Union of Lublin (Lithuanian: Liublino unija; Belarusian: Лю́блінская ву́нія; Polish: Unia lubelska) - signed on July 1, 1569 in Lublin, united the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into a single state, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, with the official... Sigismund II Augustus (Polish: , Lithuanian: ; 1 August 1520 â€” 7 July 1572) was the only son of Sigismund I the Old, King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, whom Sigismund II succeeded in 1548. ... The Jagiellons were a royal dynasty originating in Lithuania, which reigned in some Central European countries between the 14th and 16th century. ... An elective monarchy is a monarchy ruled by a someone who is elected by a group. ... For other uses, see Interregnum (disambiguation). ... Nobility is a traditional hereditary status (see hereditary titles) that exists today in many countries (mainly present or former monarchies). ... StanisÅ‚aw Antoni Szczuka, a Polish nobleman Szlachta ( ) was the noble class in Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the two countries that later jointly formed the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. ...

The Commonwealth reached its Golden Age in the first half of the 17th century. Its powerful parliament (the Sejm) was dominated by nobles who were reluctant to get involved in the Thirty Years' War, sparing the country from the ravages of this largely religious conflict devastating most of contemporary Europe. The Commonwealth was able to hold its own against Sweden, Russia, and vassals of the Ottoman Empire, and at times launched successful expansionist offensives against its neighbors. During several invasions of Russia, which was weakened in the early 17th century by the Time of Troubles, Commonwealth troops managed to take Moscow and hold on to it from 27 September 1610 to 4 November 1612, until driven out after a siege. This article does not cite any references or sources. ... This article is about the legislative institution. ... The Sejm building in Warsaw. ... Combatants Sweden Bohemia Denmark-Norway[1] Dutch Republic France Scotland England Saxony Holy Roman Empire Catholic League Austria Bavaria Spain Commanders Frederick V Buckingham Leven Gustav II Adolf â€ Johan Baner Cardinal Richelieu Louis II de Bourbon Vicomte de Turenne Christian IV of Denmark Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar Johann Georg I... Muscovy (Moscow principality (ÐºÐ½ÑÐ¶ÐµÑÑ‚Ð²Ð¾ ÐœÐ¾ÑÐºÐ¾Ð²ÑÐºÐ¾Ðµ) to Grand Duchy of Moscow (Ð’ÐµÐ»Ð¸ÐºÐ¾Ðµ ÐšÐ½ÑÐ¶ÐµÑÑ‚Ð²Ð¾ ÐœÐ¾ÑÐºÐ¾Ð²ÑÐºÐ¾Ðµ) to Russian Tsardom (Ð¦Ð°Ñ€ÑÑ‚Ð²Ð¾ Ð ÑƒÑÑÐºÐ¾Ðµ)) is a traditional Western name for the Russian state that existed from the 14th century to the late 17th century. ... Motto Ø¯ÙˆÙ„Øª Ø§Ø¨Ø¯ Ù…Ø¯Øª Devlet-i Ebed-mÃ¼ddet (The Eternal State) Anthem Ottoman imperial anthem Borders in 1683, see: list of territories Capital SÃ¶ÄŸÃ¼t (1299â€“1326) Bursa (1326â€“1365) Edirne (1365â€“1453) Ä°stanbul (1453â€“1922) Government Monarchy Sultans - 1281â€“1326 (first) Osman I - 1918â€“22 (last) Mehmed VI Grand Viziers - 1320... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Combatants Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Muscovite Russia Commanders Strength Casualties {{{notes}}} The Polish-Muscovite War (1605â€“1618) is the name of the series of wars (1605â€“1618) between the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Muscovite Russia (or Muscovy), in the background of the Russian dynastic crisis known as the Time of Troubles... The Time of Troubles (Russian: Ð¡Ð¼ÑƒÑ‚Ð½Ð¾Ðµ Ð²Ñ€ÐµÐ¼Ñ, Smutnoye Vremya) was a period of Russian history comprising the years of interregnum between the death of the last of the Moscow Rurikids, Tsar Feodor Ivanovich in 1598 and the establishment of the Romanov Dynasty in 1613. ... For other uses, see Moscow (disambiguation). ... is the 270th day of the year (271st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... // Events January 7 - Galileo Galilei discovers the Galilean moons of Jupiter. ... is the 308th day of the year (309th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Events January 20 - Mathias becomes Holy Roman Emperor. ... Combatants Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Muscovite Russia Commanders Strength Casualties {{{notes}}} The Polish-Muscovite War (1605â€“1618) is the name of the series of wars (1605â€“1618) between the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Muscovite Russia (or Muscovy), in the background of the Russian dynastic crisis known as the Time of Troubles...

Commonwealth power waned after a double blow in 1648. The first blow was history's greatest Cossack rebellion (the Khmelnytskyi Uprising, supported by Crimean Khanate Tatars, in the eastern territories of Kresy), which resulted in Cossacks asking for the protection of the Russian Tzar^[19] (1654) thus leading to Russian influence over Ukraine gradually supplanting the Polish. The other blow to the Commonwealth was the Swedish invasion in 1655 (supported by troops of Transylvanian duke George II Rakoczy and Friedrich Wilhelm I, Elector of Brandenburg), known as The Deluge, provoked by the policies of Commonwealth kings from the Swedish royal House of Vasa. Download high resolution version (2000x1568, 304 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Download high resolution version (2000x1568, 304 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Combatants Cossacks Poland-Lithuania Commanders Bohdan Khmelnytsky MikoÅ‚aj Potocki, Jeremi WiÅ›niowiecki Khmelnytskyi Uprising (also Chmielnicki Uprising or Chmielnicki Rebellion) is the name of a civil war in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the years 1648â€“1654. ... Flag Crimean Khanate in 1600 Capital Bakhchisaray Government Monarchy History - Established 1441 - Annexed to Russia 1783 The Crimean Khanate or the Khanate of Crimea (Crimean Tatar: ; Russian: - Krymskoye khanstvo; Ukrainian: - Krymske khanstvo; Turkish: ) was a Crimean Tatar state from 1441 to 1783. ... Polish voivodeships 1922-1939. ... Pereyaslav Rada The Treaty of Pereyaslav was concluded in 1654 in the Ukrainian city of Pereyaslav during the meeting known as Pereyaslavska Uhoda (Pereyaslav Treaty). ... This article is about the region in Romania. ... The RÃ¡kÃ³czi were a noble family in the Kingdom of Hungary between the 13th century and 18th century. ... Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg. ... The prince-electors or electoral princes of the Holy Roman Empire — German: Kurfürst (singular) Kurfürsten (plural) — were the members of the electoral college of the Holy Roman Empire, having the function of electing the Emperors of Germany. ... For the similarly spelled Brandenberg, see Brandenberg (Austria) or Brandenburg (disambiguation) Location Coordinates , , Time zone CET/CEST (UTC+1/+2) Administration Country NUTS Region DE4 Capital Potsdam Minister-President Matthias Platzeck (SPD) Governing parties SPD / CDU Votes in Bundesrat 4 (of 69) Basic statistics Area 29,479 kmÂ² (11,382... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... The Vasa Coat of Arms The House of Vasa was the Royal House of Sweden (1523-1654) and of Poland (1587-1668). ...

In the late 17th century, the weakened Commonwealth under King John III Sobieski in alliance with the forces of the Holy Roman emperor Leopold I dealt crushing defeats to the Ottoman Empire: In 1683, the Battle of Vienna marked the final turning point in a 250-year struggle between the forces of Christian Europe and the Islamic Ottoman Empire. For its centuries-long stance against the Muslim advances, the Commonwealth would gain the name of Antemurale Christianitatis (forefront of Christianity).^[8] Over the next 16 years (in the "Great Turkish War"), the Turks would be permanently driven south of the Danube River, never to threaten central Europe again. For other monarchs with similar names, please see John of Poland. ... Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I Habsburg (June 9, 1640 â€“ May 5, 1705), Holy Roman emperor, was the second son of the emperor Ferdinand III and his first wife Maria Anna, daughter of Philip III of Spain. ... // For siege of Vienna in 1529 see Siege of Vienna Combatants Holy League: Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Austria, Saxony, Franconia, Swabia, Bavaria Ottoman Empire, Khanate of Crimea, Transylvania, Wallachia, Moldavia Commanders John III Sobieski, Charles V of Lorraine Kara Mustafa Pasha Strength 70,000, (10,000 during siege) 138,000, (200... Topics in Christianity Preaching Prayer Ecumenism Relation to other religions Movements Music Liturgy Calendar Symbols Art Criticism Christianity Portal This box: Christianity is a monotheistic[1] religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as presented in the New Testament. ... For people named Islam, see Islam (name). ... The Great Turkish War refers to a series of conflicts between the Ottoman Empire and contemporary European powers, then joined into a Holy League, during the second half of the 17th century. ... Length 2,888 km Elevation of the source 1,078 m Average discharge 30 km before Passau: 580 m³/s Vienna: 1,900 m³/s Budapest: 2,350 m³/s just before Delta: 6,500 m³/s Area watershed 817,000 km² Origin Black Forest (Schwarzwald-Baar, Baden- Württemberg, Germany... Central Europe is the region lying between the variously and vaguely defined areas of Eastern and Western Europe. ...

By the 18th century, the Commonwealth was facing many internal problems and was vulnerable to foreign influences. Destabilization of its political system brought it to the brink of anarchy. Attempts at reform, such as those made by the Four-Year Sejm of 1788–92, which culminated in the May 3rd Constitution of 1791, came too late, and the country was partitioned in three stages by the neighboring Russian Empire, Kingdom of Prussia, and the Habsburg Monarchy. By 1795, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth had been completely erased from the map of Europe. Poland and Lithuania re-established their independence, as separate countries, only in 1918. Anarchist redirects here. ... Sejm Czteroletni (Four-Year Sejm, also known as Sejm Wielki, the Great Sejm) was a Sejm of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth held in Warsaw, inaugurated in 1788. ... May 3rd Constitution (painting by Jan Matejko, 1891). ... The Partitions of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Polish: RozbiÃ³r Polski or Rozbiory Polski; Lithuanian: Lietuvos-Lenkijos padalijimai, Belarusian: ÐŸÐ°Ð´Ð·ÐµÐ»Ñ‹ Ð ÑÑ‡Ñ‹ ÐŸÐ°ÑÐ¿Ð°Ð»Ñ–Ñ‚Ð°Ð¹) took place in the 18th century and ended the existence of the sovereign Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. ... The subject of this article was previously also known as Russia. ... Anthem PreuÃŸenlied, Heil dir im Siegerkranz (both unofficial) The Kingdom of Prussia at its greatest extent, at the time of the formation of the German Empire, 1871 Capital Berlin Government Monarchy King - 1701 â€” 1713 Frederick I (first) - 1888 â€” 1918 William II (last) Prime minister - 1848 Adolf Heinrich von Arnim... The Habsburg Monarchy, often called Austrian Monarchy or simply Austria, are the territories ruled by the Austrian branch of the House of Habsburg, and then by the successor House of Habsburg-Lorraine, between 1526 and 1867/1918. ...

State organization and politics

This article discusses the organizational and administrative structure of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. ...

Golden Liberty

The political doctrine of the Commonwealth of Both Nations was: our state is a republic under the presidency of the King. Chancellor Jan Zamoyski summed up this doctrine when he said that Rex regnat et non gubernat ("The King reigns but does not govern"). The Commonwealth had a parliament, the Sejm, as well as a Senat and an elected king. The king was obliged to respect citizens' rights specified in King Henry's Articles as well as in pacta conventa, negotiated at the time of his election. Golden Liberty (latin: Aurea Libertas, Polish: Złota Wolność, sometimes used in plural form; this phenomena can be also reffered to as Golden Freedoms, Nobles Democracy or Nobles Commonwealth, Polish: Rzeczpospolita Szlachecka) refers to a unique democratic political system in the Kingdom of Poland and later, after the Union of Lublin... Jan Matejko (1838-1893) The two-dimensional work of art depicted in this image is in the public domain in the United States and in those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100 years. ... Jan Matejko (1838-1893) The two-dimensional work of art depicted in this image is in the public domain in the United States and in those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100 years. ... The Union of Lublin, painted by Jan Matejko The Union of Lublin (Lithuanian: Liublino unija; Belarusian: Лю́блінская ву́нія; Polish: Unia lubelska) - signed on July 1, 1569 in Lublin, united the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into a single state, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, with the official... Jan Matejko , self-portrait. ... Kanclerz (Polish for Chancellor, from latin:castellanus) was one of the highest officials in the historic Poland. ... Noble Family Zamoyski Coat of Arms Jelita Parents Stanisław Zamoyski Anna Herburt Consorts Anna Ossolińska Krystyna Radziwiłł Gryzelda Batory Barbara Tarnowska Children with Barbara Tarnowska Tomasz Zamoyski Date of Birth March 19, 1542 Place of Birth Skokówka, Poland Date of Death June 3, 1605 Place of Death Zamość, Poland Jan... A senate is a deliberative body, often the upper house or chamber of a legislature. ... King Henrys Articles - Wikipedia /**/ @import /skins/monobook/IE50Fixes. ... The first pacta conventa, acceded to by Henryk Walezy (Henri de Valois), 1573. ...

The monarch's power was limited, in favor of a sizable noble class. Each new king had to subscribe to King Henry's Articles, which were the basis of Poland's political system (and included near-unprecedented guarantees of religious tolerance). Over time, King Henry's Articles were merged with the pacta conventa, specific pledges agreed to by the king-elect. From that point onwards, the king was effectively a partner with the noble class and was constantly supervised by a group of senators. Freedom of religion is the individuals right or freedom to hold whatever religious beliefs he or she wishes, or none at all. ... A senate is a deliberative body, often the upper house or chamber of a legislature. ...

The foundation of the Commonwealth's political system, the "Golden Liberty" (Polish: Zlota Wolność, a term used from 1573 on), included: Golden Liberty (latin: Aurea Libertas, Polish: Złota Wolność, sometimes used in plural form; this phenomena can be also reffered to as Golden Freedoms, Nobles Democracy or Nobles Commonwealth, Polish: Rzeczpospolita Szlachecka) refers to a unique democratic political system in the Kingdom of Poland and later, after the Union of Lublin...

The three regions (see below) of the Commonwealth enjoyed a degree of autonomy.^[20] Each voivodship had its own parliament (sejmik), which exercised serious political power, including choice of poseł (deputy) to the national Sejm and charging of the deputy with specific voting instructions. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania had its own separate army, treasury and most other official institutions.^[21] Election of Michal Korybut Wisniowiecki as king of Poland at Wola, outside Warsaw ( 1669). ... The Sejm building in Warsaw. ... The first pacta conventa, acceded to by Henryk Walezy (Henri de Valois), 1573. ... For other uses, see Latins and Latin (disambiguation). ... King Henrys Articles - Wikipedia /**/ @import /skins/monobook/IE50Fixes. ... A rokosz (ROH-kosh), originally, was a gathering of all the Polish szlachta (nobility), not merely of deputies, for a sejm. ... Insurrection could refer to: * in a general sense, it means Rebellion * it is also a title of a Star Trek film, see Star Trek: Insurrection ... Liberum veto (Latin: free veto) was a parliamentary device in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth that allowed any deputy to a Sejm to force an immediate end to the current session and nullify all legislation already passed at it. ... Liberum veto (Latin: free veto) was a parliamentary device in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth that allowed any deputy to a Sejm to force an immediate end to the current session and nullify all legislation already passed at it. ... A sejmik (diminutive of the Polish sejm, or parliament) was a regional sejm in the pre-partition Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and earlier in the Kingdom of Poland. ... Konfederacja (Polish for confederation) was a temporary association formed by Polish nobility (szlachta), clergy or cities in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth for the attainment of stated aims. ... Konfederacja (Polish for confederation) was a temporary association formed by Polish nobility (szlachta), clergy or cities in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth for the attainment of stated aims. ... The Republic at Zenith of Power. ... The Republic at Zenith of Power. ... Golden Liberty (latin: Aurea Libertas, Polish: Złota Wolność, sometimes used in plural form; this phenomena can be also reffered to as Golden Freedoms, Nobles Democracy or Nobles Commonwealth, Polish: Rzeczpospolita Szlachecka) refers to a unique democratic political system in the Kingdom of Poland and later, after the Union of Lublin... Election of Michal Korybut Wisniowiecki as king of Poland at Wola, outside Warsaw ( 1669). ... Jan Matejko , self-portrait. ... An autonomous (subnational) entity is a subnational entity that has a certain amount of autonomy. ... A Voivodship (also voivodeship, Romanian: voievodat, Polish: wojewÃ³dztwo, Serbian: vojvodstvo or vojvodina) was a feudal state in medieval Romania, Hungary, Poland, Russia and Serbia (see Vojvodina), ruled by a Voivod (voivode). ... The Sejm building in Warsaw. ... Chamber of Deputies is the name given to a legislative body, which may either be the lower house of a bicameral legislature, or the name of a unicameral one. ... The Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Lithuanian: , Ruthenian: Wialikaje Kniastwa Litowskaje, Ruskaje, Å»amojckaje, Belarusian: , Ukrainian: , Polish: , Latin: ) was an Eastern and Central European state of the 12th[1] /13th century until the 18th century. ...

Golden Liberty created a state that was unusual for its time, although somewhat similar political systems existed in the contemporary city-states like the Republic of Venice.^[22] (Interestingly, both states were styled the "Most Serene Republic".^[23]) At a time when most European countries were headed toward centralization, absolute monarchy and religious and dynastic warfare, the Commonwealth experimented with decentralization,^[8] confederation and federation, democracy, religious tolerance, and even pacifism. Since the Sejm usually vetoed a monarch's plans for war, this constitutes a notable argument for the democratic peace theory.^[24] A political system is a system of politics and government. ... A city-state is a region controlled exclusively by a city. ... Borders of the Republic of Venice in 1796 Capital Venice Language(s) Venetian, Latin, Italian Religion Roman Catholicism Government Republic Doge - 1789â€“97 Ludovico Manin History - Established 697 - Treaty of Zara June 27, 1358 - Treaty of Leoben April 17, 1797 * Traditionally, the establishment of the Republic is dated to 697. ... The term Most Serene Republic is a name used for three former countries: The Republic of Venice (the Most Serene Republic of Venice), city-state that existed in Italy from the 9th century until the 18th century. ... The Politics series Politics Portal This box: Centralization (or centralisation) is the process by which the activities of an organization, particularly those regarding decision-making, become concentrated within a particular location and/or group. ... Forms of government Part of the Politics series Politics Portal This box: Absolute monarchy is a monarchical form of government where the monarch has the power to rule his or her land or country and its citizens freely, with no laws or legally-organized direct opposition in force. ... Decentralization is the process of dispersing decision-making closer to the point of service or action. ... The monarchs of the member states of the German Confederation meet at Frankfurt in 1863. ... This article is about federal states. ... Freedom of religion is the individuals right or freedom to hold whatever religious beliefs he or she wishes, or none at all. ... Pacifist redirects here. ... The democratic peace theory, liberal peace theory,[1] or simply the democratic peace is a theory and related empirical research in international relations, political science, and philosophy which holds that democracies â€” usually, liberal democracies â€” never or almost never go to war with one another. ...

This political system unusual for its time stemmed from the victories of the szlachta noble class over other social classes and over the political system of monarchy. In time, the szlachta accumulated enough privileges (such as those established by the Nihil novi Act of 1505) that no monarch could hope to break the szlachta's grip on power. The Commonwealth's political system is difficult to fit into a simple category, but it can be tentatively described as a mixture of: Nobility is a traditional hereditary status (see hereditary titles) that exists today in many countries (mainly present or former monarchies). ... A political system is a system of politics and government. ... For the documentary series, see Monarchy (TV series). ... A fragment of this article needs translation from Polish into English. ...

The monarchs of the member states of the German Confederation meet at Frankfurt in 1863. ... This article is about federal states. ... Look up Oligarchy in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Legislation (or statutory law) is law which has been promulgated (or enacted) by a legislature or other governing body. ... Download high resolution version (476x619, 74 KB)Jan Zamoyski. ... Download high resolution version (476x619, 74 KB)Jan Zamoyski. ... Kanclerz (Polish for Chancellor, from latin:castellanus) was one of the highest officials in the historic Poland. ... For the Ukrainian politician, see Vadym Hetman. ... Noble Family Zamoyski Coat of Arms Jelita Parents Stanisław Zamoyski Anna Herburt Consorts Anna Ossolińska Krystyna Radziwiłł Gryzelda Batory Barbara Tarnowska Children with Barbara Tarnowska Tomasz Zamoyski Date of Birth March 19, 1542 Place of Birth Skokówka, Poland Date of Death June 3, 1605 Place of Death Zamość, Poland Jan... Jelita - is a Polish Coat of Arms. ... For other uses of this word, see Silk (disambiguation). ... Jan Zamoyski in crimson kontusz and blue silk Å¼upan tied with pas kontuszowy. ... For the Ukrainian politician, see Vadym Hetman. ... Hetman Jan Zamoyski in crimson kontusz and blue silk Å¼upan tied with pas kontuszowy. ... An elective monarchy is a monarchy ruled by a someone who is elected by a group. ... Forms of government Part of the Politics series Politics Portal This box: A constitutional monarchy or limited monarchy is a form of government established under a constitutional system which acknowledges an elected or hereditary monarch as head of state, as opposed to an absolute monarchy, where the monarch is not...

The political players

The major players in the politics of the Commonwealth were: A Polish Nobleman by Rembrandt 1637 The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (properly, the Commonwealth of Both Nations: in Polish, Rzeczpospolita Obojga NarodÃ³w; in Belarusian, Ð ÑÑ‡ ÐŸÐ°ÑÐ¿Ð°Ð»Ñ–ÌÑ‚Ð°Ñ) was a federal monarchic republic comprising the Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania, 1569 â€“ 1795. ...

The magnates and the szlachta were far from united, with many factions supporting either the monarch or various of the magnates. Louis XIV, king of France and Navarre (Painting by Hyacinthe Rigaud, 1701). ... Forms of government Part of the Politics series Politics Portal This box: Absolute monarchy is a monarchical form of government where the monarch has the power to rule his or her land or country and its citizens freely, with no laws or legally-organized direct opposition in force. ... Polish Magnate (17th century) Magnate, from the Late Latin magnas, a great man, itself from Latin magnus great, designates a noble or other man in a high social position, by birth, wealth or other qualities. ... Look up Oligarchy in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... StanisÅ‚aw Antoni Szczuka, a Polish nobleman Szlachta ( ) was the noble class in Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the two countries that later jointly formed the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. ...

Shortcomings of the Commonwealth

Once the Jagiellons had disappeared from the scene in 1572, the fragile equilibrium of the Commonwealth's government was disrupted. Power increasingly slipped away from the central government to the nobility. Rejtan - The Fall of Poland painted by Jan Matejko This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Rejtan - The Fall of Poland painted by Jan Matejko This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Tadeusz Rejtan (also in the Old Polish spelling: Tadeusz Reytan) (1742-1780) was a Polish nobleman, a member of confederation of Bar, Member of Sejm for the Nowogród constituency. ... Royal Castle in Warsaw Royal Castle after the Warsaw Uprising Royal Castle in Warsaw (Polish Zamek KrÃ³lewski), is the royal palace and official residence of the Polish monarchs, in Warsaw. ... The Partitions of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Polish: RozbiÃ³r Polski or Rozbiory Polski; Lithuanian: Lietuvos-Lenkijos padalijimai, Belarusian: ÐŸÐ°Ð´Ð·ÐµÐ»Ñ‹ Ð ÑÑ‡Ñ‹ ÐŸÐ°ÑÐ¿Ð°Ð»Ñ–Ñ‚Ð°Ð¹) took place in the 18th century and ended the existence of the sovereign Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. ... The Jagiellons were a royal dynasty originating in Lithuania, which reigned in some Central European countries between the 14th and 16th century. ...

When presented with periodic opportunities to fill the throne, the szlachta exhibited a preference for foreign candidates who would not found another strong dynasty. This policy often produced monarchs who were either totally ineffective or in constant debilitating conflict with the nobility. Furthermore, aside from notable exceptions such as the able Transylvanian Stefan Batory (1576–86), the kings of foreign origin were inclined to subordinate the interests of the Commonwealth to those of their own country and ruling house. This was especially visible in the policies and actions of the first two elected kings from the Swedish House of Vasa, whose politics brought the Commonwealth into conflict with Sweden, culminating in the war known as The Deluge (1648), one of the events that mark the end of the Commonwealth's Golden Age and the beginning of the Commonwealth's decline. // For other uses, see Dynasty (disambiguation). ... This article is about the region in Romania. ... For other persons of the same name, see BÃ¡thory. ... The Vasa Coat of Arms The House of Vasa was the Royal House of Sweden (1523-1654) and of Poland (1587-1668). ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...

Zebrzydowski's rokosz (1606–07) marked a substantial increase in the power of the magnates, and the transformation of szlachta democracy into magnate oligarchy. The Commonwealth's political system was vulnerable to outside interference, as Sejm deputies bribed^[25]^[26] by foreign powers might use their liberum veto to block attempted reforms. This sapped the Commonwealth and plunged it into political paralysis and anarchy for over a century, from the mid-17th century to the end of the 18th, while its neighbors stabilized their internal affairs and increased their military might. Rokosz of Zebrzydowski (also known as Zebrzydowski Rebellion, Polish: rokosz Zebrzydowskiego) was a rokosz (semi-legal rebellion) in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth against its king Zygmunt III Waza. ... Polish Magnate (17th century) Magnate, from the Late Latin magnas, a great man, itself from Latin magnus great, designates a noble or other man in a high social position, by birth, wealth or other qualities. ... Bribery is the practice of offering a professional money or other favours in order to circumvent ethics in a variety of professions. ...

Late reforms

The Commonwealth did eventually make a serious effort to reform its political system, adopting in 1791 the May 3rd Constitution, Europe's first^[16] codified national constitution in Modern Times, and the world's second, after the United States Constitution, which had been ratified two years earlier. The revolutionary Constitution recast the erstwhile Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as a Polish–Lithuanian federal state with a hereditary monarchy and abolished many of the deleterious features of the old system. The new constitution: Source: from Polish wiki: http://pl. ... Source: from Polish wiki: http://pl. ... May 3rd Constitution (painting by Jan Matejko, 1891). ... Jan Matejko , self-portrait. ... Categories: Stub | Buildings in Poland | Castles in Poland | Warsaw ... May 3rd Constitution (painting by Jan Matejko, 1891). ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into modernity. ... Wikisource has original text related to this article: The United States Constitution The United States Constitution is the supreme law of the United States of America. ... A hereditary monarchy is the most common style of monarchy and is the form that is used by almost all of the worlds existing monarchies. ...

These reforms came too late, however, as the Commonwealth was immediately invaded from all sides by its neighbors which were content to leave the Commonwealth alone as a weak buffer state, but reacted strongly to king Stanisław August Poniatowski's and other reformers' attempts to strengthen the country.^[20] Russia feared the revolutionary implications of the May 3rd Constitution's political reforms and the prospect of the Commonwealth regaining its position as a European empire. Catherine the Great regarded the May constitution as fatal to her influence^[27] and declared the Polish constitution Jacobinical.^[28] Grigori Aleksandrovich Potemkin drafted the act for the Confederation of Targowica, referring to the constitution as the "contagion of democratic ideas".^[29] Meanwhile, Prussia and Austria, also afraid of a strengthened Poland, used it as a pretext for further territorial expansion.^[28] Prussian minister Ewald von Hertzberg called the constitution "a blow to the Prussian monarchy",^[30] fearing that strengthened Poland would once again dominate Prussia.^[31]^[27] In the end, the May 3rd Constitution was never fully implemented, and the Commonwealth entirely ceased to exist only four years after the Constitution's adoption. Liberum veto (Latin: free veto) was a parliamentary device in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth that allowed any deputy to a Sejm to force an immediate end to the current session and nullify all legislation already passed at it. ... The Politics series Politics Portal This box: Separation of powers is a term coined by French political Enlightenment thinker Baron de Montesquieu[1][2], is a model for the governance of democratic states. ... A legislature is a governmental deliberative body with the power to adopt laws. ... The judiciary, also referred to as the judicature, consists of justices, judges and magistrates among other types of adjudicators. ... Popular sovereignty or the sovereignty of the people is the belief that the legitimacy of the state is created by the will or consent of its people, who are the source of all political power. ... Politics is the process by which decisions are made within groups. ... For the direction right, see left and right or starboard. ... Nobility is a traditional hereditary status (see hereditary titles) that exists today in many countries (mainly present or former monarchies). ... Bourgeois redirects here. ... Categories: 1911 Britannica | Historical stubs | Feudalism ... Freedom of religion is the individuals right or freedom to hold whatever religious beliefs he or she wishes, or none at all. ... For other uses, see Apostasy (disambiguation). ... // StanisÅ‚aw II August Poniatowski (born Count StanisÅ‚aw Antoni Poniatowski; January 17, 1732-February 12, 1798) was the last King and Grand Duke of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1764-95). ... May 3rd Constitution (painting by Jan Matejko, 1891). ... Catherine II (Екатерина II Алексеевна: Yekaterína II Alekséyevna, April 21, 1729 - November 6, 1796), born Sophie Augusta Fredericka, known as Catherine the Great, reigned as empress of Russia from June 28, 1762, to her death on November 6, 1796. ... In the context of the French Revolution, a Jacobin originally meant a member of the Jacobin Club (1789-1794), but even at that time, the term Jacobins had been popularly applied to all promulgators of extreme revolutionary opinions: for example, Jacobin democracy is synonymous with totalitarian democracy. ... Prince Grigori Aleksandrovich Potemkin (Russian: Григорий Александрович Потемкин) (September 13, 1739 (NS: September 24) – October 5, 1791 (NS: October 16)) was a Russian general-field marshal, statesman, and favorite of Catherine II the Great. ... Categories: Stub | Polish confederations ... Ewald Friedrich, Count von Hertzberg (1725 â€“ May 22, 1795), Prussian statesman, who came of a noble family which had been settled in Pomerania since the 13th century, was born at Lottin, in that province. ...

Commonwealth military

Commonwealth armies were commanded by two Grand Hetmans and two Field Hetmans. The armies comprised: Image File history File links Husarz1. ... Image File history File links Husarz1. ... A British Hussar from the Crimean War Hussar (original Hungarian spelling: huszÃ¡r, plural huszÃ¡rok, Polish: Husaria) refers to a number of types of cavalry used throughout Europe since the 15th century. ... JÃ³zef Brandt Signature of JÃ³zef Brandt JÃ³zef Brandt (b. ... Polish Army (Polish Wojsko Polskie) is the name applied to the military forces of Poland. ... For the Ukrainian politician, see Vadym Hetman. ...

Some units of the Commonwealth included: Wojsko kwarciane (quarter army) was the term used for regular army units of Poland (Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth). ... Wojsko komputowe is a type of military units used in Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 17th century and 18th century. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with levÃ©e en masse. ... LevÃ©e en masse (literally Mass uprising) is a French term for mass conscription. ... Wojsko komputowe (comput army) is a type of military unit used in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the 17th century and the 18th century. ... Registered Cossacks - Wikipedia /**/ @import /skins/monobook/IE50Fixes. ... For other uses, see Cossack (disambiguation). ... This is an article on the military formation called tabor. ... A Royal Guard describes any group of military bodyguard or retainer responsible for the protection of a royal person, such as a King or Queen. ... For other uses, see Mercenary (disambiguation). ... A paramilitary organization is a group of civilians trained and organized in a military fashion. ... Polish Magnate (17th century) Magnate, from the Late Latin magnas, a great man, itself from Latin magnus great, designates a noble or other man in a high social position, by birth, wealth or other qualities. ...

The Commonwealth Navy was small and played a relatively minor role in the history of the Commonwealth, but won the very important naval battle of Oliwa, breaking Swedish sea blockade in 1627. On the Black Sea, Cossacks with their small boats (czajka) were known for their plundering raids against the Ottoman Empire and its vassals (they even burned suburbs of Istanbul once or twice). A British Hussar from the Crimean War Hussar (original Hungarian spelling: huszÃ¡r, plural huszÃ¡rok, Polish: Husaria) refers to a number of types of cavalry used throughout Europe since the 15th century. ... The term lance has become a catchall for a variety of different pole weapons based on the spear. ... Battle of WoÅ‚odarka Polish infantry charging enemy positions during the Polish Defensive War A charge is a maneuver in battle in which soldiers advance towards their enemy at their best speed to engage in close combat. ... Firearms redirects here. ... Towarzysz (pancerny) in 1610-1630. ... Towarzysz husarski - Wikipedia /**/ @import /skins/monobook/IE50Fixes. ... Poczet (fellowship or retinue) (plural Poczty) was the smallest organized unit of soldiers in Kingdom of Poland and Polish-Lithuanian Commownealth from the 15th until the 18th century. ... Towarzysz pancerny Towarzysz pancerny (companion of mail-coated cavalry), plural: Towarzysze pancerni or Pancerni the name of a class of medium cavalry in 17th and 18th century Poland, so called after their armour made of chainmail (Old Polish pancerz). ... Poczet (fellowship or retinue) (plural Poczty) was the smallest organized unit of soldiers in Kingdom of Poland and Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from the 15th until the 18th century. ... A Browning 9 millimeter Hi-Power Ordnance pistol of the French Navy, 19th century, using a Percussion cap mechanism Derringers were small and easily hidden. ... Reiters (German: Reiter, or horserider) were a type of cavalry, which appeared in the armies of Western Europe in the 16th century, in place of the outmoded lance-armed knights, along with the cuirassiers and dragoons. ... This is an article on the military formation called tabor. ... For other uses, see Wagon (disambiguation). ... Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Navy - Wikipedia /**/ @import /skins/monobook/IE50Fixes. ... The naval Battle of Oliwa or Battle of GdaÅ„sk Roadstead took place on 28 November 1627 during the Polish-Swedish war outside GdaÅ„sk harbour, but it is commonly known as the Battle of Oliwa (Oliwa is now a part of GdaÅ„sk). ... For other uses, see Black Sea (disambiguation). ... A vassal, in European medieval feudalism terminology, is one who through a commendation ceremony (composed of homage and fealty) enters into mutual obligations with a lord, usually military conscription and mutual protection, in exchange for a fief. ... Location of Istanbul on the Bosphorus Strait, Turkey Coordinates: , Country Turkey Region Province Istanbul Founded 667 BC as Byzantium Roman/Byzantine period AD 330 as Nova Roma (original name given in 330 and used during Constantines reign) and later Constantinople (following Constantines death in 337) Ottoman period 1453...

Economy

The economy of the Commonwealth was dominated by feudal agriculture based on exploitation of agricultural workforce (serfs). Slavery in Poland was forbidden in the 15th century; in Lithuania, slavery was formally abolished in 1588.^[32] they were replaced by the second enserfment. Typically a nobleman's landholding comprised a folwark, a large farm worked by serfs to produce surpluses for internal and external trade. This economic arrangement worked well for the ruling classes in the early era of the Commonwealth, which was one of the most prosperous eras of the grain trade[13]. However the country's situation worsened from the late 17th century on, when the landed szlachta sought to compensate for falling grain prices by increasing the peasants' workload, thus leading to the creation of second serfdom, a phenomenon common throughout contemporary Eastern Europe. Image File history File links Zboze_Placi. ... Image File history File links Zboze_Placi. ... Image File history File links Zboze_Nie_Placi. ... Image File history File links Zboze_Nie_Placi. ... Wilhelm August Stryowski (1834-1917), Obóz flisaków nad Wisłą, This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Wilhelm August Stryowski (1834-1917), Obóz flisaków nad Wisłą, This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... For other uses, see Vistula (disambiguation). ... Polish szlachta (nobility) in GdaÅ„sk, by Stryowski. ... Stephen Bathory File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Stephen Bathory File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... This article is about monetary coins. ... For other persons of the same name, see BÃ¡thory. ... Regia Civitatis Gedanensis - Gdansk coin of 1589 This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Regia Civitatis Gedanensis - Gdansk coin of 1589 This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... For alternative meanings of GdaÅ„sk and Danzig, see GdaÅ„sk (disambiguation) and Danzig (disambiguation) Motto: Nec temere, nec timide (No rashness, no timidness) Coordinates: , Country Voivodeship Powiat city county Gmina GdaÅ„sk Established 10th century City Rights 1263 Government - Mayor PaweÅ‚ Adamowicz Area - City 262 kmÂ² (101. ... Sigismund III Vasa (Polish: ) (20 June 1566 â€“ 30 April 1632 N.S.) was King of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1587 to 1632, and King of Sweden (where he was known simply as Sigismund) from 1592 until he was deposed in 1599. ... Roland pledges his fealty to Charlemagne; from a manuscript of a chanson de geste Feudalism, a term first used in the late modern period (17th century), in its most classic sense refers to a Medieval European political system comprised of a set of reciprocal legal and military obligations among the... A plantation economy is an economy which is based on agricultural mass production, usually of a few staple products grown on large farms called plantations. ... Costumes of Slaves or Serfs, from the Sixth to the Twelfth Centuries, collected by H. de Vielcastel, from original Documents in the great Libraries of Europe. ... Slave redirects here. ... Folwark is a Polish word for the giant farms (in Latin, latifundia) that were operated in Poland or the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from the 14th century into the 20th, whose purpose was to produce surplus produce for export. ... For other uses, see Farm (disambiguation). ... Costumes of Slaves or Serfs, from the Sixth to the Twelfth Centuries, collected by H. de Vielcastel, from original Documents in the great Libraries of Europe. ... Grain redirects here. ... For the surname, see Price (surname). ... Costumes of Slaves or Serfs, from the Sixth to the Twelfth Centuries, collected by H. de Vielcastel, from original Documents in the great Libraries of Europe. ...

The Commonwealth's preoccupation with agriculture, coupled with the szlachta's dominance over the bourgeoisie, resulted in a fairly slow process of urbanization and thus a fairly slow development of industries. While similar conflicts among social classes may be found all over Europe, nowhere were the nobility as dominant at the time as in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. There is, however, much debate among historians as to which processes most affected those developments, since until the wars and crises of the mid-17th century the cities of the Commonwealth had not markedly lagged in size and wealth behind their western counterparts. The Commonwealth did have numerous towns and cities, commonly founded on Magdeburg rights. Some of the largest trade fairs in the Commonwealth were held at Lublin. See the geography section, below, for a list of major cities in the Commonwealth (commonly capitals of voivodships). Bourgeois redirects here. ... For other uses, see City (disambiguation). ... The Magdeburg Rights (or Magdeburg law) were a set of city laws regulating the degree of internal autonomy within cities and villages granted with it by a local ruler. ... The 2006 LinuxWorld trade show at the Boston Convention and Exposition Center. ... Panorama of Lublin form Trynitarska Tower Coordinates: , Country Voivodeship Powiat city county Gmina Lublin Established before 12th century City Rights 1317 Government - Mayor Adam Wasilewski Area - City 147. ... A Voivodship (also voivodeship, Romanian: voievodat, Polish: wojewÃ³dztwo, Serbian: vojvodstvo or vojvodina) was a feudal state in medieval Romania, Hungary, Poland, Russia and Serbia (see Vojvodina), ruled by a Voivod (voivode). ...

Although the Commonwealth was Europe's largest grain producer, the bulk of her grain was consumed domestically. Estimated grain consumption in the Polish Crown (Poland proper) and Prussia in 1560–70 was some 113,000 tons of wheat (or 226,000 łaszt (a łaszt, or "last", being a large bulk measure; in the case of grain, about half a ton). Average yearly production of grain in the Commonwealth in the 16th century was 120,000 tons, 6% of which was exported, while cities consumed some 19% and the remainder was consumed by the villages. The exports probably satisfied about 2% of the demand for grain in Western Europe, feeding 750,000 people there^{[citation needed]}. Commonwealth grain achieved far more importance in poor crop years, as in the early 1590s and the 1620s, when governments throughout southern Europe arranged for large grain imports to cover shortfalls in their jurisdictions. This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... For other uses, see Prussia (disambiguation). ... Look up ton in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Species T. aestivum T. boeoticum T. dicoccoides T. dicoccon T. durum T. monococcum T. spelta T. sphaerococcum T. timopheevii References: ITIS 42236 2002-09-22 Wheat Wheat For the indie rock group, see Wheat (band). ... For other uses, see Last (disambiguation). ... A current understanding of Western Europe. ...

Still, grain was the largest export commodity of the Commonwealth. The owner of a folwark usually signed a contract with merchants of Gdansk (German Danzig), who controlled 80% of this inland trade, to ship the grain north to that seaport on the Baltic Sea. Many rivers in the Commonwealth were used for shipping purposes: the Vistula, Pilica, Western Bug, San, Nida, Wieprz, Niemen. The rivers had relatively developed infrastructure, with river ports and granaries. Most of the river shipping moved north, southward transport being less profitable, and barges and rafts were often sold off in Gdańsk for lumber. Folwark is a Polish word for the giant farms (in Latin, latifundia) that were operated in Poland or the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from the 14th century into the 20th, whose purpose was to produce surplus produce for export. ... A contract is a legally binding exchange of promises or agreement between parties that the law will enforce. ... For alternative meanings of Gdańsk and Danzig, see Gdansk (disambiguation) and Danzig (disambiguation) Motto: Nec temere, nec timide (Neither rashly nor timidly) Voivodship Pomeranian Municipal government Rada miasta Gdańska Mayor Paweł Adamowicz Area 262 km² Population - city - urban - density 461 400 (2003) Ranked 6th 1 035 000 1761/km² Founded... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Port. ... For other uses, see Baltic (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Vistula (disambiguation). ... Pilica is a river in central Poland, a longest left tributary of the Vistula river, with a length of 319 kilometres (8th longest) and the basin area of 9,273 sq. ... Bug at Wlodawa One of the two rivers called Bug (pronounced Boog), the Western Bug, or Buh (Belarusian: Захо́дні Буг; Russian: За́падный Буг; Ukrainian: Західний Буг, Zakhidnyi Buh), flows from central Ukraine to the west, forming part of the boundary between that nation and Poland, passes along the Polish-Belarusian... Length 433 km Basin area 16,861 kmÂ² Origin Carpathian Mountains Tributary of Vistula River Countries Poland, Ukraine San River. ... Nida is also a town in Lithuania. ... Wieprz is a river in central-eastern Poland, a tributary of the Vistula river, with a length of 303 kilometres (9th longest) and the basin area of 10,415 sq. ... External links Wikimedia Commons has multimedia related to: Neman Categories: Belarus-related stubs | Rivers of Belarus | Rivers of Lithuania | Russian rivers ... Categories: Stub | Commercial item transport and distribution | Transportation ... Granary at Thiruparaithurai, Kumbakonam (old temple town), built around 1600-1634 A granary is a storehouse for threshed grain or animal feed. ...

From Gdańsk, ships, mostly from the Netherlands and Flanders, carried the grain to ports such as Antwerp and Amsterdam. Gdańsk ships accounted for only 2–10% of this maritime trade^{[citation needed]}. Besides grain, other seaborne exports included lumber and wood-related products such as tar and ash. For other uses, see Flanders (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Antwerp (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Amsterdam (disambiguation). ... Timber in storage for later processing at a sawmill roni Lumber or timber is a term used to describe wood, either standing or that has been processed for use â€” from the time trees are felled, to its end product as a material suitable for industrial use â€” as structural material for... Tar can be produced from corn stalks by heating in a microwave. ...

By land routes, the Commonwealth exported hides, furs, hemp, cotton (mostly from Wielkopolska) and linen to the German lands of the Holy Roman Empire, including cities like Leipzig and Nuremberg. Large herds (of around 50,000 head) of cattle were driven south through Silesia. Hides are skins obtained from animals that are used for human use. ... For other uses, see Fur (disambiguation). ... U.S. Marihuana production permit. ... For other uses, see Cotton (disambiguation). ... Greater Poland (also Great Poland; Polish: Wielkopolska, German: Grosspolen, Latin: Polonia Maior) is one of the historical regions of Poland. ... Torn linen cloth, recovered from the Dead Sea Linen is a material made from the fibers of the flax plant. ... This article is about the medieval empire. ... Leipzig ( ; Sorbian/Lusatian: Lipsk from the Sorbian word for Tilia) is, with a population of over 506,000, the largest city in the federal state of Saxony, Germany. ... NÃ¼rnberg redirects here. ... A herd of Wildebeest A gaggle of Canada geese For other uses, see Herd (disambiguation). ... For general information about the genus, including other species of cattle, see Bos. ... Silesia (English pronunciation [], Czech: ; German: ; Latin: ; Polish: ; Silesian: ÅšlÅ¯nsk) is a historical region in central Europe, located along the upper and middle Oder River, upper Vistula River, and along the Sudetes, Carpathian (Silesian Beskids) mountain range. ...

The Commonwealth imported spices, luxury goods, clothing, fish, beer and industrial products like steel and tools. A few riverboats carried south imports from Gdańsk like wine, fruit, spices and herring. Somewhere between the 16th and 17th centuries, the Commonwealth's trade balance shifted from positive to negative. External links Wikibooks Cookbook has more about this subject: Spice Food Bacteria-Spice Survey Shows Why Some Cultures Like It Hot Citat: ...Garlic, onion, allspice and oregano, for example, were found to be the best all-around bacteria killers (they kill everything). ... A luxury sedan is an example of a luxury good. ... A baby wearing many items of winter clothing: headband, cap, fur-lined coat, shawl and sweater. ... For other uses, see Fish (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Beer (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Steel (disambiguation). ... This article is about the instrument. ... For other uses, see Wine (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Fruit (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Spice (disambiguation). ... Species Clupea alba Clupea bentincki Clupea caspiopontica Clupea chrysotaenia Clupea elongata Clupea halec Clupea harengus Clupea inermis Clupea leachii Clupea lineolata Clupea minima Clupea mirabilis Clupea pallasii Clupea sardinacaroli Clupea sulcata Herrings are small, oily fish of the genus Clupea found in the shallow, temperate waters of the North Atlantic... Balance of trade figures are the sum of the money gained by a given economy by selling exports, minus the cost of buying imports. ...

With the advent of the Age of Exploration, many old trading routes such as the Amber Road lost importance as new ones were created. Poland's importance as a caravan route between Asia and Europe diminished, while new local trading routes were created between the Commonwealth and Russia. But even with improvements in shipping technology the Commonwealth remained an important link between Occident and Orient, as many goods and cultural artifacts passed from one region to another via the Commonwealth. For example, Isfahan rugs imported from Persia to the Commonwealth were actually known in the West as "Polish rugs". Also, the price of eastern spices in Poland was several times lower than in western ports, which led^{[citation needed]} to the creation of a distinct Polish cuisine, owing much both to the eastern and western influence. The so-called Age of Exploration was a period from the early 15th century and continuing into the early 17th century, during which European ships were traveled around the world to search for new trading routes and partners to feed burgeoning capitalism in Europe. ... A trade route is the sequence of pathways and stopping places used for the commercial transport of cargo. ... The Amber Road (in Lithuanian: Gintaro kelias; Polish: Szlak Bursztynowy, Jantarowy Szlak; in German: BernsteinstraÃŸe; in Hungarian: BorostyÃ¡n Ãºt, in Russian: Ð¯Ð½Ñ‚Ð°Ñ€Ð½Ñ‹Ð¹ Ð¿ÑƒÑ‚ÑŒ) was an ancient trade route for the transfer of amber. ... Occident has a number of meanings. ... The term the Orient - literally meaning sunrise, east - is traditionally used to refer to Near, Middle, and Far Eastern countries. ... A traditional rug mender in Isfahan The Iranian city of Isfahan (also spelt Esfahan) has long been one of the centres for production of the famous Persian Rug. ... For other uses of this term see: Persia (disambiguation) The Persian Empire is the name used to refer to a number of historic dynasties that have ruled the country of Persia (Iran). ... Polish cuisine (Polish: kuchnia polska) is a mixture of Slavic, Jewish and foreign culinary traditions. ...

Commonwealth currency included the złoty and the grosz. The City of Gdańsk had the privilege of minting its own coinage. ZÅ‚oty (literally meaning golden, plural: zÅ‚ote or zÅ‚otych, depending on the number) is the Polish currency unit. ... Grosz may refer to: Grosh [groÅ¡], a small silver coin issued by a number of countries. ... For alternative meanings of GdaÅ„sk and Danzig, see GdaÅ„sk (disambiguation) and Danzig (disambiguation) Motto: Nec temere, nec timide (No rashness, no timidness) Coordinates: , Country Voivodeship Powiat city county Gmina GdaÅ„sk Established 10th century City Rights 1263 Government - Mayor PaweÅ‚ Adamowicz Area - City 262 kmÂ² (101. ...

Culture

The Commonwealth was an important European center for the development of modern social and political ideas. It was famous for its rare quasi-democratic political system, praised by philosophers such as Erasmus; and, during the Counter-Reformation, was known for near-unparalleled religious tolerance, with peacefully coexisting Catholic, Jewish, Eastern Orthodox, Protestant and even Muslim communities. The Commonwealth gave rise to the famous Christian sect of the Polish Brethren, antecedents of British and American Unitarianism. Jan Kochanowski, a leading poet and writer of Polish Renaissance, and one of the most eminent Slavic poets. ... Polish baroque started in the late 16th century. ... The ideas of the Age of Enlightenment in Poland were developed later then in the Western Europe, as Polish bourgeoisie was weaker, and szlachta (nobility) culture (Sarmatism) together with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth political system (Golden Freedoms) were in deep crisis. ... Image File history File links Siemenowicz_rocket. ... Image File history File links Siemenowicz_rocket. ... 20th century artistic vision of Kazimierz Siemenowicz Siemienowicz coat of arms, Ostoja Siemenowicz multi-stage rocket, from his Artis Magnae Artilleriae pars prima Kazimierz Siemienowicz (Lithuanian: Kazimieras SimonaviÄius, (born c. ... Alchemist Sędziwój by Jan Matejko This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Alchemist Sędziwój by Jan Matejko This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Portrait of MichaÅ‚ SÄ™dziwÃ³j. ... Jan Matejko , self-portrait. ... Motto: Ex navicula navis (From a boat, a ship) Coordinates: , Country Voivodeship Powiat city county Gmina ÅÃ³dÅº City Rights 1423 Government - Mayor Jerzy Kropiwnicki Area - City 293. ... Kazanowski Palace in Warsaw The Kazanowski Palace (Polish: PaÅ‚ac Kazanowskich), also known as the Radziejowski Palace, was a large palace in Warsaw, occupying the place where the Charitable Center Res Sacra Miser stands today. ... Sandomierski Palace reconstruction design by Tylman van Gameren. ... For the similarly spelled Brandenberg, see Brandenberg (Austria) or Brandenburg (disambiguation) Location Coordinates , , Time zone CET/CEST (UTC+1/+2) Administration Country NUTS Region DE4 Capital Potsdam Minister-President Matthias Platzeck (SPD) Governing parties SPD / CDU Votes in Bundesrat 4 (of 69) Basic statistics Area 29,479 kmÂ² (11,382... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (2560x1920, 1917 KB) Church and Monastery of PaÅ¾aislis, Kaunas, Lithuania Author: Wojsyl File links The following pages link to this file: Kaunas Talk:Baroque architecture PaÅ¾aislis monastery Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (2560x1920, 1917 KB) Church and Monastery of PaÅ¾aislis, Kaunas, Lithuania Author: Wojsyl File links The following pages link to this file: Kaunas Talk:Baroque architecture PaÅ¾aislis monastery Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera... Church and Monastery of PaÅ¾aislis, Kaunas PaÅ¾aislis monastery and church (Polish: ) form the largest monastery complex in Lithuania, and one of the most magnificent examples of Italian baroque architecture in Eastern Europe. ... Front side of Branicki Palace Branicki Coat of Arms Pałac Branickich (Branicki Palace) in Białystok, northeast Poland, the Versailles of Podlasie, was built for Count Jan Klemens Branicki, Great Crown Hetman and patron of art and science, raised in the French milieu of the Polish aristocracy, who transformed a previous... Coordinates: , Country Voivodeship Powiat city county Gmina BiaÅ‚ystok Established 14th century City Rights 1692 Government - Mayor Tadeusz Truskolaski Area - City 102 kmÂ² (39. ... For other uses, see Philosophy (disambiguation). ... Desiderius Erasmus in 1523 Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus (also Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam) (October 27, probably 1466 â€“ July 12, 1536) was a Dutch humanist and theologian. ... The Counter-Reformation or the Catholic Reformation was a strong reaffirmation of the doctrine and structure of the Catholic Church, climaxing at the Council of Trent, partly in reaction to the growth of Protestantism. ... Freedom of religion is the individuals right or freedom to hold whatever religious beliefs he or she wishes, or none at all. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Eastern Orthodoxy (also called Greek Orthodoxy and Russian Orthodoxy) is a Christian tradition which represents the majority of Eastern Christianity. ... Protestantism is a general grouping of denominations within Christianity. ... There is also a collection of Hadith called Sahih Muslim A Muslim (Arabic: Ù…Ø³Ù„Ù…, Persian: Mosalman or Mosalmon Urdu: Ù…Ø³Ù„Ù…Ø§Ù†, Turkish: MÃ¼slÃ¼man, Albanian: Mysliman, Bosnian: Musliman) is an adherent of the religion of Islam. ... This article is about religious groups. ... Polish Brethren (also called Antitrinitians, Arians, or Socinians) was the name of a Christian Polish sect from the 16th century. ... Topics in Christianity Movements Â· Denominations Ecumenism Â· Preaching Â· Prayer Music Â· Liturgy Â· Calendar Symbols Â· Art Â· Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul Â· Church Fathers Constantine Â· Athanasius Â· Augustine Anselm Â· Aquinas Â· Palamas Â· Luther Calvin Â· Wesley Arius Â· Marcion of Sinope Archbishop of Canterbury Â· Catholic Pope Coptic Pope Â· Ecumenical Patriarch Christianity Portal This box: Unitarianism is the belief...

With its political system, the Commonwealth gave birth to political philosophers such as Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski (1503–72), Wawrzyniec Grzymała Goślicki (1530–1607) and Piotr Skarga (1536–1612). Later, works by Stanisław Staszic (1755–1826) and Hugo Kołłątaj (1750–1812) helped pave the way for the Constitution of May 3, 1791, the first modern codified national constitution in Europe,^[16] which enacted revolutionary political principles for the first time on that continent. The Politics series Politics Portal This box: Political philosophy is the study of fundamental questions about the state, government, politics, liberty, justice, property, rights, law and the enforcement of a legal code by authority: what they are, why (or even if) they are needed, what makes a government legitimate, what... Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski (Andreus Fricius Modrevius) (ca. ... Wawrzyniec GrzymaÅ‚a GoÅ›licki, (Latin: Laurentius Grimaldius Gosliscius), 1530-1607, was Polish bishop, political thinker and philosopher most known from the book De optimo senatore, 1568 (The Accomplished senator, English translation 1598). ... Skargas Sermon, by Jan Matejko, 1862, oil on canvas, 224 x 397 cm. ... StanisÅ‚aw Staszic. ... Noble Family KoÅ‚Å‚Ä…taj Coat of Arms Kotwica Parents Antoni KoÅ‚Å‚Ä…taj Marianna MierzeÅ„ska Consorts None Children None Date of Birth April 1, 1750 Place of Birth NiecisÅ‚owice Date of Death February 28, 1812 Place of Death Warsaw Hugo KoÅ‚Å‚Ä…taj (1750-1812) was a Polish Roman Catholic... May 3rd Constitution (painting by Jan Matejko, 1891). ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into modernity. ... The Politics series Politics Portal This box: Political Science is the field concerning the theory and practice of politics and the description and analysis of political systems and political behaviour. ...

Kraków's Jagiellonian University is one of the oldest universities in the world. Vilnius University and the Jagiellonian University were the major scholarly and scientific centers in the Commonwealth. The Komisja Edukacji Narodowej, (Polish for Commission for National Education), formed in 1773, was the world's first national Ministry of Education. Commonwealth scientists included: For other uses, see Krakow (disambiguation). ... For several academies alternatively called Krakow Academy, see Education in KrakÃ³w The Jagiellonian University (Polish: , often shortened to UJ) is located in KrakÃ³w, Poland. ... The Grand Courtyard of Vilnius University and the Church of St. ... Komisja Edukacji Narodowej (KEN, Polish for Commission of National Education) was the central educational authority in Poland, created by the Sejm and king Stanisław August Poniatowski on October 14, 1773. ...

The many classics of Commonwealth literature include: Portrait Marcin Kromer (1512-1589) was a 16th century bishop of Warmia, cartographer, diplomat, and historian in Poland and later in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. ... Cartography is the study of map making and cartographers are map makers. ... Portrait of MichaÅ‚ SÄ™dziwÃ³j. ... For other uses, see Alchemy (disambiguation). ... 20th century artistic vision of Kazimierz Siemenowicz Siemienowicz coat of arms, Ostoja Siemenowicz multi-stage rocket, from his Artis Magnae Artilleriae pars prima Kazimierz Siemienowicz (Lithuanian: Kazimieras SimonaviÄius, (born c. ... For other uses, see Artillery (disambiguation). ... A rocket is a vehicle, missile or aircraft which obtains thrust by the reaction to the ejection of fast moving exhaust from within a rocket engine. ... Johannes Hevelius, by Daniel Schultz Peter CrÃ¼gers azimuthal quadrant, completed by Hevelius. ... Galileo is often referred to as the Father of Modern Astronomy. ... This article is about Earths moon. ... For discussion of land surfaces themselves, see Terrain. ... Polish literature is the literary tradition of Poland. ...

Many szlachta members wrote memoirs and diaries. Perhaps the most famous are the Memoirs of Polish History by Albrycht Stanisław Radziwiłł (1595–1656) and the Memoirs of Jan Chryzostom Pasek (ca. 1636 – ca. 1701). Jan Kochanowski Jan Kochanowski (1530 - August 22, 1584) was a Polish Renaissance poet and writer. ... Jan Kochanowski over the dead body of his daughter, Urszulka. ... image goes here Noble Family Potocki Coat of Arms Szreniwa Parents ? Consorts unknown Children unknown Date of Birth 1621 Place of Birth Wola ÅuÅ¼aÅ„ska Date of Death 9 August1 1696 Place of Death ÅuÅ¼na WacÅ‚aw Potocki (1621-1696) was a nobleman (szlachcic), moralist, poet and writer... Ignacy Krasicki Ignacy Krasicki (February 3, 1735, in Galicia â€” March 14, 1801, in Berlin) was a Polish prince of the Roman Catholic Church, a social critic, a leading writer, and the outstanding poet of the Polish Enlightenment, hailed by contemporaries as the Prince of Poets. ... Ignacy Krasicki. ... Categories: 1758 births | 1841 deaths | Polish writers | Polish nobility | People stubs ... StanisÅ‚aw Antoni Szczuka, a Polish nobleman Szlachta ( ) was the noble class in Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the two countries that later jointly formed the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. ... As a literary genre, a memoir (from the French: mÃ©moire from the Latin memoria, meaning memory), or a reminiscence, forms a subclass of autobiography, although it is an older form of writing. ... == c programming[[a--203. ... Noble Family RadziwiÅ‚Å‚ Coat of Arms TrÄ…by Parents StanisÅ‚aw Pius RadziwiÅ‚Å‚ Marianna Myszka Consorts Regina von Eisenreich Anna Krystyna Lubomirska Children none Date of Birth July 1, 1595 Place of Birth OÅ‚yka Date of Death November 12, 1656 Place of Death lt: Gdanskas Albrycht StanisÅ‚aw Radziwi... image goes here Noble Family Pasek Coat of Arms Doliwa Parents ? Consorts unknown Children ? Date of Birth 1636 Place of Birth Węgrzynowice Date of Death 1 August 1701 Place of Death Niedzieliszki Jan Chryzostom Pasek (1636-1701) was a nobleman (szlachcic) and writer in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. ...

Magnates often undertook construction projects as monuments to themselves: churches, cathedrals, and palaces like the present-day Presidential Palace in Warsaw built by Grand Hetman Stanisław Koniecpolski herbu Pobóg. The largest projects involved entire towns, although in time many of them would lapse into obscurity or be totally abandoned. Usually they were named after the sponsoring magnate. Among the most famous is the town of Zamość, founded by Jan Zamoyski and designed by the Italian architect Bernardo Morando. Polish Magnate (17th century) Magnate, from the Late Latin magnas, a great man, itself from Latin magnus great, designates a noble or other man in a high social position, by birth, wealth or other qualities. ... For the architectural structure, see Church (building). ... For other uses, see Cathedral (disambiguation). ... The quintessential medieval European palace: Palais de la CitÃ©, in Paris, the royal palace of France. ... Presidential Palace in Warsaw. ... Noble Family Koniecpolski Coat of Arms PobÃ³g Parents Aleksander Koniecpolski Anna Sroczycka Consorts Katarzyna Å»Ã³Å‚kiewska (1615) Krystyna Lubomirska (1619) Zofia OpaliÅ„ska (1656) Children Aleksander Koniecpolski Date of Birth 1590/1594 Place of Birth Koniecpol Date of Death March 11, 1646 Place of Death Brody StanisÅ‚aw Koniecpolski, (1590... Pobóg - is a Polish Coat of Arms. ... Coordinates: , Country Poland Voivodeship Lublin Powiat City County Gmina ZamoÅ›Ä‡ Estabilished 1580 City Rights 1580 Government - Mayor Marcin Zamoyski Area - Town 30. ... Noble Family Zamoyski Coat of Arms Jelita Parents Stanisław Zamoyski Anna Herburt Consorts Anna Ossolińska Krystyna Radziwiłł Gryzelda Batory Barbara Tarnowska Children with Barbara Tarnowska Tomasz Zamoyski Date of Birth March 19, 1542 Place of Birth Skokówka, Poland Date of Death June 3, 1605 Place of Death Zamość, Poland Jan... For other uses, see Architect (disambiguation). ... Polish-Italian renaissance architect, who built the town of Zamosc for Jan Zamojski. ...

Szlachta and Sarmatism

The prevalent ideology of the szlachta became "Sarmatism", named after the Sarmatians, alleged ancestors of the Poles. This belief system was an important part of the szlachta's culture, penetrating all aspects of its life. Sarmatism enshrined equality among szlachta, horseback riding, tradition, provincial rural life, peace and pacifism; championed oriental-inspired attire (żupan, kontusz, sukmana, pas kontuszowy, delia, szabla); and served to integrate the multi-ethnic nobility by creating an almost nationalistic sense of unity and of pride in the szlachta's Golden Freedoms. An ideology is an organized collection of ideas. ... Sarmatism was the dominant lifestyle, culture and ideology of szlachta (nobility social class) in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from 16th century to 19th century. ... Sarmatia Europea in Scythia map 1697 AD Sarmatia EuropÃ¦a separated from Sarmatia Asiatica by the Tanais (the River Don), based on Greek literary sources, in a map printed in London, ca 1770 Great steppe in early spring. ... For other uses, see Culture (disambiguation). ... Sarmatism was the dominant lifestyle, culture and ideology of szlachta (nobility social class) in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from 16th century to 19th century. ... Pacifist redirects here. ... The term the Orient - literally meaning sunrise, east - is traditionally used to refer to Near, Middle, and Far Eastern countries. ... Jan Zamoyski in crimson kontusz and blue silk Å¼upan tied with pas kontuszowy. ... Stefan Czarniecki in crimson kontusz. ... WacÅ‚aw Rzewuski wearing a golden-finished kontusz belt Pas kontuszowy sÅ‚ucki. Pas kontuszowy (kontusz belt) was a cloth belt used for compassing a kontusz (a robe-like garment). ... Szablas in Muzeum Wojska Polskiego, Warsaw. ... EugÃ¨ne Delacroixs Liberty Leading the People, symbolizing French nationalism during the July Revolution 1830. ...

In its early, idealistic form, Sarmatism represented a positive cultural movement: it supported religious belief, honesty, national pride, courage, equality and freedom. In time, however, it became distorted. Late extreme Sarmatism turned belief into bigotry, honesty into political naïveté, pride into arrogance, courage into stubbornness and freedom into anarchy.^[33] Sarmatism was the dominant lifestyle, culture and ideology of szlachta (nobility social class) in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from 16th century to 19th century. ...

Demographics and religion

The population of the Commonwealth of Both Nations was never overwhelmingly either Roman Catholic or Polish. This circumstance resulted from Poland's possession of Ukraine and confederation with Lithuania, in both of which countries ethnic Poles were a distinct minority. The Commonwealth comprised primarily four nations: Lithuanians, Poles, Belarusians and Ukrainians; the latter two usually referred to as the Ruthenians. Sometimes inhabitants of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were called Litvins, a Slavic term for Lithuanians, despite being of different ethnicities. Shortly after the Union of Lublin, the Commonwealth population was around 7 million, with a rough breakdown of 4.5 m Poles, 0.75 m Lithuanians, 0.7 m Jews and 2 m Ruthenians.^[34] In 1618, after the Truce of Deulino, the Commonwealth population increased together with its territory, reaching 11.5 million people, which was composed roughly of 4.5 m Poles, 3.5 m Ukrainians, 1.5 m Belarusians, 0.75 m Lithuanians, 0.75 m Prussians, 0.5 m Jews, and 0.5 m Livonians. At that time nobility was 10% of the population, and burghers were 15%.^[35] In the period from 1648–57, populations losses are estimated at 4 m.^[35] Coupled with further population and territorial losses, in 1717 the Commonwealth population had fallen to 9 m, with roughly 4.5 m Poles, 1.5 m Ukrainians, 1.2 m Belarusians, 0.8 m Lithuanians, 0.5 m Jews, and 0.5 m others.^[35] Before World War II the now Polish lands were noted for the richness and variety of their ethnic communities. ... Kolumna Zygmunta (With permission, Author: Marek i Ewa Wojciechowscy, http://www. ... Kolumna Zygmunta (With permission, Author: Marek i Ewa Wojciechowscy, http://www. ... Kolumna Zygmunta - Wikipedia /**/ @import /skins/monobook/IE50Fixes. ... Categories: Stub | Buildings in Poland | Castles in Poland | Warsaw ... Download high resolution version (515x800, 120 KB) This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Download high resolution version (515x800, 120 KB) This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... For other uses, see Cossack (disambiguation). ... JÃ³zef Brandt Signature of JÃ³zef Brandt JÃ³zef Brandt (b. ... The Roman Catholic Church, most often spoken of simply as the Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with over one billion members. ... Lithuanians are the Baltic ethnic group native to Lithuania, where they number a little over 3 million [8]. Another million or more make up the Lithuanian diaspora, largely found in countries such as the United States, Brazil, Canada and Russia. ... Ruthenian may refer to: Ruthenia, a name applied to various parts of Eastern Europe Ruthenians, the peoples of Ruthenia Ruthenian language, a name applied to several Slavic languages This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... The Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Lithuanian: , Ruthenian: Wialikaje Kniastwa Litowskaje, Ruskaje, Å»amojckaje, Belarusian: , Ukrainian: , Polish: , Latin: ) was an Eastern and Central European state of the 12th[1] /13th century until the 18th century. ... Litvins can mean: Belarusians or Lithuanians (usually in old contexts) Any persons from Grand Duchy of Lithuania This is a disambiguation page â€” a list of articles associated with the same title. ... The Union of Lublin, painted by Jan Matejko The Union of Lublin (Lithuanian: Liublino unija; Belarusian: Лю́блінская ву́нія; Polish: Unia lubelska) - signed on July 1, 1569 in Lublin, united the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into a single state, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, with the official... Truce of Deulino (also known as Peace or Treaty of Dywilino), was signed in December 1618 and concluded the Dymitriad wars (also known as Polish-Muscovy War of 1605-1618) between the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Muscovy. ... Bourgeois redirects here. ...

To be Polish, in the non-Polish lands of the Commonwealth, was then much less an index of ethnicity than of religion and rank; it was a designation largely reserved for the landed noble class (szlachta), which included Poles but also many members of non-Polish origin who converted to Catholicism in increasing numbers with each following generation. For the non-Polish noble such conversion meant a final step of Polonization that followed the adoption of the Polish language and culture.^[36] Poland, as the culturally most advanced part of the Commonwealth, with the royal court, the capital, the largest cities, the second-oldest university in Central Europe (after Prague), and the more liberal and democratic social institutions had proven an irresistible magnet for the non-Polish nobility in the Commonwealth.^[8] This article or section should be merged with ethnic group Ethnicity is the cultural characteristics that connect a particular group or groups of people to each other. ... A hierarchy (in Greek: , derived from â€” hieros, sacred, and â€” arkho, rule) is a system of ranking and organizing things or people, where each element of the system (except for the top element) is a subordinate to a single other element. ... Landed property or landed estates is a real estate term that usually refers to a property that generates income for the owner without himself having to do the actual work at the estate. ... Religious conversion is the adoption of a new religious identity, or a change from one religious identity to another. ... Nobility is a traditional hereditary status (see hereditary titles) that exists today in many countries (mainly present or former monarchies). ... Polonization (Polish: ) is the assumption (complete or partial), of the Polish language or another real or supposed Polish attribute. ... Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ... For other uses, see Prague (disambiguation). ... This article is about a sociological concept. ...

As a result, in the eastern territories a Polish (or Polonized) aristocracy dominated a peasantry whose great majority was neither Polish nor Roman Catholic. Moreover, the decades of peace brought huge colonization efforts to Ukraine, heightening the tensions among nobles, Jews, Cossacks (traditionally Orthodox), Polish and Ruthenian peasants. The latter, deprived of their native protectors among the Ruthenian nobility, turned for protection to cossacks that facilitated violence that in the end broke the Commonwealth. The tensions were aggravated by conflicts between Eastern Orthodoxy and the Greek Catholic Church following the Union of Brest, overall discrimination of Orthodox religions by dominant Catholicism,^[37] and several Cossack uprisings. In the west and north, many cities had sizable German minorities, often belonging to Reformed churches. The Commonwealth had also one of the largest Jewish diasporas in the world. It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Colonialism. ... Nobility is a traditional hereditary status (see hereditary titles) that exists today in many countries (mainly present or former monarchies). ... For other uses, see Cossack (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Cossack (disambiguation). ... ... Union of Brest (Belarusian: Ð‘ÐµÑ€Ð°ÑÑŒÑ†ÐµÌÐ¹ÑÐºÐ°Ñ ÑƒÌÐ½Ñ–Ñ, Ukrainian: Ð‘ÐµÑ€ÐµÑÑ‚ÐµÐ¹ÑÑŒÐºÐ° ÑƒÐ½Ñ–Ñ, Polish: ) refers to the 1595-1596 decision of the (Ruthenian) Church of Rus, the Metropolia of Kiev-Halych and all Rus, to break relations with the Patriarch of Constantinople and place themselves under the (patriarch) Pope of Rome, in order to avoid the domination of... Union of Brest (Belarusian: Ð‘ÐµÑ€Ð°ÑÑŒÑ†ÐµÌÐ¹ÑÐºÐ°Ñ ÑƒÌÐ½Ñ–Ñ, Ukrainian: Ð‘ÐµÑ€ÐµÑÑ‚ÐµÐ¹ÑÑŒÐºÐ° ÑƒÐ½Ñ–Ñ, Polish: ) refers to the 1595-1596 decision of the (Ruthenian) Church of Rus, the Metropolia of Kiev-Halych and all Rus, to break relations with the Patriarch of Constantinople and place themselves under the (patriarch) Pope of Rome, in order to avoid the domination of... For other uses, see Cossack (disambiguation). ... Uprising is another word for rebellion. ... A stereotypical German The Germans (German: die Deutschen), or the German people, are a nation in the meaning an ethnos (in German: Volk), defined more by a sense of sharing a common German culture and having a German mother tongue, than by citizenship or by being subjects to any particular... -1... The Jewish diaspora (Hebrew: Tefutzah, scattered, or Galut ×’×œ×•×ª, exile, Yiddish: tfutses), the Jewish presence outside of the Land of Israel is a result of the expulsion of the Jewish people out of their land, during the destruction of the First Temple, Second Temple and after the Bar Kokhba revolt. ...

Until the Reformation, the szlachta were mostly Catholic or Eastern Orthodox. However, many families quickly adopted the Reformed religion. After the Counter-Reformation, when the Roman Catholic Church regained power in Poland, the szlachta became almost exclusively Roman Catholic, despite the fact that Roman Catholicism was not a majority religion (the Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches counted approximately 40% of the population each, while the remaining 20% were Jews and members of various Protestant churches)^{[citation needed]}. It should be noted that the Counter-Reformation in Poland, influenced by the Commonwealth tradition of religious tolerance, was based mostly on Jesuit propaganda and was very peaceful when compared to excesses such as the Thirty Years' War elsewhere in Europe.^{[citation needed]} The Protestant Reformation was a movement which began in the 16th century as a series of attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church, but ended in division and the establishment of new institutions, most importantly Lutheranism, Reformed churches, and Anabaptists. ... Eastern Orthodoxy (also called Greek Orthodoxy and Russian Orthodoxy) is a Christian tradition which represents the majority of Eastern Christianity. ... The Reformed churches are a group of Protestant denominations historically related by a similar Zwinglian or Calvinist system of doctrine but organizationally independent. ... The Counter-Reformation or the Catholic Reformation was a strong reaffirmation of the doctrine and structure of the Catholic Church, climaxing at the Council of Trent, partly in reaction to the growth of Protestantism. ... The Roman Catholic Church, most often spoken of simply as the Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with over one billion members. ... Protestantism is a general grouping of denominations within Christianity. ... Freedom of religion is the individuals right or freedom to hold whatever religious beliefs he or she wishes, or none at all. ... The Society of Jesus (Latin: Societas Iesu), commonly known as the Jesuits, is a Roman Catholic religious order. ... For other uses, see Propaganda (disambiguation). ... Combatants Sweden Bohemia Denmark-Norway[1] Dutch Republic France Scotland England Saxony Holy Roman Empire Catholic League Austria Bavaria Spain Commanders Frederick V Buckingham Leven Gustav II Adolf â€ Johan Baner Cardinal Richelieu Louis II de Bourbon Vicomte de Turenne Christian IV of Denmark Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar Johann Georg I...

Languages of the Commonwealth

(With permission, Author: Marek i Ewa Wojciechowscy, http://www. ... (With permission, Author: Marek i Ewa Wojciechowscy, http://www. ... It has been suggested that Town Hall be merged into this article or section. ... Coordinates: , Country Poland Voivodeship Lublin Powiat City County Gmina ZamoÅ›Ä‡ Estabilished 1580 City Rights 1580 Government - Mayor Marcin Zamoyski Area - Town 30. ... For other uses, see Latins and Latin (disambiguation). ... Map of Royal Prussia (light pink) History - Established October 19, 1466 - Loss of autonomy 1 July 1569 - Annexed August 5, 1772 Royal Prussia (German: ; Polish: ) was a province of the Kingdom of Poland and then the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1569 to 1772. ... Hebrew redirects here. ... Yiddish (ייִדיש, Jiddisch) is a Germanic language spoken by about four million Jews throughout the world. ... Ruthenian was a historic East Slavic language, spoken in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and later in the East Slavic territories of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. ...

Provinces and geography

The lands that once belonged to the Commonwealth are now largely distributed among several Central and East European countries:
Poland, Ukraine, Moldova (Transnistria), Belarus, Russia, Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia. Also some small towns in Slovakia, then within the Kingdom of Hungary, became a part of Poland in the Treaty of Lubowla. Outline of the Commonwealth with its major subdivisions as of 1619 superimposed on present-day national borders Administrative division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was a result of the long and complicated history, including the impact of the framgentation of Polish Kingdom and union of Poland and Lithuania. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (803x630, 49 KB) Other versions Image:Pol-lith_commonwealth_map. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (803x630, 49 KB) Other versions Image:Pol-lith_commonwealth_map. ... Truce of Deulino (also known as Peace or Treaty of Dywilino), was signed in December 1618 and concluded the Dymitriad wars (also known as Polish-Muscovy War of 1605-1618) between the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Muscovy. ... Crown of the Polish Kingdom, or just colloquially the Crown (Polish:Korona) is the archaic name for territories of Poland, distinguishing them from territories of Grand Duchy of Lithuania or vassal territories like Duchy of Prussia or Duchy of Courland, which had varying degrees of autonomy. ... Coat of arms Duchy of Prussia (striped) in the second half of the 16th century Capital KÃ¶nigsberg Religion Protestant (Lutheran) Government Monarchy Duke of Prussia - 1525 â€” 1568 Albert I - 1568 â€” 1618 Albert Frederick History - Secularisation April, 1525 - Personal Union (with Brandenburg) August 27, 1618 - Independence September 19, 1657 The... The Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Lithuanian: , Ruthenian: Wialikaje Kniastwa Litowskaje, Ruskaje, Å»amojckaje, Belarusian: , Ukrainian: , Polish: , Latin: ) was an Eastern and Central European state of the 12th[1] /13th century until the 18th century. ... Courland, Kurland, Couronia, or Curonia, a former Baltic province of the Teutonic Order state in Livonia (ca. ... This article is about the region in Europe. ... Historical lands and provinces in Central Europe Central Europe is the central region of Europe. ... Eastern Europe is a concept that lacks one precise definition. ... For the region during the Second World War, see Transnistria (World War II). ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Treaty of Lubowla of 1412 was a treaty between WÅ‚adysÅ‚aw II of Poland and Sigismund of Luxemburg, king of Hungary. ...

While the term "Poland" was also commonly used to denote this whole polity, Poland was in fact only part of a greater whole—the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, which comprised primarily two parts:

The Crown in turn comprised two great regions ("prowincjas"): Wielkopolska or Greater Poland and Małopolska or Lesser Poland, and another titular nation of the Commonwealth was the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The Commonwealth was further divided into smaller administrative units known as voivodships (województwa). Each voivodship was governed by a voivod (wojewoda, governor). Voivodships were further divided into starostwa, each starostwo being governed by a starosta. Cities were governed by castellans. There were frequent exceptions to these rules, often involving the ziemia subunit of administration: for details on the administrative structure of the Commonwealth, see the article on offices in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Crown of the Polish Kingdom, or just colloquially the Crown (Polish:Korona) is the archaic name for territories of Poland, distinguishing them from territories of Grand Duchy of Lithuania or vassal territories like Duchy of Prussia or Duchy of Courland, which had varying degrees of autonomy. ... The Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Lithuanian: , Ruthenian: Wialikaje Kniastwa Litowskaje, Ruskaje, Å»amojckaje, Belarusian: , Ukrainian: , Polish: , Latin: ) was an Eastern and Central European state of the 12th[1] /13th century until the 18th century. ... Prowincja (plural: prowincje), or province, was the largest unit of local subdivision in Poland and later the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. ... Voivodship wielkopolskie since 1999 Coat of Arms for voivodship wielkopolskie Greater Poland (also Great Poland; Polish: , German: GroÃŸpolen, Latin: Polonia Maior) is a historical region of west-central Poland. ... KrakÃ³w Katowice WrocÅ‚aw ÅÃ³dÅº PoznaÅ„ Bydgoszcz Lublin BiaÅ‚ystok GdaÅ„sk Szczecin Warsaw M A S O V I A S I L E S I A G R E A T E R P O L A N D L E S S E R P O... A Voivodship (also voivodeship, Romanian: voievodat, Polish: wojewÃ³dztwo, Serbian: vojvodstvo or vojvodina) was a feudal state in medieval Romania, Hungary, Poland, Russia and Serbia (see Vojvodina), ruled by a Voivod (voivode). ... Voivode (as it is spelled in the Oxford English Dictionary), or less commonly voivod, is a Slavic word that originally denoted the principal commander of a military force. ... Starost(a) is a title for an official or unofficial position of leadership that has been used in various contexts through most of the Slavic history. ... The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (or The Republic of the Two Nations, Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów in Polish; Belarusian: Рэч Паспалі́тая) was a federal monarchy-republic formed by the Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania, between 1569 and 1795. ... A castellan was the governor or caretaker of a castle or keep. ... Ziemia (literally earth or land in Polish language, Latin: ) is a historical unit of administration in Poland. ... This article discusses the organizational and administrative structure of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. ...

Other notable parts of the Commonwealth often referred to, without respect to region or voivodship divisions, include:

Commonwealth borders shifted with wars and treaties, sometimes several times in a decade, especially in the eastern and southern parts. KrakÃ³w Katowice WrocÅ‚aw ÅÃ³dÅº PoznaÅ„ Bydgoszcz Lublin BiaÅ‚ystok GdaÅ„sk Szczecin Warsaw M A S O V I A S I L E S I A G R E A T E R P O L A N D L E S S E R P O... For other uses, see Krakow (disambiguation). ... Voivodship wielkopolskie since 1999 Coat of Arms for voivodship wielkopolskie Greater Poland (also Great Poland; Polish: , German: GroÃŸpolen, Latin: Polonia Maior) is a historical region of west-central Poland. ... Coordinates: , Country Voivodeship Powiat city county Gmina PoznaÅ„ Established 8th century City Rights 1253 Government - Mayor Ryszard Grobelny Area - City 261. ... Warta (Latin: Varta, German: Warthe) is a river in western-central Poland, a tributary of the Oder river. ... Historical division of Masovia Masovia (Polish: Mazowsze) is a geographical and historical region situated in central Poland with its capital at Warsaw. ... Warszawa can refer to: Warsaw, capital city of Poland Warszawa, a song written by David Bowie and Brian Eno off the album Low. ... Etnographic regions of Lithuania. ... Map of Royal Prussia (light pink) History - Established October 19, 1466 - Loss of autonomy 1 July 1569 - Annexed August 5, 1772 Royal Prussia (German: ; Polish: ) was a province of the Kingdom of Poland and then the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1569 to 1772. ... For other uses, see Baltic (disambiguation). ... Autonomy is the condition of something that does not depend on anything else. ... The Union of Lublin, painted by Jan Matejko The Union of Lublin (Lithuanian: Liublino unija; Belarusian: Лю́блінская ву́нія; Polish: Unia lubelska) - signed on July 1, 1569 in Lublin, united the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into a single state, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, with the official... Pomerelia (German: ) is a historical region in northern Poland. ... Pommern redirects here. ... For alternative meanings of GdaÅ„sk and Danzig, see GdaÅ„sk (disambiguation) and Danzig (disambiguation) Motto: Nec temere, nec timide (No rashness, no timidness) Coordinates: , Country Voivodeship Powiat city county Gmina GdaÅ„sk Established 10th century City Rights 1263 Government - Mayor PaweÅ‚ Adamowicz Area - City 262 kmÂ² (101. ... Ruthenia is a name applied to parts of Eastern Europe which were populated by Eastern Slavic peoples, as well as to various states that existed in this territory in the past. ... This article is about the region in Europe. ... Courland, Kurland, Couronia, or Curonia, a former Baltic province of the Teutonic Order state in Livonia (ca. ... Under the system of feudalism, a fiefdom, fief, feud or fee, consisted of heritable lands or revenue-producing property granted by a liege lord in return for a vassal knights service (usually fealty, military service, and security). ... This article is about a type of political territory. ... Castara village beach looking south, Tobago Tobago is the smaller of the two main islands that make up the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. ... James Island is an island in the Gambia River, 30 km from the river mouth and near Juffure, The Gambia. ... Gambia River in the Niokolo-Koba National Park The Gambia River is a major river in Africa, running 1,130 km (700 miles) from the Fouta Djallon plateau in north Guinea westward to the Atlantic Ocean at the city of Banjul. ... The small wealthy former duchy of Courland took part in European colonialism. ... Silesia (English pronunciation [], Czech: ; German: ; Latin: ; Polish: ; Silesian: ÅšlÅ¯nsk) is a historical region in central Europe, located along the upper and middle Oder River, upper Vistula River, and along the Sudetes, Carpathian (Silesian Beskids) mountain range. ... Vasa may refer to: House of Vasa, a medieval Swedish noble family, the royal house of Sweden 1523-1654 and of Poland 1587-1668 Vasa (ship), a Swedish warship that sank in 1628, since restored Vasa Museum, Stockholm, where the restored ship is currently displayed Order of Vasa, one of... This article is about the nobility title. ... Opole ( ; German: ) is a city in southern Poland on the Oder River (Odra). ...

Thought was given at various times to the creation of a Duchy of Ruthenia, particularly during the 1648 Cossack insurrection against Polish rule in Ukraine. Such a Duchy, as proposed in the 1658 Treaty of Hadiach, would have been a full member of the Commonwealth, which would thereupon have become a tripartite Polish–Lithuanian–Ruthenian Commonwealth or Commonwealth of Three Nations, but due to szlachta demands, Muscovite invasion, and division among the Cossacks, the plan was never implemented. For similar reasons, plans for a Polish-Lithuanian-Muscovite Commonwealth also were never realized, although during the Polish–Muscovite War (1605–18) the Polish Prince (later, King) Władysław IV Waza was briefly elected Tsar of Muscovy. Polonia (Poland), 1863, by Jan Matejko, 1864, oil on canvas, 156 Ã— 232 cm, National Museum, KrakÃ³w. ... Ruthenia - Wikipedia /**/ @import /skins/monobook/IE50Fixes. ... For other uses, see Cossack (disambiguation). ... This is a 19th century design for a COA of a proposed Polish-Lithuanian-Ruthenian Commonwealth which never came into being. ... 19th-century proposed coat of arms for a Polishâ€“Lithuanianâ€“ Ruthenian Commonwealth. ... Polish-Lithuanian-Muscovite Commonwealth (also known in Polish as unia troista - trinity-union) was a never-formed state based on a personal union between Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Muscovite Russia. ... Combatants Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Muscovite Russia Commanders Strength Casualties The Polish-Muscovite War (1605â€“1618) is the name of the series of wars (1605â€“1618) between the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Muscovite Russia (or Muscovy), in the background of the Russian dynastic crisis known as the Time of Troubles (1598... Reign in Poland From November 8, 1632 until May 20, 1648 Reign in Russia From 1610 until 16351 Coronation On February 6, 1633 in the Wawel Cathedral, KrakÃ³w, Poland Royal House Vasa Parents Zygmunt III Waza Anna Austriaczka Consorts Cecylia Renata Ludwika Maria Gonzaga Children with Cecylia Renata Zygmunt...

The Crown had about double the population of Lithuania and five times the income of the latter's treasury. As with other countries, the borders, area and population of the Commonwealth varied over time. After the Peace of Jam Zapolski (1582), the Commonwealth had approximately 815,000 km² area and a population of 6.5 million. After the Truce of Deulino (1618), the Commonwealth had an area of some 990,000 km² and a population of 10–11 million (including some 4 million Poles). In the 16th century, the Polish bishop and cartographer Martin Kromer published a Latin atlas, entitled Poland: about Its Location, People, Culture, Offices and the Polish Commonwealth, which was regarded as the most comprehensive guide to the country. map of europe from 16th century This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... map of europe from 16th century This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Gerardus Mercator (March 5, 1512 â€“ December 2, 1594) was a Flemish cartographer. ... The Peace of Jam Zapolski was a treaty of peace which, following the Siege of Pskov, concluded the lengthy Livonian war (1558-82). ... Truce of Deulino (also known as Peace or Treaty of Dywilino), was signed in December 1618 and concluded the Dymitriad wars (also known as Polish-Muscovy War of 1605-1618) between the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Muscovy. ... Topics in Christianity Movements Â· Denominations Â· Other religions Ecumenism Â· Preaching Â· Prayer Music Â· Liturgy Â· Calendar Symbols Â· Art Â· Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul Â· Church Fathers Constantine Â· Athanasius Â· Augustine Anselm Â· Aquinas Â· Palamas Â· Luther Calvin Â· Wesley Arius Â· Marcion of Sinope Archbishop of Canterbury Â· Catholic Pope Coptic Pope Â· Ecumenical Patriarch Christianity Portal This box: This article... Cartography is the study of map making and cartographers are map makers. ... Portrait Marcin Kromer (1512-1589) was a 16th century bishop of Warmia, cartographer, diplomat, and historian in Poland and later in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. ... For other meanings of Atlas, see Atlas (disambiguation). ... Polonia sive de situ, populis, moribus, magistratibus et Republica regni Polonici libri duo is a book, first published in Cologne in 1577 in Latin. ...

Kromer's works and other contemporary maps, such as those of Gerardus Mercator, show the Commonwealth as mostly plains. The Commonwealth's southeastern part, the Kresy, was famous for its steppes. The Carpathian Mountains formed part of the southern border, with the Tatra Mountain chain the highest, and the Baltic Sea formed the Commonwealth's northern border. As with most European countries at the time, the Commonwealth had extensive forest cover, especially in the east. Today, what remains of the Białowieża Forest constitutes the last largely intact primeval forest in Europe. Gerardus Mercator (March 5, 1512 â€“ December 2, 1594) was a Flemish cartographer. ... In geography, a plain is a large area of land with relatively low relief. ... Polish voivodeships 1922-1939. ... This article is about the ecological zone type. ... Satellite image of the Carpathians. ... Tatras Panorama of Tatras The Tatra Mountains, Tatras or Tatra (Tatry in both Slovak and Polish), constitute a mountain range which forms a natural border between Slovakia and Poland. ... For other uses, see Baltic (disambiguation). ... This article is about a community of trees. ... BiaÅ‚owieÅ¼a Primaeval Forest, known as Belaveskaya Pushcha (Ð‘ÐµÐ»Ð°Ð²ÐµÑÐºÐ°Ñ Ð¿ÑƒÑˆÑ‡Ð°) or Belovezhskaya Pushcha in Belarus and Puszcza BiaÅ‚owieska in Poland, is an ancient virginal forest straddling the border between Belarus and Poland, located 70 km north of Brest. ... Primeval forest is a term often used interchangeably with old growth forest to refer to substantial wooded areas which have been untouched by the effect of humans. ...

Voivodeships of the Commonwealth

Note that some sources use the word palatinate instead of voivodship. It has been suggested that Polish Voivodeships and Counties 1919-1939 - trivia be merged into this article or section. ... Voivodes of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth were one of the highest ranking officials who could sit in the Senate of Poland. ... Palatinate or Pfalz (German) can refer to: the Palatinate or Electoral Palatinate (German: Kurpfalz), a historic state within the Holy Roman Empire. ... A Voivodship (also voivodeship, Romanian: voievodat, Polish: wojewÃ³dztwo, Serbian: vojvodstvo or vojvodina) was a feudal state in medieval Romania, Hungary, Poland, Russia and Serbia (see Vojvodina), ruled by a Voivod (voivode). ...

Greater Poland

Image File history File links Size of this preview: 683 Ã— 600 pixelsFull resolution (3535 Ã— 3103 pixel, file size: 2. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 683 Ã— 600 pixelsFull resolution (3535 Ã— 3103 pixel, file size: 2. ... A Voivodship (also voivodeship, Romanian: Voievodat, Polish: WojewÃ³dztwo, Serbian: Vojvodstvo or Vojvodina) was a feudal state in medieval Romania, Hungary, Poland, Russia and Serbia (see Vojvodina), ruled by a Voivod (voivode). ... BrzeÅ›Ä‡ Kujawski Voivodeship (Polish: wojewÃ³dztwo brzesko-kujawskie) was a unit of administrative division and local government in Poland from 14th century to the partitions of Poland in 1772-1795. ... BrzeÅ›Ä‡ Kujawski is a town in the Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodship, Poland. ... Gniezno Voivodeship (Polish: WojewÃ³dztwo GnieÅºnieÅ„skie, Latin: Palatinatus Gnesnensis) was a unit of administrative division and local government in Poland for a short time from 1768, when it was cut from the Kalisz Voivodeship, to the partitions of Poland in 1772-1795. ... Gniezno (pronounced: [gÉ²È‹ÎµznÉ”]) is a town in central-western Poland, some 50 km east of PoznaÅ„, inhabited by about 73,000 people. ... InowrocÅ‚aw Voivodeship (Polish: wojewÃ³dztwo inowrocÅ‚awskie) was a unit of administrative division and local government in Poland from 14th century to the partitions of Poland in 1772-1795. ... Coordinates: , Country Voivodeship Powiat InowrocÅ‚aw County Gmina InowrocÅ‚aw Government - Mayor Ryszard Brejza Area - Town 30. ... Kalisz (pronounce: [kaliÊƒ]) is a city in central Poland with 109,800 inhabitants (1995). ... ÅÄ™czyca Voivodeship was a unit of administrative division and local government in Poland from the 14th century until the partitions of Poland in 1772-1795. ... ÅÄ™czyca (in full The Royal Town of ÅÄ™czyca, Polish: KrÃ³lewskie Miasto ÅÄ™czyca) is a town of 18000 inhabitants in central Poland. ... Capital city Warszawa Area 35,579 kmÂ² Population (2003) - Density 5,136,000 144. ... Masovia (Polish: Mazowsze) is a geographical and historical region situated in central Poland with its capital in Warsaw. ... CiechanÃ³w coat of arms CiechanÃ³w (pronounced (IPA): [tÉ•exanuv]) is a town in north-central Poland with 47,900 inhabitants (2002). ... Czersk is a town in northern Poland in Chojnice County, Pomeranian Voivodeship. ... Liw is a village in Masovian Voivodship, Poland. ... ÅomÅ¼a is a town in north-eastern Poland, located approx. ... The word Nur has several meanings: -nur is an indo-european root denoting water or river. ... RÃ³Å¼an is a small town in Mazovian Voivodship, Poland. ... For other uses, see Warsaw (disambiguation) and Warszawa (disambiguation). ... Wizna is a small town in Podlasie Voivodship, Poland. ... Coordinates: , Country Voivodeship Powiat city county Gmina PoznaÅ„ Established 8th century City Rights 1253 Government - Mayor Ryszard Grobelny Area - City 261. ... Motto: Virtute et labore angere Coordinates: , Country Poland Voivodeship County city county Establishedf 9th century Town rights 1237 Government - Mayor MirosÅ‚aw Milewski Area - Total 88. ... WyszogrÃ³d is a town in Poland in Masovian Voivodship, located in the middle of PÅ‚oÅ„sk Upland, by the Vistula River. ... Podlachia Voivodeship or Podlasie Voivodeship (Polish: wojewÃ³dztwo podlaskie) is an administrative region, or voivodeship, in northeastern Poland. ... Drohiczyn is a town in north-eastern Poland. ... Bielsk Podlaski is a town in north-eastern Poland with 27,600 inhabitants (2004). ... Drohiczyn is a town in north-eastern Poland. ... For the town in Bulgaria see Melnik, Bulgaria. ... Rawa Voivodeship Rawa Voivodeship (Polish: WojewÃ³dztwo Rawskie) was a unit of administrative division and local government in the Kingdom of Poland since 15th century till the partitions of Poland in 1795. ... Rawa Mazowiecka - Wikipedia /**/ @import /skins/monobook/IE50Fixes. ... GostyÅ„ is a town in Greater Poland Voivodship (from 1975 to 1998 in Leszno Voivodship), in GostyÅ„ County. ... Sochaczew - a town in central Poland (52. ... Coat of Arms of Sieradz Sieradz is a town on Warta river in central Poland with 44,700 inhabitants (1995). ... Golub-DobrzyÅ„ is a town in Poland. ... WieluÅ„ is a town in central Poland with 25,500 inhabitants (1995). ...

Lesser Poland

BeÅ‚z Voivodeship (Polish: WojewÃ³dztwo BeÅ‚skie, Latin: Palatinatus Belzensis) was a unit of administrative division and local government in Poland from 14th century to the partitions of Poland in 1772-1795. ... Belz (Ukrainian Ð‘ÐµÐ»Ð·, Polish BeÅ‚z, Yiddish ×‘×¢×œ×–) is a small town in western Ukraine, near the border with Poland. ... The BracÅ‚aw Voivodeship (Polish: WojewÃ³dztwo BracÅ‚awskie) was a unit of administrative division and local government in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania since 14th century till 1569 and of the Kingdom of Poland since 1569 till 1793/1795. ... Bratslav (Ukrainian: ; Polish: BracÅ‚aw; Yiddish: ×‘×¨×¢×¡×Ö¸×‘Ö¿ /Breslov/) is a town in the Nemyriv raion of the Vinnytsya Oblast of Ukraine, on the river Southern Bug. ... CzernihÃ³w Voivodeship CzernihÃ³w Voivodeship (Polish: WojewÃ³dztwo Czernihowskie) was a unit of administrative division and local government in the Kingdom of Poland (Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) from 1635 until the partitions of Poland in 1772/1795. ... ... WojewÃ³dztwo Kijowskie coat of arms The KijÃ³w (Kiev) Voivodeship (Polish: WojewÃ³dztwo Kijowskie) was a unit of administrative division and local government in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania from the 14th century until 1569 and of the Kingdom of Poland from 1569 until 1793/1795. ... Motto: Oblast Municipality Municipal government City council (ÐšÐ¸Ñ—Ð²ÑÑŒÐºÐ° ÐœÑ–ÑÑŒÐºÐ° Ñ€Ð°Ð´Ð°) Mayor Oleksandr Omelchenko Area 800 kmÂ² Population - city - urban - density 2,642,486 100% 3,299/kmÂ² Founded City rights around 5th century 1487 Latitude Longitude 50Â°27â€² N 30Â°30â€² E Area code +380 44 Car plates ? Twin towns Athenes, Brussels, Budapest... For other uses, see Krakow (disambiguation). ... Panorama of Lublin form Trynitarska Tower Coordinates: , Country Voivodeship Powiat city county Gmina Lublin Established before 12th century City Rights 1317 Government - Mayor Adam Wasilewski Area - City 147. ... Podole Voivodeship The Podole Voivodeship (Polish: WojewÃ³dztwo Podolskie) was a unit of administrative division and local government in the Kingdom of Poland, since the 14th century till 1793/1795. ... ... Capital city LwÃ³w Area 55,200 kmÂ² Population (1770) - Density 1 495 000 24,4/kmÂ² Powiats - Urban counties - Land counties 13 5 Communes 200 Ruthenia Voivodeship (Latin: Palatinatus russiae, Polish: wojewÃ³dztwo ruskie; 1366-1772) was an administrative division of the Kingdom of Poland (see Kingdom of Poland... Motto: Semper fidelis Oblast Lviv Oblast Municipal government City council (Ð›ÑŒÐ²Ñ–Ð²ÑÑŒÐºÐ° Ð¼Ñ–ÑÑŒÐºÐ° Ñ€Ð°Ð´Ð°) Mayor City chairman Lyubomyr Bunyak Area 171,01 kmÂ² Population - city - urban - density 808,900 ? 4786/kmÂ² Founded City rights 13th century 1353 Latitude Longitude 49Â°51â€² N 24Â°01â€² E Area code +0322 Car plates ? Twin towns Corning, Freiburg... Sandomierz Voivodeship (Polish: WojewÃ³dztwo Sandomierskie, Latin: Palatinatus Sandomirensis) was a unit of administrative division and local government in Poland from 14th century to the partitions of Poland in 1772-1795. ... Flag of Sandomierz Sandomierz Coat of Arms Sandomierz(Sandomir) ( listen) is a city in south-eastern Poland with 25,714 inhabitants (2006). ... Other languages FAQs | Table free Welcome to Wikipedia, the free-content encyclopedia that anyone can edit. ... Halych (Галич in Ukrainian or Russian [pronounced Halych and Galich]; Halicz in Polish; העליטש [Helitsh or Heylitsh] in Yiddish) is a town in Ukraine. ... Motto: Semper fidelis Oblast Lviv Oblast Municipal government City council (Ð›ÑŒÐ²Ñ–Ð²ÑÑŒÐºÐ° Ð¼Ñ–ÑÑŒÐºÐ° Ñ€Ð°Ð´Ð°) Mayor City chairman Lyubomyr Bunyak Area 171,01 kmÂ² Population - city - urban - density 808,900 ? 4786/kmÂ² Founded City rights 13th century 1353 Latitude Longitude 49Â°51â€² N 24Â°01â€² E Area code +0322 Car plates ? Twin towns Corning, Freiburg... Coordinates: , Country Poland Voivodeship County city county Established 10th century Town rights 1389 Government - Mayor Robert Choma Area - Total 44 kmÂ² (17 sq mi) Population (2006) - Total 66,715 - Density 1,516. ... Motto: Libera Regia Civitas Free Royal City Coordinates: , Country Poland Voivodeship County Sanok County Gmina Sanok (urban gmina) Established before 12th century Town rights 1339 Government - Mayor Wojciech Blecharczyk Area - Total 38. ... Siewierz is a city in Poland. ... Coordinates: , Country Voivodeship Powiat City County Gmina CheÅ‚m Established 10th century City Rights 1392 Government - Mayor Agata Fisz Area - City 35. ... Coordinates: , Country Voivodeship Powiat OÅ›wiÄ™cim County Gmina OÅ›wiÄ™cim Established 12th century City Rights 1291 Government - Mayor Janusz Andrzej MarszaÅ‚ek Area - Town 30. ... Zator is a town in southern Poland. ...

Grand Duchy of Lithuania

id="Royal_Prussia"> The Eldership of Samogitia (Lithuanian: Žemaičių seniūnija) was the western part of Lithuania Artistic picture of Žemaičių Seniūnija in 18th century. ... Location Ethnographic region Samogitia County TelÅ¡iai County Municipality TelÅ¡iai district municipality Elderate Number of elderates Coordinates General information Capital of Varniai rural elderate Population (rank) 1,310 in 2005 (90th) First mentioned 1314 Granted city rights 1950 Varniai is a city in western Lithuania, TelÅ¡iai County. ... BrzeÅ›Ä‡ Litewski Voivodeship BrzeÅ›Ä‡ Litewski Voivodeship (Polish: WojewÃ³dztwo Brzesko-Litewskie , Lithuanian: Lietuvos Brastos vaivadija) was a unit of administrative division and local government in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) since 15th century till the partitions of Poland in 1795. ... Brest (Belarusian: , Russian: , Polish: ; Alternative names), formerly Brest-on-the-Bug and Brest-Litovsk, is a city (population 290,000 in 2004) in Belarus close to the Polish border where the Western Bug and Mukhavets Rivers meet. ... MÅ›cisÅ‚aw Voivodeship Mscislaw Voivodeship (Polish: WojewÃ³dztwo MÅ›cisÅ‚awskie) was a unit of administrative division and local government in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (from second half of the 16th century - Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) since 15th century till the partitions of Poland in 1795. ... AmÅ›cislaÅ (Belarusian: ; Russian: ; sometimes Mstislavl) is a town in Belarus, MahiloÅ Province. ... Minsk Voivodeship (Polish: ) was a unit of administrative division and local government in Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth since 1413 till the partitions of Poland in 1795. ... Location of Minsk, shown within the Minsk Voblast Coordinates: Country Subdivision Belarus Minsk Founded 1067 Government - Mayor Mikhail Pavlov Area - City 305. ... NowogrÃ³dek Voivodeship (red) in 17th century NowogrÃ³dek Voivodeship in Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth NowogrÃ³dek Voivodeship (Polish: , Belarusian: ) was an unit of administrative division of Grand Duchy of Lithuania (from 1507 (from 1569, of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) with the capital in the town of NowogrÃ³dek (now Belarus). ... Navahrudak, Novgorodok or Novogrudok (Belarusian: , IPA: ; Russian: ) also known as Polish: an Lithuanian: ) is a city in the Hrodna voblast, Belarus. ... PoÅ‚ock Voivodeship Image:Polock1. ... Polatsk (Belarusian: ÐŸÐ¾ÌÐ»Ð°Ñ†Ð°Ðº, ÐŸÐ¾ÌÐ»Ð°Ñ†Ðº, also spelt as Polacak; Polish: PoÅ‚ock; Russian: ÐŸÐ¾ÌÐ»Ð¾Ñ†Ðº, also transliterated as Polotsk, Polotzk, Polock) is the most historic city in Belarus, situated on the Dvina river. ... Coat of Arms SmoleÅ„sk Voivodeship SmoleÅ„sk Voivodeship (Polish: WojewÃ³dztwo SmoleÅ„skie) was a unit of administrative division and local government in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) since 15th century till the partitions of Poland in 1795. ... A view of Smolensk in 1912. ... Trakai Voivodeship Trakai Voivodeship (Lithuanian: TrakÅ³ vaivadija, Polish: WojewÃ³dztwo Trockie) was a unit of administrative division and local government in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (after the Union of Lublin it, together with whole Grand Duchy of Lithuania, became part of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) from the 16th century till... Trakai (Polish Troki) - a town and lake resort in Lithuania, a part of Trakai national park territory and an administrative centre of the region. ... Territory of the Vilnius Voivodeship is marked in red. ... Vilnius Old Town Vilnius (sometimes Vilna; Polish Wilno, Belarusian Вільня, Russian Вильнюс, see also Cities alternative names) is the capital city of Lithuania. ... Witebsk Voivodeship Witebsk Voivodeship (Polish: WojewÃ³dztwo Witebskie) was a unit of administrative division and local government in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (from 1569 Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) since 15th century till the partitions of Poland in 1795. ... Vitsebsk (Belarusian: Ð’Ñ–ÌÑ†ÐµÐ±ÑÐº (Viciebsk); Russian: Ð’Ð¸ÌÑ‚ÐµÐ±ÑÐº (Vitebsk); Polish: Witebsk) is a city in Belarus, near the border with Russia and Latvia. ...

Royal Prussia

Duchy of Warmia (Polish: ) was an administrative part of Malbork Voivodeship, one of the three voivodships of Royal Prussia region in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. ... Coordinates: , Country Poland Voivodeship Warmian-Masurian Powiat Lidzbark WarmiÅ„ski County Gmina Lidzbark WarmiÅ„ski Estabilished before 1240 City Rights 1308 Government - Mayor Artur Wajs Area - Town 14. ... The CheÅ‚mno Voivodeship (Polish: WojewÃ³dztwo CheÅ‚miÅ„skie) was a unit of administrative division and local government in the Kingdom of Poland since 1454/1466 till the partitions in 1772/1795. ... CheÅ‚mno (older English: ; German: ) is a town in northern Poland with 22,000 inhabitants (1995) and the historical capital of CheÅ‚mno Land (Culmerland). ... The Malbork Voivodeship (Polish: WojewÃ³dztwo Malborskie) was a unit of administrative division and local government in the Kingdom of Poland since 1454/1466 till the partitions in 1772/1795. ... Malbork Castle 2003. ... Capital city GdaÅ„sk Area 18,293 kmÂ² Population (2004) - Density 2,192,000 120/kmÂ² Powiats - Urban counties - Land counties 4 16 Communes 123 Logo of Pomeranian Voivodeship Sea port in GdaÅ„sk The Sea Towers in Gdynia will be the tallest building (138 m) in Poland outside Warsaw... For alternative meanings of GdaÅ„sk and Danzig, see GdaÅ„sk (disambiguation) and Danzig (disambiguation) Motto: Nec temere, nec timide (No rashness, no timidness) Coordinates: , Country Voivodeship Powiat city county Gmina GdaÅ„sk Established 10th century City Rights 1263 Government - Mayor PaweÅ‚ Adamowicz Area - City 262 kmÂ² (101. ...

Duchy of Livonia (Inflanty)

The Dorpat Voivodeship (Polish: or wojewÃ³dztwo derpskie) was a unit of administrative division and local government in the Duchy of Livonia, part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, from 1598 till the Swedish conquest of Livonia in the 1620s. ... Image of Tartu street Tartu (German, Polish Dorpat, Russian Юpьeв Yuryev) is the second largest city of Estonia, with its population of 101,246 (the Population Census data is from 2000) in an area of 38. ... The Livonian Voivodeship (Lithuanian: ; Polish: ) was a unit of administrative division and local government in the Duchy of Livonia, part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, since it was formed in the 1620s out of the Wenden Voivodeship till the First Partition of Poland in 1772. ... Daugavpils (Russian Двинcк Dvinsk, Lithuanian Daugpilis, German Dünaburg, Polish Dyneburg or Dźwińsk, Yiddish דענענבורג Denenburg), population 115,265 in 2000 census) is the second largest city in Latvia. ... The Parnawa Voivodeship (Polish: ) was a unit of administrative division and local government in the Duchy of Livonia, part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, since it was formed in 1598 till the Swedish conquest of Livonia in the 1620s. ... The city of Pärnu is located within the county of Pärnu. ... Wenden Voivodeship (Polish: ) was a unit of administrative division and local government in the Duchy of Livonia, part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, since it was formed in 1598 till the Swedish conquest of Livonia in the 1620s. ... CÄ“sis (German: Wenden) is a town in Latvia located in the northern part of the Vidzeme Central upland. ...

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