In the terminology of some scholars working in sociology, a political religion is a political ideology with cultural and political power equivalent to those of a religion, and often having many sociological and ideological similarities with religion. Quintessential examples are Marxism and Nazism, but totalitarianism is not a requirement (for example neo-liberalism can be analysed as a political religion). Social interactions of people and their consequences are the subject of sociology studies. ... The Elections and Parties Series Democracy Representative democracy History of democracy Referenda Liberal democracy Representation Voting Voting systems Ideology Elections Elections by country Elections by calender Electoral systems Politics Politics by country Political campaigns Political science Political philosophy Related topics Political parties Parties by country Parties by name Parties by... Totalitarianism is a typology employed by political scientists to describe modern regimes in which the state regulates nearly every aspect of public and private behavior. ... The term neoliberalism is used to describe a political-economic philosophy that had major implications for government policies beginning in the 1970s – and increasingly prominent since 1980 – that de-emphasizes or rejects positive government intervention in the economy, focusing instead on achieving progress and even social justice by encouraging free...

The term is sometimes treated as synonymous with civil religion, but although some scholars use the terms as equivalent, others see a useful distinction, using "civil religion" as something weaker, which functions more as a socially unifying and essentially conservative force, where a political religion is radically transformational, even apocalyptic. The intended meaning of the term civil religion often varies according to whether one is a sociologist of religion or a professional political commentator. ... Look up Apocalypse in Wiktionary, the free dictionary Apocalypse is a Greek word and is formed by the combination of apo (away) with calypse (disclose). ...

The term is sometimes used outside academia, often with meanings tangential to or opposite to the sociological usage (for example, applying it to a church). Even when used correctly, supporters of an ideology will generally reject the application of the term "political religion".

Overview

The term political religion is a sociological one, drawing on the sociological aspects of religion which can be often be found in certain secular ideologies. A political religion occupies much the same psychological and sociological space as a theistic religion, and as a result it often displaces or coopts existing religious organisations and beliefs; this is described as a "sacralisation" of politics. However, although a political religion may coopt existing religious structures or symbolism, it does not itself have any independent spiritual or theocratic elements - it is essentially secular, using religion only for political purposes, if it does not reject religious faith outright. Theism is the belief in one or more gods or goddesses. ... See: Spirituality Spiritual music Spiritual dance The Age of Spiritual Machines Spiritual possession The Four Spiritual Laws Wholism External links Spiritual service This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... Theocracy is a form of government in which a religion and the government are allied. ...

The first scholars to use the concept of political religion (or occasionally-used synonyms such as "secular religion" and "lay religion") were Protestant and Catholic intellectuals and theologians, such as Luigi Sturzo, Adolf Keller, Paul Tillich, Gerhard Leibholz, Waldemar Gurian and Eric Voegelin.[1] These linked the concept to modernity, mass society and the rise of the bureaucratic state, and seeing in political religions "the climax of the rebellion against the religion of God", also described them as ‘pseudo-religions’, ‘substitute religions’, ‘surrogate religions’, ‘religions manipulated by man’ and ‘anti-religions’.[2] Paul Johannes Tillich (August 20, 1886 – October 22, 1965) was a German-American theologian and Christian existentialist philosopher. ... Eric Voegelin (January 3, 1901 – January 19, 1985) was a political philosopher. ... Modernity is a term used to describe the condition of being Modern. Since the term Modern is used to describe a wide range of periods, modernity must be taken in context. ... Mass society is a society in which the concerns of the majority – the lower classes – play a prominent role, characterized by extension of voting rights, an improved standard of living for the lower classes and mass education. ...

Aspects of political religions

Key memetic qualities often (not all are always strongly present) shared by religion (particularly cults) and political religion include The term and concept of the meme (pronounced in IPA; from the Greek word μνήμη for memory) first appeared in the 1976 book by Richard Dawkins, The Selfish Gene. ... This article does not discuss cult in its original sense of religious practice; for that usage see Cult (religion). ...

• Structural
  • differentiation between self and other, and demonisation of other (in theistic religion, the differentiation usually depends on adherence to certain dogmas and social behaviours; in political religion, differentiation may be on grounds such as race, class, or nationality instead)
  • a charismatic figurehead, with messianic tendencies; if figurehead is deceased, powerful successors;
  • strong, hierarchical organisational structures
  • a desire to control education, in order to ensure the security of the system

• Belief
  • a coherent belief system for imposing symbolic meaning on the external world, with an emphasis on security through purity;
  • an intolerance of other ideologies of the same type
  • a degree of utopianism and the aim of radically transforming society into an end-state (an end of history)
  • the belief that the ideology is in some way natural or obvious, so that (at least for certain groups of people) those who reject it are in some way "blind"
  • a genuine desire on the part of individuals to convert others to the cause
  • a willingness to place ends over means - in particular, a willingness to use violence
  • fatalism - a belief that the ideology will inevitably triumph in the end

Not all of these aspects are present in any one political religion; this is only a list of some common aspects. In Judaism, the Messiah (מָשִׁיחַ Anointed one, Standard Hebrew , Tiberian Hebrew ) initially meant any person who was annointed by God. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... The End of History and the Last Man is a 1992 book by Francis Fukuyama, expanding on his 1989 essay The End of History?, in which he argues the controversial thesis that the end of the Cold War signals the end of the progression of human history: What we may...

Suppression of religious beliefs

Loyalty to other entities, such as a church or a deity are often seen to interfere with loyalty to the state. The authority of potential religious leaders also presents a threat to the authority of the government. As a result, some or all religious sects are either suppressed or banned. An existing sect may be converted into a state religion, but dogma and personnel may be modified to suit the needs of the state. Where there is suppression of religious institutions and beliefs, this may be explicitly accompanied by atheistic doctrine, or merely pragmatic. A state religion (also called an established church or state church) is a religious body or creed officially endorsed by the state. ... Atheism is the state either of being without theistic beliefs, or of actively believing in the non-existence of deities. ...

Absolute loyalty

Loyalty to the state and acceptance of the government's ideology is paramount. Dissenters may be discriminated against, imprisioned, "re-educated", or killed. Loyalty oaths or membership in a dominant (or sole) political party may be required for employment, government services, or out of course. Criticism of the government may be a serious crime. Enforcements range from ostrascism from one's neighbors to complete humiliation by the government. This page is about the philosophical and semantic background of loyalty. ... loyalty oath is an oath of loyalty to the organization, institution, or state to which an individual is a member. ...

Fear

The state often helps maintain its power base by instilling fear of some kind in the population. For example, North Korea holds frequent air raid drills to emphasize the possibility of imminent invasion. In China, the government emphasizes the danger of instability. The Bolsheviks (Russian communist) attempted to instill fear of a return of the Czar by the Whites during the Russian Civil War. In Germany, the Reichstag fire, blamed on Communist terrorism, provided an opportunity for Adolf Hitler to declare a state of emergency. Fear is an unpleasant feeling of perceived risk or danger, real or not. ... Bolshevik Party Meeting. ... Tsar, (Bulgarian цар�, Russian царь; often spelled Czar or Tzar in English), was the title used for the autocratic rulers of the First and Second Bulgarian Empires since 913, in Serbia in the middle of the 14th century, and in Russia from 1547 to 1917. ... White army may refer to: The military arm of the White movement, a loose coalition of anti-Bolshevik forces in the Russian Civil War The Saudi Arabian National Guard The National Guard of Kuwait This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share... The Russian Civil War was fought between 1918 and 1922. ... The Reichstag fire was a pivotal event in the establishment of Nazi Germany. ...   Adolf Hitler? (April 20, 1889–April 30, 1945) was the Chancellor of Germany from 1933, and Führer und Reichskanzler (Leader and Chancellor) of Germany from 1934, to his death. ...

Domestic displays of military power may be frequent. Citizens may obey harsh state mandates out of fear of being reported by fellow citizens or caught by the secret police. A secret police (sometimes political police) force is a police organization that operates in secret to enforce state security. ...

Externalize blame

A common tactic of political religions is to pin blame for the nation's problems on a particular entity or group. North Korea blames its economic problems on the United States. In Nazi Germany, Jews and other minority groups were the target. Nazi Germany, or the Third Reich, commonly refers to Germany in the years 1933–1945, when it was under the firm control of the totalitarian and fascist ideology of the Nazi Party, with the Führer Adolf Hitler as dictator. ...

Cult of personality

Main article: Cult of personality Josef Stalin is often credited with creating the first modern-day cult of personality. ...

A political religion often elevates its leaders to near-godlike status. Displays of leaders in the form of posters or statues may be mandated in public areas and even private homes. Children may be required to learn the state's version of the leaders' biographies in school.

Propaganda

Mandatory political gatherings may supplement or replace religious ceremonies to help reinforce loyalty. The state usually controls the mass media for similar reasons, filling it with propaganda. Certain leisure or cultural activities may also be mandated to reinforce some aspect of loyalty or the state ideology. North Korean propaganda showing a soldier destroying the United States Capitol building. ...

Traditional cases

Fascism

Fascism (in Italian, fascismo), capitalized, was the authoritarian political movement which ruled Italy from 1922 to 1943 under the leadership of Benito Mussolini. ... The fasces on the reverse of the US dime As there were many different manifestations of fascism, especially during the interwar years, there were also many different symbols of Fascist movements. ...

Italian fascism

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Main article: Italian fascism

According to Emilio Gentile, "Fascism was the first and prime instance of a modern political religion."[3] "This religion sacralized the state and assigned it the primary educational task of transforming the mentality, the character, and the customs of Italians. The aim was to create a 'new man,' a believer in and an observing member of the cult of Fascism."^[4]

"The argument [that fascism was a ‘political religion’] tends to involve three main claims: i) that fascism was characterized by a religious form, particularly in terms of language and ritual; ii) that fascism was a sacralized form of totalitarianism, which legitimized violence in defence of the nation and regeneration of a fascist 'new man'; and iii) that fascism took on many of the functions of religion for a broad swathe of society."[5]

Nazism

"Among committed [Nazi] believers, a mythic world of eternal strong, heroes, demons, fire and sword - in a word, the fantasy world of the nursery - displaced reality."^[6] Heinrich Himmler was fascinated by the occult, and sought to turn the SS into the basis of an official state cult.^[7] The term National Socialism has been used in self-description by a number of different political groups and ideologies, some of which have no connection with the Nazis; see National socialism (disambiguation). ... Thule Society emblem Nazi mysticism is a term used to describe a quasi-religious undercurrent of Nazism; it denotes the combination of Nazism with occultism, esotericism, cryptohistory, and/or the paranormal. ... SS or ss or Ss may be: The Schutzstaffel, a Nazi paramilitary force Steamship (SS) (ship prefix) The United States Secret Service A submarine not powered by nuclear energy (SS) (United States Navy designator), see SSN A Soviet/Russian surface-to-surface missile, as listed by NATO reporting name Shortstop...

Marxism-Leninism

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Main article: Marxism-Leninism

Vladimir Lenin in 1920 Leninism is a political and economic theory which builds upon Marxism; it is a branch of Marxism (and it has been the dominant branch of Marxism in the world since the 1920s). ...

Possible or recent cases

United States

The United States has at times been said to have (had) an extremely weak form of a political religion, lacking most of the required features, because of the influence of a somewhat evangelical form of patriotism ("the American Way") on public discourse. Abraham Lincoln declared in 1838 that the Constitution and the laws of the United States had to become the ‘political religion’ of the American nation.^[8] However, the phenomenon is usually considered a form of civil religion. Defense of the homeland is a commonplace of military patriotism: commemorating the students at the École Polytechnique, Paris, 1814 Patriotism denotes positive attitudes by a person to their own nation, to its national homeland, its culture, its members, and to its interests. ... The intended meaning of the term civil religion often varies according to whether one is a sociologist of religion or a professional political commentator. ...

The US' type of patriotism is often traced to the US' nature as a nation of immigrants which needs to ensure a strong national identity to ensure its survival as a unified entity, and includes a particularly strong symbolism attached to the national flag (Stars and Stripes), national anthem (Star Spangled Banner) and Pledge of Allegiance. The symbolic meaning of the flag in particular is so strong that anti-flag-burning amendments to the U.S. Constitution are often proposed, whilst the national anthem (which eulogises the flag) is not merely used at official occasions and the Olympics but also frequently at ordinary sports events. As a result scholars have argued that the American flag can be seen as a main totem of a national cult,^[9] a quality of political religion. In addition, the Pledge of Allegiance is often cited on a daily basis in schools. Attacks (critical and physical) are often described as anti-Americanism and seen as attacks not merely on the policies of the state, but on the ideology (often described as free market democracy) often seen to be crucial to its essence. The US also often sees itself in a messianic role of "saving the world", with a national narrative that (simplistically, many historians would say) sees the US as having nearly single-handedly saved the world in two world wars, defeated the spectre of communism, and that its ideology of free-market democracy is not only superior to all alternatives - and to be encouraged if not imposed - but will inevitably become universal, as an end of history. The American Civil War was fought in the United States from 1861 until 1865 between the United States – forces coming mostly from the 23 northern states of the Union – and the newly-formed Confederate States of America, which consisted of 11 southern states that had declared their secession. ... Flag ratio: 10:19; nicknames: Stars and Stripes, Old Glory The flag of the United States of America consists of thirteen equal horizontal stripes of red (top and bottom) alternating with white; there is a blue rectangle in the upper hoist-side corner bearing 50 small, white, five-pointed stars... Nicholson took the copy Key gave him to a printer, where it was published as a broadside on September 17 under the title The Defence of Fort McHenry, with an explanatory note explaining the circumstances of its writing. ... Dorothea Lange photograph of Japanese-American students reciting the Pledge of Allegiance The Pledge of Allegiance is a promise or oath of allegiance to the United States, and to its national flag. ... The Flag Burning Amendment is a proposed amendment to the United States Constitution that would have outlawed burning the Flag of the United States. ... Page I of the Constitution of the United States of America Page II of the United States Constitution Page III of the United States Constitution Page IV of the United States Constitution The Syng inkstand, with which the Constitution was signed The Constitution of the United States is the supreme... For months before the Olympic Games, runners relay the Olympic Flame from Olympia to the opening ceremony. ... A totem is any natural or supernatural object, being or animal which has personal symbolic meaning to an individual and to whose phenomena and energy one feels closely associated with during ones life. ... Anti-Americanism is a term referring to hostility towards or disapproval for the government, culture, history, and/or people of the United States of America. ... A free market is an idealized market, where all economic decisions and actions by individuals regarding transfer of money, goods, and services are voluntary, and are therefore devoid of coercion and theft (some definitions of coercion are inclusive of theft). Colloquially and loosely, a free market economy is an economy... This article is about communism as a form of society and as a popular movement. ... The End of History and the Last Man is a 1992 book by Francis Fukuyama, expanding on his 1989 essay The End of History?, in which he argues the controversial thesis that the end of the Cold War signals the end of the progression of human history: What we may...

North Korea

The North Korean government has promulgated Juche as a patriotic alternative to traditional religion. It advocates a strong Marxist propaganda basis, and is fundamentally opposed to Christianity and Buddhism, the two largest religions in the Korean peninsula. According to government figures, it is the largest religion in North Korea, the public practice of all other religions is overseen and heavily surveilled by the state. North Korea, officially the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea (DPRK; Korean: Chosŏn Minjujuŭi Inmin Konghwaguk; Hangul: 조선민주주의인민공화국; Hanja: 朝鮮民主主義人民共和國), is a country in eastern Asia, covering the northern half of the peninsula of Korea. ... Juche (pronounced Joo-cheh), officially called the Juche Idea in English, also dubbed by westerners as Kimilsungism, is the official state ideology of the Korean Workers Party ruling North Korea (officially the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea or DPRK). ... Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as presented in the New Testament writings of his early followers. ... A replica of an ancient statue found among the ruins of a temple at Sarnath Buddhism is a religion and philosophy based on the teachings of the Buddha, Siddhārtha Gautama, who lived between approximately 566 and 486 BCE. Originating in India, Buddhism gradually spread throughout Asia to Central Asia...

"Whether he is building a political religion to control the people or transforming political ideas into pseudo-religion, it seems that one must “believe” in new reinterpretation of the Juche idea in order to survive in North Korea. Kim Il Sung, at least, attempted to build and manage a Socialist state with the Workers’ Party of Korea, but the people today must believe in a new political religion by Kim Jong Il to survive in North Korea."^[10]

Turkmenistan

Large pictures and statues of the president of Turkmenistan, Saparmurat Niyazov, can be seen in public places in that country. In an interview with the television news program "60 Minutes", Niyazov said the people of Turkmenistan placed them there voluntarily because they love him so much, and that he did not originally want them there. In addition, he has given himself the title "Türkmenbaşy", meaning "Leader of all Ethnic Turkmens" in the Turkmen language. A book purportedly authored by Niyazov, Ruhnama ("Book of the Soul") is required reading in educational institutions and is often displayed and treated with the same respect as the Holy Koran. Saparmurat Atayevich Niyazov [sap-ar-moor-at ni-yaz-obv] (Turkmen Saparmyrat Nyýazow ) (born February 19, 1940) has been the most powerful figure in Turkmenistan since 1985. ... Ruhnama (or The Book of the Soul from Persian: روح ruh (soul) and نامه nâma (book), sometimes spelled Rukhnama) is the combination autobiography, historical account, and spiritual guidebook written by Turkmenistans President for Life, Saparmyrat Niyazov (aka Turkmenbashi). The text is composed of many stories and poems, including those... The Quran (Arabic al-qurʾān أَلْقُرآن; also transliterated as Quran, Koran, and less commonly Alcoran) is the holy book of Islam. ...

Notes

• ^  Gentile, The Sacralization of Politics in Fascist Italy, p.ix.
• ^  Burleigh, The Third Reich, (London: Macmillan, 2000) pp.8-9.
• ^  N. Goodrick-Clarke, The Occult Roots of Nazism (Wellingborough: the Aquarian Press, 1985), and P. Levenda, Unholy Alliance (New York: Continuum, 2002).
• ^  Marvin and Ingle (1996), "Blood sacrifice and the nation: revisiting civil religion", Journal of the American Academy of Religion: 64(4), Winter, 1996
• ^  In J.D. Schultz, J.G. West and I. MacLean (eds.), Encyclopedia of Religion in American Politics (Phoenix: Onyx Press, 1999), p.53.
• ^  Dae-Sook Suh, "North Korea under Kim Jong Il: First Ten Years", conference paper at ICKS International Forum on Korean Studies, July 14 – 15, 2005

References

• Eric Voegelin (1986), The Political Religions, (Lewiston, N.Y.: E. Mellen Press, 1986; 1st German ed. 1938)
• Emilio Gentile and Keith Botsford (Translator) (1996), The Sacralization of Politics in Fascist Italy, Harvard University Press
• Klaus Vondung (2005), "National socialism as a political religion: Potentials and limits of an analytical concept", Totalitarian Movements & Political Religions 6(1)
• Wolfgang Hardtwig (2001) "Political Religion in Modern Germany: Reflections on Nationalism, Socialism, and National Socialism", Bulletin of the German Historical Institute, Volume 28

See also

• Civil religion
• Clerical fascism
• Jacques Ellul,The New Demons. Trans. C. Edward Hopkin. New York: Seabury, 1975. London: Mowbrays, 1975.

The intended meaning of the term civil religion often varies according to whether one is a sociologist of religion or a professional political commentator. ... Clerical fascism is an ideological construct that combines the political and economic doctrines of fascism with theology or religious tradition. ...

External links

• Conference on Political religions in the modern era, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 7-9 May 2004
• Totalitarian Movements & Political Religions, "Special Issue: Political Religions as a characteristic of the 20th century", Volume 6 Number 1/June 2005, Taylor & Francis (requires subscription)