The term realism or political realism collects a wide variety of theories and modes of thought about International Relations that have in common that the motivation of states is in the first place the strive for (mostly) military and economic power or security, rather than ideals or ethics. This term is mostly used as a synonym for power politics. Sometimes realism is also used to refer to classical realism, the oldest form of realism. International Relations (IR), a branch of political science, is the study of foreign affairs of and relations among states within the international system, including the roles of states, inter-governmental organizations (IGOs), non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and multinational corporations (MNCs). ... Ideals are principles or values that one actively pursues as goals. ... Ethics (from Greek ἦθος meaning custom) is the branch of axiology, one of the four major branches of philosophy, which attempts to understand the nature of morality; to distinguish that which is right from that which is wrong. ... Power politics is a state of international relations in which sovereigns protect their own interests by threatening one another with military, economic, or political aggression. ...

History of realism

Realism became a discipline in international relations during and after World War II. Realism is nevertheless similar to and perhaps even found its origin in earlier writers like: Combatants Allies: Poland, British Commonwealth, France/Free France, Soviet Union, United States, China, and others Axis Powers: Germany, Italy, Japan, and others Casualties Military dead: 17 million Civilian dead: 33 million Total dead: 50 million Military dead: 8 million Civilian dead: 4 million Total dead: 12 million World War II...

• Sunzi (or Sun Tzu), an ancient Chinese military strategist who wrote the Art of War.
• Thucydides, an ancient Greek historian who wrote the History of the Peloponnesian War and is also cited as an intellectual forebearer of realpolitik.
• Han Feizi, Chinese scholar who theorised Legalism (or Legism) and who served in the court of the King of Qin - later unifier of China ending the Warring States Period. His writings include The Two Handles. He theorised about a neutral, manipulative ruler who would act as Head of State while secretly controlling the executive through his ministers - the ones to take real responsibility for any policy.
• Niccolò Machiavelli, a Florentine political philosopher, who wrote Il Principe (The Prince) in which he held that the sole aim of a prince (politician) was to seek power, regardless of religious or ethical considerations.
• Thomas Hobbes, an English philosopher who wrote Leviathan in which he stated that in anarchy there is a "war of all against all".
• Otto von Bismarck, a Prussian statesman coined the term balance of power. Balancing power meant keeping the peace and careful realpolitik practitioners tried to avoid arms races.
• Carl von Clausewitz was a 19th century Prussian general and military theorist who wrote Vom Kriege (On War).

• See also: Cardinal Richelieu, Mercurino Gattinara, Count Camillo Benso di Cavour, Prince Klemens von Metternich.

Sun Tzu (孫子 also commonly written in pinyin: Sūn Zǐ) was the author of The Art of War, an influential ancient Chinese book on military strategy (for the most part not dealing directly with tactics). ... The Art of War (Chinese: 孫子兵法 sūn zi bīng fǎ) was a Chinese military text written during the 6th century BC by Sun Tzu. ... Bust of Thucydides residing in the Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto Thucydides (between 460 and 455 BC–circa 400 BC, Greek Θουκυδίδης, Thoukudídês) was an ancient Greek historian, and the author of the History of the Peloponnesian War, which recounts the 5th century BC war between Sparta and Athens. ... Page from tenth-century minuscule manuscript of Thucydides History The History of the Peloponnesian War is an account of the Peloponnesian War in Ancient Greece, fought between the Peloponnesian League (led by Sparta) and the Delian League (led by Athens). ... Traditional Chinese: 韓非子 Simplified Chinese: 韩非子 Pinyin: Hán FÄ“izǐ Wade-Giles: Han Fei-tzu Han Feizi (韓非子) (d. ... Legalism has several meanings. ... Alternative meaning: Warring States Period (Japan) The Warring States Period (traditional Chinese: 戰國時代, simplified Chinese: 战国时代 pinyin Zhànguó Shídài) takes place from sometime in the 5th century BC to the unification of China by Qin in 221 BC. It is nominally considered to be the second part of the... Machiavelli, c. ... Hobbes redirects here. ... Frontispiece of Leviathan Leviathan was a book written in 1651 by Thomas Hobbes, is one of the most famous and influential books of political philosophy. ... For alternative meanings: See Bismarck (disambiguation). ... Balance of power is a central concept of realist theories of international relations. ... Widely-recognized peace symbol Peace is commonly understood to mean the Other definitions include freedom from disputes, harmonious relations and the absence of mental stress or anxiety, as the meaning of the word changes with context. ... An arms race is a competition between two or more countries for military supremacy. ... A young Clausewitz Carl Philipp Gottfried von Clausewitz (June 1, 1780 - November 16, 1831) was a Prussian general and influential military theorist. ... On War (Ger. ... Cardinal Richelieu was the French chief minister from 1624 until his death. ... Portrait of Mercurino Gattinara by Jan Cornelisz Vermeyen Mercurino Arborio marchese di Gattinara (b. ... Count Camillo Benso di Cavour (Turin, August 10, 1810 - Santena, near Turin, June 6, 1861) was a statesman who was a leading figure in the movement toward Italian unification and the first Prime Minister of the new Kingdom of Italy. ... Klemens Wenzel von Metternich Klemens Wenzel Nepomuk Lothar Fürst von Metternich-Winneberg-Beilstein (May 15, 1773 - June 11, 1858) (sometimes rendered in English as Prince Clemens Metternich) was an Austrian politician and statesman and perhaps the most important diplomat of his era. ...

Basic theory

Fundamental principles common to realist theories:

• The international system is anarchical.
• Sovereign states are the principal actors in the international system.
  • Dismissal of the independent influence of international organizations, sub-state, or trans-state actors.
  • Focus on the primary importance of nationalism, as opposed to sub-national groupings, or transnational ideological of cultural groupings.
• States are rational actors, acting in their national interest.
  • Distrust of long-term cooperation or alliance.
• The overriding goal of each state is its own security and survival.
  • Fundamental nature of the security dilemma.
• State survival is guaranteed best by power, principally military in character.
  • Focus on relative power (i.e. "zero sum") versus absolute power.

Realism makes several key assumptions. Primarily, it assumes that mankind is not inherently benevolent and kind but self centered and competitive, in contrast to other theories of international relations such as liberalism. It also fundamentally assumes that the international system is anarchic, in the sense that there is no authority above states capable of regulating their interactions; states must arrive at relations with other states on their own, rather than it being dictated to them by some higher controlling entity (that is, no true authoritative world government exists). It also assumes that sovereign states, rather than international institutions, non-governmental organizations, or multinational corporations, are the primary actors in international affairs. According to realism, each state is a rational actor that always acts towards its own self-interest, and the primary goal of each state is to ensure its own security. Realism holds that in pursuit of that security, states will attempt to amass resources, and that relations between states are determined by their relative level of power. That level of power is in turn determined by the state's capabilities, both military and economic. Sovereignty is the exclusive right to exercise supreme political (legislative, judicial and/or executive) authority over a geographic region, group of people or oneself. ... A state is an organized political community, occupying a territory, and possessing internal and external sovereignty, that enforces a monopoly on the use of force. ... In philosophy, the word rationality has been used to describe numerous religious and philosophical theories, especially those concerned with truth, reason, and knowledge. ... The national interest, often referred to by the French term raison détat, is a countrys goals and ambitions whether economic, military, or cultural. ... Security measures taken to protect the Houses of Parliament in London, England. ... In the context of international relations and diplomacy, power (sometimes clarified as international power, national power, or state power) is the ability of one state to influence or control other states. ... Zero-sum describes a situation in which a participants gain or loss is exactly balanced by the losses or gains of the other participant(s). ... International Relations (IR), a branch of political science, is the study of foreign affairs of and relations among states within the international system, including the roles of states, inter-governmental organizations (IGOs), non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and multinational corporations (MNCs). ... Liberalism holds that state preferences, rather than state capabilities, are the primary determinant of state behavior. ... In the realist theory of International Relations, the anarchical system that all states find themselves in is the lack of clear organisation of states into a hieracical order that is found within states. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards and conform with our NPOV policy, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Sovereignty is the exclusive right to exercise supreme political (legislative, judicial and/or executive) authority over a geographic region, group of people or oneself. ... A state is an organized political community, occupying a territory, and possessing internal and external sovereignty, that enforces a monopoly on the use of force. ... In philosophy, the word rationality has been used to describe numerous religious and philosophical theories, especially those concerned with truth, reason, and knowledge. ... Self-interest can refer to these articles: Egoism Selfishness Ethical egoism Psychological egoism Individualism Objectivist ethics Hedonism Happiness Epicureanism Utilitarianism This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Resources comprise the base material for an activity or industry: factors of production, the economics term human capital, human resources (HR) and innovation natural resources resource (computer science) resource (Web) resource (Windows) resource (Macintosh) resource (political) resource (project management) Resource Distribution, human influence and the effects of trade. ...

Moreover, Realists believe that states are inherently aggressive (offensive realism), and that territorial expansion is only constrained by opposing power(s). This aggressive build-up, however, leads to a security dilemma where increasing one's own security can bring along greater instability as the opponent(s) builds up its own arms. Thus, security is a zero-sum game where only relative gains can be made. In international relations, the security dilemma refers to a common situation wherein two or more states are drawn into conflict, possibly even war, over security concerns when none of the states involved actually wanted conflict. ... Zero-sum describes a situation in which a participants gain (or loss) is exactly balanced by the losses (or gains) of the other participant(s). ...

There is a distinction between structural realism and liberal realism (also known as "Neoliberal Institutionalism"):

The former emphasize the permanent condition of conflict. Thus, to ensure state security, states must be on constant preparation for conflict through economic and military build-up.

The latter holds that while the system is anarchical, through diplomacy, international law and society, order can be promoted. (English School) This gives credence to establish IGOs such as the United Nations.

United Nations - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ...

Modern realism

Classical realism

Modern realism began as a serious field of research in the United States during and after World War II. This evolution was partly fueled by European war migrants like Hans Morgenthau who had a negative view of human nature, thought by some to be due to their experiences in WWII. Other important political realists include among others: Hans Joachim Morgenthau (February 17, 1904 - July 19, 1980) was a International Relations theorist and one of the most influential ones to date. ...

• George F. Kennan - Containment
• Nicholas Spykman - Geostrategy, Containment
• Herman Kahn - Nuclear strategy
• E.H. Carr
• Reinhold Niebuhr
• Hans Morgenthau
• Arnold Wolfers
• Charles Beard
• Walter Lippmann

George Frost Kennan (February 16, 1904 – March 17, 2005) was an American advisor, diplomat, political scientist, and historian, best known as the father of containment and as a key figure in the emergence of the Cold War. ... Containment refers to the foreign policy strategy of the United States in the early years of the Cold War. ... Nicholas John Spykman (b. ... Geostrategy is a subfield of geopolitics. ... Herman Kahn Herman Kahn (February 15, 1922-July 7, 1983) was a military strategist and systems theorist employed at RAND Corporation, USA. // Background Born in Bayonne, New Jersey, Kahn grew up in the Bronx, then in Los Angeles following his parents divorce. ... Nuclear strategy involves the development of doctrines and strategies for the production and use of nuclear weapons. ... Edward Hallett Carr (1892–1982) was a British historian and international relations theorist. ... Reinhold Niebuhr (June 21, 1892 – June 1, 1971) was a Protestant theologian best known for his study of the task of relating the Christian faith to the reality of modern politics and diplomacy. ... Hans Joachim Morgenthau (February 17, 1904 - July 19, 1980) was a International Relations theorist and one of the most influential ones to date. ... Charles Austin Beard (November 27, 1874 _ September 1, 1948) was an American historian, author with James Harvey Robinson of The Development of Modern Europe (1907). ... Cover of Time Magazine, March 30, 1930 Walter Lippmann (September 23, 1889 - December 14, 1974), was an influential United States writer, journalist, and political commentator. ...

Liberal Realism

• Hedley Bull - Liberal realism (sometimes called the "English School" or "Rationalism")

Hedley Bull (1932 – 1985) was Professor of International Relations at the Australian National University, the London School of Economics, and the University of Oxford until his death in 1985. ...

Structural or Neo-realism

Main article: Neo-realism

Neo-Realism resembles Classical Realism on most accounts. However, Neo-Realism predominantly focuses on the international system rather than human nature. While states remain the principal actors, greater attention is given to the forces above and below the states through a Levels of Analysis or Structure-Agency debate - with the international system as a structure acting on the state and individuals below the level of the state acting as agency on the state as a whole. Neorealism is a cultural movement in cinema that, following the realism in literature, brings elements of true life in the stories it describes, in contrast with a tendency to depict a world mainly existing in imagination only. ...

• Kenneth Waltz
• Stephen Walt - Defensive realism
• John Mearsheimer - Offensive realism
• Robert Gilpin - Hegemonic theory, Defensive realism

Kenneth N. Waltz is one of the most prominent scholars of international relations (IR) alive today. ... // Selected awards 1988 -- Edgar S. Furniss National Security Book Award for The Origins of Alliances Academic career January 2000 -- Visiting Professor of Strategic Studies, Institute for Defense and Security Studies, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 1996 - 1999 -- University of Chicago, deputy dean of social sciences 1995 - 1999 -- University of Chicago, professor... Professor John J. Mearsheimer John J. Mearsheimer (born December 1947) is the R. Wendell Harrison Distinguished Service Professor of Political Science at the University of Chicago. ... In international relations, offensive realism is a variant of realism. ... Robert Gilpin is a scholar of international political economy and the professor emeritus of Politics and International Affairs at the Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs at Princeton University. ...

Neoclassical realism

Neoclassical Realism can be seen as the third generation of realism, coming after the classical authors of the first wave (Thucydides, Machiavelli, Hobbes, Morgenthau), and the neorealists (esp. Kenneth Waltz). Its designation of "neoclassical", then, has a double meaning: 1) It offers the classics a renaissance; 2) It is a synthesis of the neo and the classical approach.

Gideon Rose is responsible for coining the term in a Book Review he wrote ^[1]. In the article, Rose identifies Randall Schweller, Fareed Zakaria, Thomas Christensen, William Wohlforth and Aaron Friedberg as being the main Neoclassical Realist authors.

What primarily motivated these scholars to come up with a new theoretical model was the fact that neorealism was only useful to explain political outcomes (classified as being 'theories of international politics'), but had nothing to offer about particular states' behavior (or 'theories of foreign policy'). The basic approach, then, was for these authors to "refine, not refute, Kenneth Waltz", by adding domestic intervening variables between systemic incentives and a state's foreign policy decision. Thus, the basic theoretical architecture of Neoclassical Realism is:

Distribution of power in the international system (Independent Variable) >>> Domestic perception of the system and/or domestic incentives (Intervening Variable) >>> Foreign Policy decision (Dependent Variable)

While the Neoclassical approach has only been used for theories of foreign policy so far, Randall Schweller notes that it could be useful to explain certain types of political outcomes as well.^[2].

This new realist model is particularly appealing from a research standpoint because it still retains a lot of the theoretical rigor that Waltz has brought to realism, but at the same time can easily incorporate a content-rich analysis, since its main method for testing theories is the process-tracing of case studies.

Constructivist realism

Criticisms of realism

Several critiques were raised against the realist school. One problem is that there are in fact authorities above states capable of regulating inter-state relations. There are organizations like the U.N., WTO, ISO as well as multitudes of multinational organizations and companies. While none of these organizations has the powers of a full government, they do have a considerable influence over the actions of states. According to this view, American efforts to receive U.N. support for the invasion of Iraq illustrate the power of the U.N. Had the U.N. no power, as realists would claim, it would have never played any role in the run-up to the war. Further criticism of political realism says that realism has an incorrect concept of a state. States are not actors but rather large organizations. It is impossible, say the critics, to understand international relations without making this distinction. An illustration of this phenomenon can be found in the difficulties involving signing the CAFTA. In particular, the agreement was ratified by United States Senate only after a considerable delay and uncertainty about the outcome. This article is about the United Nations, for other uses of UN see UN (disambiguation) Official languages English, French, Spanish, Russian, Chinese, Arabic Secretary-General Kofi Annan (since 1997) Established October 24, 1945 Member states 191 Headquarters New York City, NY, USA Official site http://www. ... For other uses of the initials WTO, see WTO (disambiguation). ... ISO has many meanings: Iso is the stem of the Latin transliteration of the Greek word ίσος (ísos, meaning equal). The iso- prefix in English derives from this and means equality or similarity. ... The Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) is a free trade agreement between the United States and the Central American countries of Guatemala, Honduras, and Canada, and Mexico. ... Seal of the Senate The United States Senate is one of the two chambers of the Congress of the United States, the other being the House of Representatives. ...

With increased globalization, some argue that the statist nature of realism has proven wrong, as states cannot be considered as unitary actors in pursuit of rational self-interest. Examples include the reality that many states have an economy smaller than many multinational corporations (MNCs) and some MNCs even employ their own quasi-military forces to protect their own installations and thus are more powerful than the state. Realists maintain that MNCs are legitimized by other states and thus cannot be considered as independent entities. Yet, this places doubt on the state as a unitary actor - as surely interaction between non-state actors (for example, between MNCs) is becoming increasingly commonplace. Globalization (or globalisation) refers to the worldwide phenomenon of technological, economic, political and cultural exchanges, brought about by modern communication, transportation and legal infrastructure as well as the political choice to consciously open cross-border links in international trade and finance. ...

Critics also argue that the success of the European Union (EU) shows that states are capable of cooperation and indeed the European Union is an example of a supranational government - above the level of the state. Realists respond that as the divisions within the EU on everything from agreeing on a constitution to agricultural policies, states may just be joining in pursuit of their own rational self-interest. Yet, laws of the European Parliament and court decisions of European Courts are applicable across all EU nations - suggesting that the EU is indeed a supranational government rather than an IGO. The European Parliament is the parliamentary body of the European Union (EU), directly elected by EU citizens once every five years. ...

Democratic peace theory advocates also argue that Realism is not applicable to Democratic states relations between one another, as these states have been shown to conduct relations with the absence of war in their foreign policies. The factual accuracy of this article is disputed. ...

See also

• Realpolitik

Realpolitik (German: real (realistic, practical or actual) and Politik (politics)) is a term to describe or prescribe politics based on strictly practical rather than idealistic notions, and practiced without any sentimental illusions. ...

Modern realist statesmen

• Henry Kissinger
• Zbigniew Brzezinski
• Brent Scowcroft

Henry Kissinger circa 1970s. ... Zbigniew Brzezinski Zbigniew Kazimierz Brzezinski (born March 28, 1928, Warsaw, Poland) is a Polish-American political scientist, geostrategist, and statesman. ... Lieutenant General Brent Scowcroft KBE (born March 19, 1925 in Ogden, Utah), USAF (Ret. ...

References

1. ↑ Gideon Rose, "Neoclassical Realism and Theories of Foreign Policy", World Politics, Vol. 51, No. 1, pp. 144-172
2. ↑ Randall L. Schweller, "The Progressiveness of Neoclassical Realism", pp. 311-347 in Colin Elman and Miriam Fendius Elman eds., Progress in International Relations Theory, (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2003)

External links

• The Realist Persuasion by Andrew J. Bacevich, for the Boston Globe, November 6, 2005
• Debating IR Students at American University discuss international relations theory and its applications.