Politics of Syria takes place in a framework of a parliamentary republic, whereby the power is in the hands of the President of Syria and the ruling Ba'ath Party. Officially, Syria is a parliamentary republic. In reality, however, it is an authoritarian regime that exhibits only the forms of a democratic system. Although citizens ostensibly vote for the President and members of Parliament, they do not have the right to change their government. The late President Hafiz al-Asad was confirmed by unopposed plebiscites five times. His son, Bashar al-Asad, also was confirmed by an unopposed referendum in July 2000. The President and his senior aides, particularly those in the military and security services, ultimately make most basic decisions in political and economic life, with a limited degree of public accountability. Political opposition to the President is not tolerated. Syria has been under a state of emergency since 1963. Syrian governments have justified the state of emergency by the state of war which continues to exist with Israel and by continuing threats posed by terrorist groups. The Syrian army and security services maintained a considerable presence in the neighbouring Lebanese Republic from 1975 until April 24, 2005; for more detail on this, see Syrian presence in Lebanon. This page lists presidents and other Heads of State of Syria. ... Dr Bashar al-Assad (Arabic: , ) (born 11 September 1965) is the President of the Syrian Arab Republic, Regional Secretary of the Baath Party, and the son of former President Hafez al-Assad. ... Farouk al-Sharaa (Arabic: ), also known as Farouq al-Sharaa (born 10 December 1938) is a Syrian politician and diplomat. ... This page lists prime ministers of Syria. ... Muhammad Naji al-Otari (born 1944) is the current prime minister of Syria. ... The Peoples Council (Majlis al-Shaab) is the parliament of Syria. ... Political parties in Syria lists political parties in Syria. ... Bath Party flag The Arab Socialist Baath Party (also spelled Baath or Baath; Arabic: حزب البعث العربي الاشتراكي) was founded in Damascus in the 1940s as the original secular Arab nationalist movement, to combat Western colonial rule. ... Elections in Syria gives information on election and election results in Syria. ... A referendum confirming the president-elect chosen by the parliament newly elected in the 2007 parliamentary election will be held in Syria in July 2007. ... Parliamentary elections will be held in Syria in March 2007. ... Syria has fourteen governorates, or muhafazat (singular: muhafazah). ... The 14 governorates, or muhafazat (sing. ... The human rights record of the Syrian Arab Republic has been evaluated by a number of different sources. ... Ensuring national security, increasing influence among its Arab neighbors, and achieving a comprehensive Arab-Israeli peace settlement, which includes the return of the Golan Heights, are the primary goals of President Bashar al-Assads foreign policy. ... This article lacks information on the importance of the subject matter. ... Information on politics by country is available for every country, including both de jure and de facto independent states, inhabited dependent territories, as well as areas of special sovereignty. ... States currently utilizing parliamentary systems are denoted in red and orange—the former being constitutional monarchies where authority is vested in a parliament, the latter being parliamentary republics whose parliaments are effectively supreme over a separate head of state. ... Look up republic in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... This page lists presidents and other Heads of State of Syria. ... Bath Party flag The Arab Socialist Bath Party (also spelled Baath or Baath; Arabic: حزب البعث العربي الاشتراكي) was founded in 1945 as a radical, left-wing, secular Arab nationalist political party. ... A parliamentarian is a specialist in parliamentary procedure. ... Look up republic in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... The term authoritarian is used to describe an organization or a state which enforces strong and sometimes oppressive measures against the population, generally without attempts at gaining the consent of the population. ... For other uses, see Democracy (disambiguation) and Democratic Party. ... This page lists presidents and other Heads of State of Syria. ... Hafez al-Assad (October 6, 1930 - June 10, 2000) was the President of Syria from 1971 to 2000. ... Elections Part of the Politics series Politics Portal This box:      A referendum (plural referendums or referenda), ballot question, or plebiscite (from Latin plebiscita, originally a decree of the Concilium Plebis) is a direct vote in which an entire electorate is asked to either accept or reject a particular proposal. ... Bashar al-Assad Bashar al-Assad (بشار الاسد) (born September 11, 1965) is the current President of Syria and the son of former President Hafez al-Assad. ... For other uses, see State of emergency (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see State of emergency (disambiguation). ... is the 114th day of the year (115th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... The Syrian presence in Lebanon, also known as the Syrian occupation of Lebanon, began in 1976 as a result of a Lebanese government invitation during Lebanons civil war, and ended in April 2005 in response to domestic and international pressure after the murder of former Lebanese Prime Minister, Rafik...

Some background

The Asad regime (little has changed since Bashar al-Asad succeeded his father) has held power since 1970, making it the second longest ruling regime in the Arab world after Muammar al-Gaddafi's dictatorship. The regime's survival is due partly to a strong desire for stability and its success in giving groups such as religious minorities and peasant farmers a stake in society. The expansion of the government bureaucracy has also created a large class loyal to the regime. The President's continuing strength is due also to the army's continued loyalty and the effectiveness of Syria's large internal security apparatus, the top leaderships of which are comprised largely of members of Asad's own Alawi sect. The several main branches of the security services operate independently of each other and outside the legal system. Each continues to be responsible for human rights violations. Hafez al-Assad (October 6, 1930 - June 10, 2000) was the President of Syria from 1971 to 2000. ... Muammar Abu Minyar al-Gaddafi1 (Arabic:   ) (born c. ... Alawite is a Middle Eastern Syria. ... Human rights are rights which some hold to be inalienable and belonging to all humans. ...

There was a surge of interest in political reform after Bashar al-Asad assumed power in 2000. Human rights activists and other civil society advocates, as well as some Parliamentarians, became more outspoken during a period referred to as "Damascus Spring" (July 2000-February 2001). Asad also made a series of appointments of reform-minded advisors to formal and less formal positions, and included a number of similarly oriented individuals in his Cabinet. The arrest and long-term detention of two reformist Parliamentarians, Ma’mun al-Humsy and Riad Seif, in August and September 2001, respectively, and the apparent marginalizing of some of the reformist advisors in the past four years, indicate that the pace of any political reform in Syria is likely to be much slower than the short-lived Damascus Spring promised. The Damascus Spring was a period of intense political and social debate in Syria which started after the death of President Hafiz al-Asad in June 2000 and continued to some degree until autumn 2001, when most of the activities associated with it were suppressed by the government. ...

Baathism

All three branches of government are guided by the views of the Ba'ath Party, whose primacy in state institutions is assured by the constitution. The party holds a two-thirds majority in the Syrian parliament. In recent years, there has been a gradual decline in the party's preeminence, often in favor of the leadership of the broader National Progressive Front. The party also is now dominated by the military, which consumes a large share of Syria's economic resources. The Ba'ath platform is proclaimed succinctly in the party's slogan: "Unity, freedom, and socialism." The party is both socialist, advocating state ownership of the means of industrial production and the redistribution of agricultural land (in practice, Syria's nominally socialist economy is effectively a mixed economy, comprised of large state enterprises and private small businesses), and revolutionary, dedicated to carrying a socialist revolution to every part of the Arab world. Founded by Michel Aflaq, a Syrian Christian and Salah al-Din al-Bitar, a Syrian Sunni, the Ba'ath Party embraces secularism and has attracted supporters of all faiths in many Arab countries, especially Iraq, Jordan, and Lebanon. Since August 1990, however, the party has tended to de-emphasize socialism and to stress pan-Arab unity. Bath Party flag The Arab Socialist Bath Party (also spelled Baath or Baath; Arabic: حزب البعث العربي الاشتراكي) was founded in 1945 as a radical, left-wing, secular Arab nationalist political party. ... The following is a partial list of 19th and 20th-century political slogans in the English language. ... Michel ‘Aflaq Michel ‘Aflaq (1910 - June 23, 1989) was the ideological founder of Ba’athism, a form of Arab nationalism. ... For other uses, see Christian (disambiguation). ... Salah al-Din al-Bitar ( 1911), a Sunni Muslim, co-founder of the Bath Party in Syria. ... Sunni Islam (Arabic سنّة) is the largest denomination of Islam. ... Pan-Arabism is a movement for unification among the Arab peoples and nations of the Middle East. ...

Six smaller political parties are permitted to exist and, along with the Ba'ath Party, make up the National Progressive Front (NPF), a grouping of parties that represents the sole framework of legal political party participation for citizens. While created ostensibly to give the appearance of a multi-party system, the NPF is dominated by the Ba'ath Party and does not change the essentially one-party character of the political system. Non-Ba'ath Party members of the NPF exist as political parties largely in name only and conform strictly to Ba'ath Party and government policies. There were reports in 2000 that the government was considering legislation to expand the NPF to include new parties and several parties previously banned; these changes have not taken place. However, one such party- the Syrian Social Nationalist Party- was legalised in 2005. The National Progressive Front (NPF), established in 1972, is a political party created by former Syrian President Hafiz Al-Asad to give the impression of a democratic state. ... SSNP flag The Syrian Social Nationalist Party (SSNP) is a nationalist political party in Syria and Lebanon. ...

The Ba'ath Party dominates the Legislature, which is known as the People's Council. Elected every 4 years, the Council has no independent authority. Although legislators may criticize policies and modify draft laws, they cannot initiate laws, and the executive branch retains ultimate control over the legislative process. During 2002, two independent members of Legislature who had advocated political reforms were stripped of their parliamentary immunity and tried and convicted of charges of "attempting to illegally change the constitution." The government has allowed independent non-NPF candidates to run for a limited allotment of seats in the 250-member People's Council. The current allotment of non-NPF deputies is 83, ensuring a permanent absolute majority for the Ba'ath Party-dominated NPF. Elections for the 250 seats in the People's Council last took place in 2003.

Government

The Syrian constitution vests the Ba'ath Party (formally the Arab Ba'ath Socialist Party) with leadership functions in the state and society and provides broad powers to the president. The president, approved by referendum for a 7-year term, is also Secretary General of the Ba'ath Party and leader of the National Progressive Front. The president has the right to appoint ministers, to declare war and states of emergency, to issue laws (which, except in the case of emergency, require ratification by the People's Council), to declare amnesty, to amend the constitution, and to appoint civil servants and military personnel. This page lists presidents and other Heads of State of Syria. ... Dr Bashar al-Assad (Arabic: , ) (born 11 September 1965) is the President of the Syrian Arab Republic, Regional Secretary of the Baath Party, and the son of former President Hafez al-Assad. ... Bath Party flag The Arab Socialist Baath Party (also spelled Baath or Baath; Arabic: حزب البعث العربي الاشتراكي) was founded in Damascus in the 1940s as the original secular Arab nationalist movement, to combat Western colonial rule. ... is the 198th day of the year (199th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2000 (MM) was a leap year starting on Saturday. ... This page lists prime ministers of Syria. ... Muhammad Naji al-Otari (born 1944) is the current prime minister of Syria. ... Bath Party flag The Arab Socialist Baath Party (also spelled Baath or Baath; Arabic: حزب البعث العربي الاشتراكي) was founded in Damascus in the 1940s as the original secular Arab nationalist movement, to combat Western colonial rule. ... is the 253rd day of the year (254th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Wikisource has original text related to this article: Constitution of Syria // Preamble The Arab nation managed to perform a great role in building human civilization when it was a unified nation. ... Bath Party flag The Arab Socialist Bath Party (also spelled Baath or Baath; Arabic: حزب البعث العربي الاشتراكي) was founded in 1945 as a radical, left-wing, secular Arab nationalist political party. ... For other uses, see President (disambiguation). ... Elections Part of the Politics series Politics Portal This box:      A referendum (plural referendums or referenda), ballot question, or plebiscite (from Latin plebiscita, originally a decree of the Concilium Plebis) is a direct vote in which an entire electorate is asked to either accept or reject a particular proposal. ... The National Progressive Front (NPF), established in 1972, is a political party created by former Syrian President Hafiz Al-Asad to give the impression of a democratic state. ... The Peoples Council (Arabic: , Majlis al-Shaab) is the parliament of Syria. ... A civil servant or public servant is a civilian career public_sector employee working for a government department or agency. ...

Along with the National Progressive Front, the president decides issues of war and peace and approves the state's 5-year economic plans. The National Progressive Front also acts as a forum in which economic policies are debated and the country's political orientation is determined. However, because of Ba'ath Party dominance, the National Progressive Front has traditionally exercised little independent power. The National Progressive Front (NPF), established in 1972, is a political party created by former Syrian President Hafiz Al-Asad to give the impression of a democratic state. ...

The Syrian constitution of 1973 requires that the president be Muslim but does not make Islam the state religion. Islamic jurisprudence, however, is required to be the main source of legislation. The judicial system in Syria is an amalgam of Ottoman, French, and Islamic laws, with three levels of courts: courts of first instance, courts of appeals, and the constitutional court, the highest tribunal. In addition, religious courts handle questions of personal and family law. ty The Ba'ath Party emphasizes socialism and secular Arabism. Although Ba'ath Party doctrine seeks to build national rather than ethnic identity, ethnic, religious, and regional allegiances remain important in Syria. For people named Islam, see Islam (name). ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Motto دولت ابد مدت Devlet-i Ebed-müddet (The Eternal State) Anthem Ottoman imperial anthem Borders in 1683, see: list of territories Capital Söğüt (1299–1326) Bursa (1326–1365) Edirne (1365–1453) Ä°stanbul (1453–1922) Government Monarchy Sultans  - 1281–1326 (first) Osman I  - 1918–22 (last) Mehmed VI Grand Viziers  - 1320... Court of Appeals is the title of certain appellate courts in various jurisdictions. ... Family Law was a television drama starring Kathleen Quinlan as a divorced lawyer who attempted to start her own law firm after her lawyer husband took all their old clients. ... Religious socialism Key Issues People and organizations Related subjects Socialism refers to a broad array of ideologies and political movements with the goal of a socio-economic system in which property and the distribution of wealth are subject to control by the community. ... Pan-Arabism is a movement for unification among the Arab peoples and nations of the Middle East. ... An ethnic group is a group of people who identify with one another, or are so identified by others, on the basis of a boundary that distinguishes them from other groups. ...

Legislative branch

The People's Council (Majlis al-Sha'ab) has 250 members elected for a four year term in 15 multi-seat constituencies, in which 167 seats are guaranteed for the National Progressive Front. Syria is a single-party state. This means that only one political party, the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party is legally allowed to hold effective power. Although minor parties are allowed, they are legally required to accept the leadership of the dominant party and are member of the front. The Peoples Council (Majlis al-Shaab) is the parliament of Syria. ... A constituency is any cohesive corporate unit or body bound by shared structures, goals or loyalty. ... The National Progressive Front (NPF), established in 1972, is a political party created by former Syrian President Hafiz Al-Asad to give the impression of a democratic state. ... A single-party state or one-party system or single-party system is a type of party system government in which a single political party forms the government and no other parties are permitted to run candidates for election. ... Baath Party flag The Baath Parties (also spelled Baath or Bath; Arabic: اﻟﺒﻌﺚ) comprise political parties representing the political face of the Baath movement. ... A political party is a political organization subscribing to a certain ideology or formed around very special issues. ...

Political parties and elections

A political party is a political organization subscribing to a certain ideology or formed around very special issues. ... Political parties in Syria lists political parties in Syria. ... An election is a decision making process whereby people vote for preferred political candidates or parties to act as representatives in government. ... Elections in Syria gives information on election and election results in Syria. ... The Peoples Council (Majlis al-Shaab) is the parliament of Syria. ... The National Progressive Front (NPF), established in 1972, is a coalition of political parties in Syria which support the socialist and Arab nationalist orientation of the government and accept the leadership of the Arab Socialist Ba’th Party. ... Bath Party flag The Arab Socialist Baath Party (also spelled Baath or Baath; Arabic: حزب البعث العربي الاشتراكي) was founded in Damascus in the 1940s as the original secular Arab nationalist movement, to combat Western colonial rule. ... The Arab Socialist Union (Arabic: , ; French: lUnion Socialiste Arabe) is one of a number of loosely related political parties based on the principles of Nasserist Arab socialism in a number of countries. ... The Socialist Unionists (al-Wahdawiyyun al-Ishtirakiyyun) is a Nasserist political party in Syria. ... The Syrian Communist Party (Arabic language: الحزب الشيوعي السوري, transliterated al-hizb ash-shuyūī as-sūrī) has been the name of a political party in Syria since 1944. ... Khalid Bakdash (born 1912, died 1995; occasionally spelled Khalid Bagdash) was the leader of the Syrian Communist Party (SCP) from 1936 until his death. ... The Democratic Socialist Unionist Party (al-Hizb al-waHdawi al-ishtiraki ad-dimuqraTi) is a political party in Syria. ... The Arab Socialist Movement is a political party in Syria. ... The Syrian Communist Party (Arabic language: الحزب الشيوعي السوري, transliterated al-hizb ash-shuyūī as-sūrī) has been the name of a political party in Syria since 1944. ... The National Vow Movement (Haraka al-ahd al-waTani)) is a political party in Syria. ... SSNP flag The Syrian Social Nationalist Party (SSNP) is a nationalist political party in Syria and Lebanon. ... The Arabic Democratic Unionist Party (Hizb al-ittiHad al-arabi ad-dimuqraTi)) is a political party in Syria. ... The Social Democratic Unionists (al-Wahdawiuyun al-Dimukatiyyun Al-Ijtimaiyyun) is a political party in Syria. ...

International organization participation

ABEDA, AFESD, AL, AMF, CAEU, CCC, ESCWA, FAO, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO, ITU, NAM, OAPEC, OIC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNRWA, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WMO, WToO

External links

• Syria and Political Change U.S. Institute of Peace, December 2005

Further reading

• Raymond Hinnebusch: The Political Economy of Economic Liberalization in Syria, in: International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 27 - Nr. 3, August 1995, S. 305-320.
• Raymond Hinnebusch: State, Civil Society, and Political Change in Syria, in: A.R. Norton: Civil Society in the Middle East, Leiden, 1995.
• Ismail Küpeli: Ibn Khaldun und das politische System Syriens - Eine Gegenüberstellung, München, 2007, ISBN 9-783-638754583 (critical approach with reference to the political theory of Ibn Khaldun)
• Moshe Ma’oz / Avner Yaniv (Ed.): Syria under Assad, London, 1986.
• Nikolaos Van Dam: The Struggle for Power in Syria, London, 1981.