Portuguese Colonial War
Part of Wars of Independence and Cold War
A Portuguese F-84 being loaded with ammunition in the 1960s, at Luanda Air Base
Date 1961–1974 Location Angola, Guinea-Bissau and Mozambique Result The war prompted the Portuguese Carnation Revolution, which granted independence to all the colonies.
Belligerents
Portugal	Angola (1961-74): MPLA UNITA FNLA Guinea-Bissau (1963-74): The term War of Independence is generally use to describe a war occurring after a territory that has declared independence. ... For other uses, see Cold War (disambiguation). ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1383x841, 111 KB) Summary Description: pt: F-84 a ser municiado nos anos 60, na Base Aérea de Luanda. ... The F-84 Thunderjet was an American built fighter-bomber aircraft made by the Republic Aviation Company. ... Year 1961 (MCMLXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1974 (MCMLXXIV) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar) of the 1974 Gregorian calendar. ... The Carnation Revolution (Portuguese, Revolução dos Cravos) was an almost bloodless, leftist, military-led coup détat, started on April 25, 1974, in Lisbon, Portugal, that effectively changed the Portuguese regime from an authoritarian dictatorship to a liberal democracy after two years of a transitional period known as PREC... Image File history File links Flag_of_Portugal. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Angola. ... Image File history File links Bandeira_do_MPLA.svg‎ Bandeira do pt:Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola. ... The MPLA flag The Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (Movimiento Popular de Libertação de Angola) is an Angolan political party that has ruled the country since independence in 1975. ... A UNITA sticker The National Union for the Total Independence of Angola, commonly known by the acronymn, UNITA, derived from its Portuguese name União Nacional para a Independência Total de Angola, is an Angolan political faction and a former rebel force. ... Image File history File links Bandeira_da_FNLA.svg‎ Banderia da pt:Frente Nacional de Libertação de Angola. ... External links Party website Categories: Politics stubs | Angolan political parties ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Guinea-Bissau. ... PAIGC Mozambique (1964-74): The African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (Portuguese: Partido Africano da Independência da Guiné e Cabo Verde), or PAIGC, was an organisation founed in Portuguese Guinea (today Guinea-Bissau) by the Marxist Amílcar Cabral in 1956, with the aim of achieving independence for Cape... Image File history File links Flag_of_Mozambique. ... FRELIMO
Strength
169,000 70,000 in Angola 42,000 in Guinea-Bissau 57,000 in Mozambique	20,000 6,500 in Angola 7,000 in Guinea-Bissau 6,500 in Mozambique
Casualties and losses
8,290 dead and from 500,000 to 1 million displaced.	thousands dead, millions maimed and displaced.

Portuguese Air Force's helicopter operating in an African theatre during the war

Portuguese colonies in Africa by the time of the Colonial War

The Portuguese Colonial War (Portuguese: Guerra Colonial), also known as Overseas War in Portugal (Portuguese: Guerra do Ultramar) or, in the former colonies as War of liberation (Portuguese: Guerra de Libertação), was fought between Portugal's military and the emerging nationalist movements in Portugal's African colonies between 1961 and 1974. It was a decisive ideological struggle and armed conflict of the cold war in African (Portuguese Africa and surrounding nations) and European (mainland Portugal) scenarios. Unlike other European nations, the Portuguese regime did not leave its African colonies, or the overseas provinces (províncias ultramarinas), during the 1950s and 1960s. During the 1960s, various armed independence movements, most prominently led by communist-led parties who cooperated under the CONCP umbrella and pro US groups, became active in these areas, most notably in Angola, Mozambique, and Portuguese Guinea. During the war, several atrocities were committed by all forces involved in the conflict. The Mozambican Liberation Front (FRELIMO, pronounced fray-LEE-moo; Portuguese: Frente de Libertação de Moçambique) is a political party that has ruled Mozambique since independence in 1975. ... History of Portugal series Prehistoric Portugal Pre-Roman Portugal Roman Lusitania and Gallaecia Visigoths and Suevi Moorish rule and Reconquista First County of Portugal Kingdom of Galicia and Portugal Second County of Portugal Establishment of the Monarchy Consolidation of the Monarchy 1383–1385 Crisis Discoveries Portuguese Empire 1580 Crisis Iberian... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links Portuguese_colonial_war_map1. ... Image File history File links Portuguese_colonial_war_map1. ... An anachronous map of the Portuguese Empire (1415-1999). ... A War of Liberation is a conflict which is primarily intended to bring freedom or independence to a nation or group. ... Portugal, despite being a relatively minor power for much of its history, has managed to become involved in numerous wars, fighting in the Napoleonic Wars, World War One, and in Iraq. ... An anachronous map of the Portuguese Empire (1415-1999). ... Year 1961 (MCMLXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1974 (MCMLXXIV) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar) of the 1974 Gregorian calendar. ... For other uses, see Cold War (disambiguation). ... A world map showing the continent of Africa Africa is the worlds second-largest and second most-populous continent, after Asia. ... For other uses, see Europe (disambiguation). ... Estado Novo (Portuguese for New State; pron. ... A world map showing the continent of Africa Africa is the worlds second-largest and second most-populous continent, after Asia. ... The 1960s decade refers to the years from the beginning of 1960 to the end of 1969. ... This article is about communism as a form of society and as a political movement. ... Conferência das Organizações Nacionalistas das Colónias Portuguesas (Conference of Nationalist Organizations of the Portuguese Colonies), an organization for cooperation between the communist parties in the national liberation movements in the Portuguese colonies in Africa throughout the Portuguese Colonial War. ... Portuguese Guinea was the name for what is today Guinea-Bissau from 1446 to September 10, 1974. ...

The end of the war after the Carnation Revolution military coup of April 1974 in Lisbon, resulted in the exodus of hundreds of thousands of Portuguese citizens,^[1] including military personnel, of European, African and mixed ethnicity from the newly-independent African territories to Portugal. Over 1 million Portuguese or persons of Portuguese descent left these former colonies.^[2] Devastating civil wars also followed in Angola and Mozambique, which lasted several decades and claimed millions of lives and refugees.^[3] The former colonies became worse off after independence. Economic and social recession, corruption, poverty, inequality and failed central planning, eroded the initial impetus of nationalistic fervor. A level of economic development comparable to what had existed under Portuguese rule, became the goal of the independent territories.^[4] The Carnation Revolution (Portuguese, Revolução dos Cravos) was an almost bloodless, leftist, military-led coup détat, started on April 25, 1974, in Lisbon, Portugal, that effectively changed the Portuguese regime from an authoritarian dictatorship to a liberal democracy after two years of a transitional period known as PREC... For other uses, see Lisbon (disambiguation). ... A, thus far incomplete, list of conflicts in Africa (arranged by Country), including; Wars between African nations Civil Wars within African nations Colonial Wars/Conflicts in Africa Wars of Independence in African nations Secessionist/Separatist Conflicts in Africa Major episodes of violence (riots, massacres, etc. ...

Portugal had been the first European power to establish a colony in Africa when it captured Ceuta in 1415 and now it was one of the last to leave. The former Portuguese territories in Africa became sovereign states with Agostinho Neto in Angola, Samora Machel in Mozambique and Luís Cabral in Guinea-Bissau, as heads of state. Capital Ceuta City Official language(s) Spanish Area  â€“ Total  â€“ % of Spain Ranked  28 km²   Population  â€“ Total (2006)  â€“ % of Spain  â€“ Density Ranked  75,861    2,709. ... António Agostinho Neto (September 17, 1922–September 10, Angola (1975–1979), a poet and nationalist leader. ... Samora Machel Samora Moisés Machel (September 29, 1933 – October 19, 1986) was a Mozambican military commander, revolutionary socialist leader and eventual President of Mozambique. ... Luís de Almeida Cabral (born 10 April 1931), the first President of Guinea-Bissau, served from 1973 to 1980, when a military coup détat deposed him. ... A head of state or chief of state is the chief public representative of a nation-state, federation or commonwealth, whose role generally includes personifying the continuity and legitimacy of the state and exercising the political powers, functions and duties granted to the head of state in the countrys...

Political context

Following World War II the two great powers, the United States and the Soviet Union sought to expand the sphere of influence and encouraged — both ideologically, financially and militarily — the formation of either pro Soviet Union or pro United States resistance groups. The United States supported the UPA in Angola. This funding and support of the UPA (terrorist group) which was based in the Congo would attack and massacre Portuguese settlers and local Africans living in Angola from bases in the Congo. The photos of these massacres which included photos of decapitated women and children (both of European and Angolan origin) would later be displayed in the UN. It is rumoured that the then US president J.F. Kennedy sent a message to Salazar to leave the colonies shortly after the massacre. Salazar after a pro US coup failed to depose him - consolidated power and immediately set to protect the overseas territories by sending reinforcements and so the war would begin in Angola (similar scenarios would play out in all other overseas Portuguese territories).

It is in this context that the Asian-African Conference was held in Bandung, Indonesia in 1955. The conference presented a forum for the colonies, most of them newly independent and facing the same problem - pressure to align with one or the other superpower in the confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union. At the conference the colonies were presented with an alternative. They could band together as the so-called Third World and work both to preserve the balance of power in Cold War relations and to use their new sense of independence for their own benefit by becoming an influence zone of their own. This would lessen the effect of the colonial and neo-colonial powers on the colonies, and increased their sense of unity and desire to support each other in their relationships with the other powers. The Asian-African Conference was a meeting of Asian and African states, most of which were newly independent, organized by Egypt, Indonesia, Burma, Ceylon (Sri Lanka), India, and Pakistan. ... For other uses, see Bandung (disambiguation). ... Year 1955 (MCMLV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays the 1955 Gregorian calendar). ... Superpowers redirects here. ... For the Jamaican reggae band, see Third World (band). ... For other uses, see Cold War (disambiguation). ...

In the late 1950s, the Portuguese Armed Forces saw themselves confronted with the paradox generated by the dictatorial regime of Estado Novo that had been in power since 1926: on the one hand, the policy of Portuguese neutrality in World War II placed the Portuguese Armed Forces out of the way of a possible East-West conflict; on the other hand, the regime felt the increased responsibility of the keeping Portugal's vast overseas territories under control. There the postwar tension approached the level of the separatist fights in the colonies of Imperial Europe. With all this, the same leaders that declared Portugal neutral in the war against Germany (1939-1945) integrated Portugal's military within the military commands of NATO. The NATO focus against the threat of a conventional Soviet attack against Western Europe was to the detriment of military preparations against guerrilla uprisings in Portugal's overseas provinces that were considered essential for the survival of the nation. Year 1950 (MCML) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... The Portuguese Armed Forces (Portuguese: Forças Armadas Portuguesas or FAP) are divided into three branches: Army (Exército Português) Navy (Marinha Portuguesa) Air Force (Força Aérea Portuguesa) In the 20th century, Portugal had only two major military interventions, the first one in the 1st World War... Estado Novo (Portuguese for New State; pron. ... For other uses, see Cold War (disambiguation). ... This article is about the military alliance. ...

This integration of Portugal in the Atlantic Alliance would form a military élite that would become essential during the planning and implementation of the operations during the Overseas War. This "NATO generation" would ascend quickly to the highest political positions and military command without having to provide evidence of loyalty to the regime. The Colonial War would establish, in this way, a split between the military structure -- heavily influenced by the western powers with democratic governments -- and the political power of the regime. Some analysts see the "Botelho Moniz coup" (also known as A Abrilada) against the Portuguese government and backed by the US administration,^[5] as the beginning of this rupture, the origin of a lapse on the part of the regime to keep up a unique command center, an armed force prepared for threats of conflict in the colonies. This situation would cause, as would be verified later, a lack of coordination between the three general staffs (Army, Air Force and Navy). Portuguese Army troops heading for Angola, during World War I. Portuguese Army troops in the jungle, during the 1960s and 1970s Colonial Wars in Africa. ... The Portuguese Air Force (PoAF) (Portuguese: Força Aérea Portuguesa, FAP) is the air force of Portugal. ... Portuguese naval jack The Portuguese Navy (Portuguese: Marinha Portuguesa, also known as Marinha de Guerra Portuguesa or as Armada Portuguesa) is the naval branch of the Portuguese Armed Forces which, in cooperation with the other branches of the Portuguese military, is charged with the defence of Portugal. ...

Armed conflict

The conflict began in Angola on 4 February 1961, in an area called the Zona Sublevada do Norte (ZSN or the Rebel Zone of the North), consisting of the provinces of Zaire, Uíge and Cuanza Norte. The US backed UPA wanted national self-determination, while for the Portuguese, who had settled in Africa and ruled considerable territory since the 15th century, their belief in a multi-racial, assimilated overseas empire justified going to war to prevent its breakup. Portuguese leaders, including Salazar, defended the policy of multiracialism, or Lusotropicalism, as a way of integrating Portuguese colonies, and their peoples, more closely with Portugal itself.^[6] In Portuguese Africa, trained Portuguese black Africans were allowed to occupy positions in several occupations including specialized military, administration, teaching, health and other posts in the civil service and private businesses, as long as they had the right technical and human qualities. In addition, intermarriage with white Portuguese was a common practice since the earlier contacts with the Europeans. The access to basic, secondary and technical education was being expanded and its availability was being increasingly opened to both the indigenous and European Portuguese of the territories. Examples of this policy include several black Portuguese Africans who would become prominent individuals during the war or in the post-independence, and who had studied during the Portuguese rule of the territories in local schools or even in Portuguese schools and universities in the mainland (the metropole) - Samora Machel, Mário Pinto de Andrade, Marcelino dos Santos, Eduardo Mondlane, Agostinho Neto, Amílcar Cabral, Joaquim Chissano, and Graça Machel are just a few examples. Two large state-run universities were founded in Portuguese Africa in the 1960s (the Universidade de Luanda in Angola and the Universidade de Lourenço Marques in Mozambique, awarding a wide range of degrees from engineering to medicine^[7]), during a time that in the European mainland only four public universities were in operation, two of them in Lisbon (which compares with the 14 Portuguese public universities today). One of the most idolized sports stars in Portuguese history, a black football player from Portuguese East Africa named Eusébio, is another clear example of assimilation and multiracialism in the Portuguese Africa. is the 35th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1961 (MCMLXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Uíge is a province of Angola. ... Categories: Africa geography stubs | Provinces of Angola ... Self-determination is a principle in international law that a people ought to be able to determine their own governmental forms and structure free from outside influence. ... (14th century - 15th century - 16th century - other centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 15th century was that century which lasted from 1401 to 1500. ... The Roman civil service in action. ... In economics, a business (also called firm or enterprise) is a legally recognized organizational entity designed to provide goods and/or services to consumers or corporate entities such as governments, charities or other businesses. ... A skill is an ability, usually learned and acquired through training, to perform actions which achieve a desired outcome. ... Intermarriage normally refers to marriage between people belonging to different religions, tribes, nationalities or ethnic backgrounds. ... The Metropole was the name given to the English metropolitan center of the British Empire, i. ... Samora Machel Samora Moisés Machel (September 29, 1933 – October 19, 1986) was a Mozambican military commander, revolutionary socialist leader and eventual President of Mozambique. ... Mário Coelho Pinto de Andrade (August 21, 1928 - August 26, 1990) was an Angolan poet and politician. ... Mondlane on a Mozambican 1000 metical note. ... António Agostinho Neto (September 17, 1922–September 10, Angola (1975–1979), a poet and nationalist leader. ... Amílcar Lopes Cabral (September 21, 1924 – January 20, 1973) was an African agronomic engineer, writer and nationalist politician. ... Joaquim Chissano Joaquim Alberto Chissano (born 22 October 1939) served as the second President of Mozambique for nineteen years from 6 November 1986 until 2 February 2005. ... Graça Machel in 1984, with then husband President Samora Machel of Mozambique and P W Botha and Pik Botha of South Africa at the signing of the Nkomati Accord. ... Mozambique is a country in Southern Africa, bordering South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe. ... Eusébio da Silva Ferreira, GCIH, GCM (pron. ...

Because most policies and development plans were primarily designed by the ruling authorities of Portuguese Africa for the benefit of the Portuguese populations, little attention was paid to local tribal integration and the development of the native African communities. This affected a majority of the indigenous population who suffered both state-sponsored discrimination and enormous social pressure. Many felt they had received too little opportunity or resources to upgrade their skills and improve their economic and social situation to a degree comparable to that of the Europeans.

The UPA which was based in Zaire entered Angola and proceeded to massacre the civilian population (women and children included and of both European and Angolan African descent) under the full knowledge of the US Government. John F. Kennedy would later notify António de Oliveira Salazar (via the US consulate in Portugal) to immediately abandon the colonies. A US backed coup which would be known as the Abrilada, was also attempted to overthrow the Estado Novo.^[5] It is due to this failed coup that Salazar was able to consolidate power and finally send a military response to the massacres occurring in Angola. As the war progressed, Portugal rapidly increased its mobilized forces. Under the dictatorship, a highly militarized population was maintained where all the males were obliged to serve three years in military service, and many of those called-up to active military duty were deployed to combat zones in Portugal's African overseas provinces. In addition, by the end of the Portuguese colonial war, in 1974, black African participation had become crucial, representing about half of all operational colonial troops of Portugal. By the early 1970s, it had reached the limit of its military capacity but at this stage the war was already won.^[8] The military threat was so minor at the later stages that immigration to Angola and Mozambique was actually increasing as where the economies of the then Portuguese territories. John Kennedy and JFK redirect here. ... António de Oliveira Salazar, GColIH, GCTE, GCSE, pron. ... Estado Novo (Portuguese for New State; pron. ... This article describes military mobilization. ... The 1970s decade refers to the years from 1970 to 1979; it is commonly called The Seventies. ...

The guerrilla war was almost won in Angola, shifting to near total war in Guinea (although the territory was still under total control of the Portuguese military), and worsening in the north of Mozambique. According to Tetteh Hormeku (Programme Officer with Third World Network's Africa Secretariat in Accra; 2008 North-South Institute's Visiting Helleiner Research Fellow), the US was so certain that the Portuguese presence in Africa was guaranteed that it was completely caught by surprise by the effects of the Carnation revolution,^[9] causing it to hastily join forces with apartheid South Africa. This led to the invasion of Angola by South Africa shortly afterward. A segregated beach in South Africa, 1982. ...

The Portuguese having been in Africa for much longer than the other colonial empires had developed strong relations with the local people and therefore was able to win them over. Without this support the US soon stopped backing the dissident groups in Angola.

The Soviet Union^[10] realising that a military solution it had so successfully employed in several other countries around the world was not bearing fruit, dramatically changed strategy.^[11] It focused instead on Portugal. With the growing popular discontent over the casualties of the war and due to the large economic divide between the rich and poor the communists were able to manipulate junior officers of the military.^[12] In early 1974, the war was reduced to sporadic independentist guerrilla operations against the Portuguese in non-urbanized countryside areas far way from the main centers. The Portuguese have secured all cities, towns and villages in Angola and Mozambique, protecting its white, black and mixed race populations from any sort of armed threat. A sound environment of security and normality was the norm in almost all Portuguese Africa.^[8] The only exception was Guinea-Bissau, the smallest of all continental African territories under Portuguese rule, where independentist guerrilla operations, strongly supported by neighbouring allies, managed to have higher levels of success.^[13] Independentist is a neologism referring to an advocate of independence for a nation or territory. ... Guerilla may refer to Guerrilla warfare. ...

A group of military officers under the influence of communists, would proceed to over throw the Portuguese government with what was later called the Carnation Revolution on 25 April 1974 in Lisbon, Portugal.^[12] This led to a period of economic collapse and political instability. In the following years the process improved as stability returned in a couple of years, a democratic government was installed and later with Portugal entering the European Union in 1986, higher levels of political and economic stability were gradually achieved. The Carnation Revolution (Portuguese, Revolução dos Cravos) was an almost bloodless, leftist, military-led coup détat, started on April 25, 1974, in Lisbon, Portugal, that effectively changed the Portuguese regime from an authoritarian dictatorship to a liberal democracy after two years of a transitional period known as PREC... is the 115th day of the year (116th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1974 (MCMLXXIV) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar) of the 1974 Gregorian calendar. ... For other uses, see Lisbon (disambiguation). ...

Angola

Portuguese soldiers in Angola.

Main article: Angolan War of Independence

In Angola, the rebellion of the ZSN was taken up by the União das Populações de Angola (UPA), which changed its name to Frente Nacional de Libertação de Angola (FNLA) in 1962. On February 4, 1961, the Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola took credit for the attack on the prison of Luanda, where seven policemen were killed. On March 15, 1961, the UPA, in an attack, started the massacre of white populations and black workers. This region would be retaken by large military operations that, however, would not stop the spread of the guerrilla actions to other regions of Angola, such as Cabinda, the east, the southeast and the central plateaus. Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... The Angolan War of Independence (1961–1989) was a multi-faction struggle for control of Angola. ... Flag of the FNLA The National Front for the Liberation of Angola (Portuguese: Frente Nacional de Libertação de Angola) is a militant organization that fought for Angolan independence from Portugal in the war of independence under the leadership of Holden Roberto. ... is the 35th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1961 (MCMLXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... The MPLA flag The Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (Portuguese: Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola) is an Angolan political party that has ruled the country since independence in 1975. ... is the 74th day of the year (75th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1961 (MCMLXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Guerilla may refer to Guerrilla warfare. ... Map of Angola, highlighting Cabinda Cabinda is a small territory, currently administered as an exclave of Angola, resulting from the fusion of three kingdoms: Ngoyo, Loango and Cacongo. ...

Angola was the most successful campaign of the Colonial War (by 1974 it was clear that Portugal was winning the war in Angola^[8]), due to various factors. The country is large and the distance between the countries supporting the nationalist groups (the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Zambia) and the populated areas were big (so big in fact that the east part of the country was called Terras do Fim do Mundo (Lands of the End of the World) by the Portuguese); the three nationalist groups (FNLA, MPLA and UNITA) spent as much time fighting each other as they did fighting the Portuguese and the strategy of General Costa Gomes that the war was to be fought not just by the military but also involving civilian organisations led to a successful hearts and minds campaign. South Africa gave a lot of support to the Portuguese war effort in Angola; the Portuguese even referred to their South African counterparts as primos (cousins). External links Party website Categories: Politics stubs | Angolan political parties ... The MPLA flag The Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (Movimiento Popular de Libertação de Angola) is an Angolan political party that has ruled the country since independence in 1975. ... A UNITA sticker The National Union for the Total Independence of Angola, commonly known by the acronymn, UNITA, derived from its Portuguese name União Nacional para a Independência Total de Angola, is an Angolan political faction and a former rebel force. ... Francisco da Costa Gomes (pron. ... Hearts and Minds refers to two separate Vietnam War related subjects. ...

Angola also saw the development of unique and successful units:

• the Comandos were born out of the war in Angola and later used in Guinea and Mozambique
• the Special Hunters (Caçadores Especiais) were already in Angola when the war began, in 1961
• the Faithfuls (Fiéis): a force composed by Katanga exiles, black soldiers that opposed the rule of Mobutu
• the Loyals (Leais): a force composed by exiles from Zambia, black soldiers that were against Kenneth Kaunda
• the Special Groups (Grupos Especiais): units of volunteer black soldiers that had commando training; also used in Mozambique
• the Special Troops (Tropas Especiais): the name of the Special Groups in Cabinda
• the Flechas (Arrows): a very successful unit, controlled by the PIDE/DGS, composed by Bushmen, that specialized in tracking, reconnaissance and pseudo-terrorist operations. They were the basis for the Rhodesian Selous Scouts. The Flechas were also employed in Mozambique.
• the 1st Cavalry Group (Grupo de Cavalaria Nº1): a horseback unit, armed with the Heckler & Koch G3, tasked with reconnaissance and patrolling. It was also known as "Angolan Dragoons" (Dragões de Angola). The Rhodesians would develop also this concept, forming the Grey's Scouts.
• the 1927 Cavalry Battalion (Batalhão de Cavalaria 1927) - a tank unit, equipped with the M5A1 tank it was used for supporting infantry forces and as a rapid reaction force. Again the Rhodesians would copy this concept forming the Rhodesian Armoured Car Regiment.

For the denomination of commando see commando, for the Argentine special operations unit see Comandos Anfibios, for other special forces with Commando on its name see list of special forces units. ... The CTOE - Centro de Tropas de Operações Especiais (Special Operations Troops Centre), based in Lamego, is a unit of the Portuguese Army with the mission of instructing troops in unconventional warfare and Counter-Terrorism. ... Country Democratic Republic of the Congo Capital Lubumbashi Largest city Lubumbashi National language Swahili, Tshiluba Land area¹ 496 871 km² Governor Moïse Katumbi Chapwe Population Density 4 125 000 (est. ... Mobutu Sese Seko Nkuku Ngbendu wa Za Banga (October 14, 1930 – September 7, 1997), known commonly as Mobutu, or Mobutu Sese Seko, born Joseph-Désiré Mobutu, was the President of Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo) for 32 years (1965–1997), in which he rose to power... Kenneth David Kaunda, commonly known as KK (born April 28, 1924) served as the first President of Zambia, from 1964 to 1991. ... Map of Angola, highlighting Cabinda Cabinda is a small territory, currently administered as an exclave of Angola, resulting from the fusion of three kingdoms: Ngoyo, Loango and Cacongo. ... The Polícia Internacional e de Defesa do Estado or PIDE (literally, International and State Defense Police), was the main tool of repression used by the Portuguese Fascist regime, the Estado Novo. ... |group = Bushmen |image = |poptime = 82,000 |popplace = Botswana (55,000), Namibia (27,000) |rels = San Religion |langs = various Khoisan languages |related = Khoikhoi, Xhosa, Zulu, Griqua }} The Bushmen, San, Basarwa, ǃKung or Khwe are indigenous people of the Kalahari Desert, which spans areas of South Africa, Botswana, Namibia and Angola. ... False colors redirects here. ... The cap badge of the Selous Scouts was a stylised osprey. ... horse, see Horse (disambiguation). ... The G3 is a 7. ... Patrolling is a military tactic. ... For other uses, see Dragoon (disambiguation). ... The Greys Scouts were a band of horse mounted men who worked for the armed forces in Rhodesia, a country now known as Zimbabwe. ... The Light Tank M3 was an American light tank of World War II in use with British and Commonwealth forces prior to the entry of the USA into the European theatre. ... Many American politicians had long argued that Europes economic influence should be matched by an ability to project military power anywhere on the continent. ...

Guinea-Bissau

Main article: Guinea-Bissau War of Independence

PAIGC's checkpoint in 1974

In Guinea-Bissau, the Marxist African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC) started fighting in January 1963. Its guerrilla fighters attacked the Portuguese headquarters in Tite, located to the south of Bissau, the capital, near the Corubal river. Similar actions quickly spread across the entire colony, requiring a strong response from the Portuguese forces. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (2765x2133, 967 KB) Descrição Posto de controlo montado pelo PAIGC na Guiné-Bissau em 1974, depois da declaração de independência. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (2765x2133, 967 KB) Descrição Posto de controlo montado pelo PAIGC na Guiné-Bissau em 1974, depois da declaração de independência. ... Marxism is the political practice and social theory based on the works of Karl Marx, a 19th century philosopher, economist, journalist, and revolutionary, along with Friedrich Engels. ... The African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (Portuguese: Partido Africano da Independência da Guiné e Cabo Verde) or PAIGC is a political party that governed Guinea-Bissau from independence in 1974 until the late 1990s and from 2004 to 2005. ... Guerilla may refer to Guerrilla warfare. ... Tite can refer to: William Tite (1798–1873), english architect; Tite Curet Alonso (1926–2003), portorican composer of over 2000 salsa songs; Adenor Leonardo Bacchi (born 1961), brazilian footballer, trainer and chief manager; Tite Kubo (born 1977), Japanese manga artist. ... Bissau, estimated population 355,000 (2004), is the capital of Guinea-Bissau. ...

The war in Guinea placed face to face Amílcar Cabral, the leader of PAIGC, and António de Spínola, the Portuguese general responsible for the local military operations. In 1965 the war spread to the eastern part of the country and in that same year the PAIGC carried out attacks in the north of the country where at the time only the minor guerrilla movement, the Front for the Liberation and Independence of Guinea (FLING), was fighting. By that time, the PAIGC started receiving military support from the Socialist Bloc, mainly from Cuba, a support that would last until the end of the war. Amílcar Lopes Cabral (September 21, 1924 – January 20, 1973) was an African agronomic engineer, writer and nationalist politician. ... António Sebastião Ribeiro Spínola, GCTE (pron. ... During the Cold War, the Eastern Bloc (or Soviet Bloc) comprised the following Central and Eastern European countries: Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, East Germany, Poland, Albania (until the early 1960s, see below), the Soviet Union, and Czechoslovakia. ...

In Guinea, the Portuguese troops mainly took a defensive position, limiting themselves to keeping the territories they already held. This kind of action was particularly devastating to the Portuguese troops who were constantly attacked by the forces of the PAIGC. They were also demoralized by the steady growth of the influence of the liberation supporters among the population that was being recruited in large numbers by the PAIGC.

With some strategic changes by António Spínola in the late 1960s, the Portuguese forces gained momentum and, taking the offensive, became a much more effective force. In 1970, Portugal attempted to overthrow Sekou Toure (with the support of Guinean exiles) in the Operation "Mar Verde" (Green Sea). The objectives were: perform a coup d'etat in Guinea-Conakry; destroy the PAIGC naval and air assets; capture Amilcar Cabral and free Portuguese POWs held in Conakry. The operation was a failure, with only the POW rescue and the destruction of PAIGC ships being successful. Nigeria and Algeria offered support to Guinea-Conakry and the Soviet Union sent war ships to the area (known by NATO as the West Africa Patrol). This article or section seems not to be written in the formal tone expected of an encyclopedia entry. ... Coup redirects here. ... Look up Guinea on Wiktionary, the free dictionary Government Permanent UN Mission of the Republic of Guinea official government site News AllAfrica. ... lcar Cabral Am lcar Lopes Cabral (1924–January 20, 1973) was an African writer and nationalist. ... Geneva Convention definition A prisoner of war (POW) is a soldier, sailor, airman, or marine who is imprisoned by an enemy power during or immediately after an armed conflict. ... Conakry or Konakry (Malinké: KÉ”nakiri) is the capital and largest city of Guinea. ...

Between 1968 and 1972, the Portuguese forces took control of the situation and sometimes carried attacks against the PAIGC positions. At this time the Portuguese forces were also adopting subversive means to counter the insurgents, attacking the political structure of the nationalist movement. This strategy culminated in the assassination of Amílcar Cabral in January 1973. Nonetheless, the PAIGC continued to fight back and pushed the Portuguese forces to the limit. This became even more visible after PAIGC received anti-aircraft weapons provided by the Soviets, especially the SA-7 shoulder-launched anti-aircraft missile, thus undermining the Portuguese air superiority. Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ... A soldier posing with a Strela launcher The 9K32 Strela-2 (Russian 9К32 стрела-2 - arrow, NATO reporting name SA-7 Grail) is a man-portable, shoulder-fired, low-altitude surface-to-air missile (SAM) system similar to the US Army REDEYE, with a high explosive warhead and passive infrared...

The war in Guinea is considered "Portugal's Vietnam". The PAIGC was well trained, led and equipped and the neighbouring countries (Senegal and specially Guinea-Conakry) were perfect bases for the guerrilla. Look up Guinea on Wiktionary, the free dictionary Government Permanent UN Mission of the Republic of Guinea official government site News AllAfrica. ...

The war in Guinea also saw the use of two special units by the Portuguese Armed Forces: The Portuguese Armed Forces (Portuguese: Forças Armadas Portuguesas) are divided into three branches: Army (Exército Português) Navy (Marinha Portuguesa or Armada Portuguesa) Air Force (Força Aérea Portuguesa) In the 20th century, Portugal had only two major military interventions, the first one in the 1st World...

• African Commandos (Comandos Africanos): Commando units entirely composed by black soldiers, including the officers
• African Special Marines (Fuzileiros Especiais Africanos): Marine units entirely composed by black soldiers

For the denomination of commando see commando, for the Argentine special operations unit see Comandos Anfibios, for other special forces with Commando on its name see list of special forces units. ... The Portuguese Navy Marines, presently named Corpo de Fuzileiros (Fusilier Corps), are a force of about 2000 men organized in a Base, a School, two Naval Infantry Battalions, a Special Actions Detachment, a Naval Police Unit, plus other support units, like dive sappers The Portuguese Marines were created in 1621...

Mozambique

Main article: Mozambican War of Independence

Mozambique was the last territory to start the war of liberation. Its nationalist movement was led by the Marxist-Leninist Liberation Front of Mozambique (FRELIMO), which carried out the first attack against Portuguese targets on September 24, 1964, in Chai, Cabo Delgado Province. The fighting later spread to Niassa, Tete at the centre of the country. A report from Battalion No. 558 of the Portuguese army makes references to violent actions, also in Cabo Delgado, on August 21, 1964. Combatants Mozambican Liberation Front Portugal Commanders Eduardo Mondlane (1962–69), Filipe Samuel Magaia (1964–66), Samora Moïses Machel (1969–75) António Augusto dos Santos (1964–69), Kaúlza de Arriaga (1969–74) Strength 15,000[1] 73,000 Casualties 25,000 10,000[2] The Mozambican War of... Vladimir Lenin in 1920 Leninism is a political and economic theory which builds upon Marxism; it is a branch of Marxism (and it has been the dominant branch of Marxism in the world since the 1920s). ... The Liberation Front of Mozambique (better known under its abbreveration FRELIMO, pronounced fray-LEE-moo; Portuguese: Frente de Libertação de Moçambique) is a political party that has ruled Mozambique since independence in 1975. ... is the 267th day of the year (268th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Also Nintendo emulator: 1964 (emulator). ... For other uses, see Chai (disambiguation). ... Cabo Delgado is a province of Mozambique. ... Categories: Stub | Provinces of Mozambique ... Tete is the capital city of Tete Province in Mozambique. ... is the 233rd day of the year (234th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Also Nintendo emulator: 1964 (emulator). ...

On November 16 of the same year, the Portuguese troops suffered their first losses fighting in the north of the country, in the region of Xilama. By this time, the size of the guerrilla movement had substantially increased; this, along with the low numbers of Portuguese troops and colonists, allowed a steady increase in FRELIMO's strength. It quickly started moving south in the direction of Meponda and Mandimba, linking to Tete with the aid of Malawi. is the 320th day of the year (321st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

Until 1967 the FRELIMO showed less interest in Tete region, putting its efforts on the two northernmost districts of the country where the use of landmines became very common. In the region of Niassa, FRELIMO's intention was to create a free corridor to Zambézia. Until April 1970, the military activity of FRELIMO increased steadily, mainly due to the strategic work of Samora Machel in the region of Cabo Delgado. A landmine is a type of mine which is placed onto or into the ground and explodes when triggered by a vehicle or person. ... Categories: Stub | Provinces of Mozambique ... Samora Machel Samora Moisés Machel (September 29, 1933 – October 19, 1986) was a Mozambican military commander, revolutionary socialist leader and eventual President of Mozambique. ... Cabo Delgado is the northernmost province of Mozambique. ...

The war in Mozambique saw a great involvement of Rhodesia, supporting the Portuguese troops in operations and even conducting operations independently. By 1973, the territory was mostly under Portuguese control.^[14] The Operation "Nó Górdio" (Gordian Knot Operation) - conducted in 1970 and commanded by Portuguese Brigadier General Kaúlza de Arriaga - a conventional-style operation to destroy the guerrilla bases in the north of Mozambique, was the major military operation of the Portuguese Colonial War. A hotly disputed issue, the Gordian Knot Operation was considered by several historians and military strategists as a failure that even worsened the situation for the Portuguese, but according to others, including its main architect,^[15] troops, and officials who had participated on both sides of the operation, including high ranked elements from the FRELIMO guerrilla, it was also globally described as a tremendous success of the Portuguese Armed Forces.^[16] Arriaga, however, was removed from his powerful military post in Mozambique by Marcelo Caetano shortly before the events in Lisbon that would trigger the end of the war and the independence of the Portuguese territories in Africa. The reason for Arriaga's abrupt fate was an alleged incident with indigenous civilian populations, as well as Portuguese government's suspicion that Arriaga was planning a military coup against Marcelo's administration in order to avoid the rise of leftist influences in Portugal and the loss of the African overseas provinces. This article is about the former British colony of Southern Rhodesia, todays Zimbabwe. ... Kaúlza de Arriaga (January 18, 1915 - February 3, 2004) was a Portuguese general, writer, professor and politician. ... The Mozambican Liberation Front (FRELIMO, pronounced fray-LEE-moo; Portuguese: Frente de Libertação de Moçambique) is a political party that has ruled Mozambique since independence in 1975. ... The Portuguese Armed Forces (Portuguese: Forças Armadas Portuguesas) are divided into three branches: Army (Exército Português) Navy (Marinha Portuguesa or Armada Portuguesa) Air Force (Força Aérea Portuguesa) In the 20th century, Portugal had only two major military interventions, the first one in the 1st World... Marcelo Caetano Marcelo José das Neves Alves Caetano also spelled Marcello Caetano (pron. ...

The construction of the Cahora Bassa Dam tied up large numbers of Portuguese troops (near 50% of all the troops in Mozambique) and brought the FRELIMO to the Tete Province, closer to some cities and more populated areas in the south. Still, although the FRELIMO tried to halt and stop the construction of the dam, it was never able to do so. In 1974, the FRELIMO launched mortar attacks against Vila Pery (now Chimoio) an important city and the first (and only) heavy populated area to be hit by the FRELIMO. The Cahora Bassa lake is southern Africas second-largest artificial lake, situated in the Tete Province in Mozambique. ... Tete is a province of Mozambique. ... Chimoio is the capital of the Mozambican province of Manica. ...

In Mozambique special units were also used by the Portuguese Armed Forces:

• the Special Groups (Grupos Especiais): units similar to the ones used in Angola
• the Paratrooper Special Groups (Grupos Especiais Pára-Quedistas): units of volunteer black soldiers that had paratrooper training
• the Combat Tracking Special Groups (Grupos Especiais de Pisteiros de Combate): special units trained in tracking
• the Flechas: a unit similar to the one employed in Angola

Role of the Organisation of African Unity

The Organization of African Unity (OAU) was founded May 1963. Its basic principles were co-operation between African nations and solidarity between African peoples. Another important objective of the OAU was an end to all forms of colonialism in Africa. This became the major objective of the organization in its first years and soon OAU pressure led to the situation in the Portuguese colonies being brought up at the UN Security Council. Flag of the Organisation of African Unity, later also used by the African Union. ... A session of the Security Council in progress The United Nations Security Council is the most powerful organ of the United Nations. ...

The OAU established a committee based in Dar es Salaam, with representatives from Ethiopia, Algeria, Uganda, Egypt, Tanzania, Zaire, Guinea, Senegal and Nigeria, to support African liberation movements. The support provided by the committee included military training and weapon supplies. Dar es Salaam (دار السلام), formerly Mzizima, is the largest city (pop. ...

The OAU also took action in order to promote the international acknowledgment of the legitimacy of the Revolutionary Government of Angola in Exile (GRAE), composed by the FNLA. This support was transferred to the MPLA and to its leader, Agostinho Neto in 1967. In November of 1972, both movements were recognized by the OAU in order to promote their merger. After 1964, the OAU recognized PAIGC as the legitimate representatives of Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde and in 1965 recognised FRELIMO for Mozambique. External links Party website Categories: Politics stubs | Angolan political parties ... The MPLA flag The Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (Movimiento Popular de Libertação de Angola) is an Angolan political party that has ruled the country since independence in 1975. ... António Agostinho Neto (September 17, 1922–September 10, Angola (1975–1979), a poet and nationalist leader. ... The Mozambican Liberation Front (FRELIMO, pronounced fray-LEE-moo; Portuguese: Frente de Libertação de Moçambique) is a political party that has ruled Mozambique since independence in 1975. ...

Armament and support

Portugal

When the war began, in 1961, the Portuguese forces were badly equipped to cope with the demands of a counter-insurgency conflict. It was standard procedure, up to that point, to send the oldest and obsolete material to the colonies. Thus, the first military operations were conducted using World War II radios and the old Mauser rifle. The Portuguese Army rapidly saw the need for a modern battle rifle and adopted the Heckler & Koch G3 as the standard rifle of the military (although several FN FAL rifles were also issued). The Paratroopers rarely used the G3, instead adopting the AR-10, until a collapsible stock version of the G3 rifle became available. For the machine-gun role, the MG42 was used until 1968, when the HK21 became available. Some submachine guns (specially the Uzi) were also used, mainly by reserve, paramilitary and Cavalry troops. Support weapons were also employed, ranging from the Bazooka to 60, 81, and later, 120 mm mortars and even howitzers. Several armored cars were also used: Panhard AML, Panhard EBR, Fox and (in the 70s) the Chaimite. Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tōjō Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000... The Karabiner 98 Kurz (often abbreviated Kar98k or K98k) was a bolt-action rifle adopted as the standard infantry rifle in 1935 by the Wehrmacht,[1] and was one of the final developments in the long line of Mauser military rifles. ... Portuguese Army troops heading for Angola, during World War I. Portuguese Army troops in the jungle, during the 1960s and 1970s Colonial Wars in Africa. ... The FN FAL battle rifle The term battle rifle can have different meanings. ... The G3 is a 7. ... The Fusil Automatique Leger, or Light Automatic Rifle (LAR). ... The ETP - Escola de Tropas Páraquedistas (Parachute Troops School), based in Tancos, is a unit of the Portuguese Army and serves as the instruction center for recruitment and training of the Portuguese paratroopers. ... Portuguese paratroopers, armed with AR-10 rifles, jump from a helicopter in Angola War in the 1960s The AR-10 is a lightweight, air-cooled, magazine-fed, gas operated, select-fire rifle that fires 7. ... A . ... The MG42 (shortened from German: Maschinengewehr 42, or Machine Gun 42) was a machine gun that was developed for and entered service with Nazi Germany in 1942, during World War II. The 7. ... HK21 The HK21 is a belt-fed general purpose machine gun/squad automatic weapon using the 7. ... The MP5 is a third-generation submachine gun that is widely used by law enforcement tactical teams and military forces. ... Look up uzi in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... For other uses, see Bazooka (disambiguation). ... US soldier loading a M224 60-mm mortar. ... 19th century 12 pounder (5 kg) mountain howitzer displayed by the National Park Service at Fort Laramie in Wyoming, USA A howitzer is a type of artillery piece that is characterized by a relatively short barrel and the use of comparatively small explosive charges to propel projectiles at trajectories with... United Nations Panhard AML. The Panhard AML( called the AML 245 by Panhard) 60/90 is a light armoured car with permanent 4x4 drive which gives it exceptional mobility. ... The Panhard EBR (Panhard Engin Blinde de Reconnaissance) is a light armoured car designed by Panhard for the French Army and later used across the globe, notably by the Portuguese Army during the Portuguese Colonial War in Angola, Mozambique and Guinea-Bissau. ... The FV 721 Fox Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (wheeled) was a 4x4 armoured car deployed by the British Army as a replacement for the Ferret scout car and the Saladin Armoured Car. ... A Portuguese Army Chaimite in Bosnia with an U.S. Army helicopter Chaimite is an armored vehicle built by the Portuguese company Bravia and used by the Portuguese Army in the colonial war in Angola, Mozambique and Guinea-Bissau, from 1967 to 1974 when it ended. ...

Unlike the Vietnam War, Portugal's low budget could not afford a general use of the helicopter. Only those troops involved in raids (also called golpe de mão (hand blow) in Portuguese) - mainly Commandos and Paratroopers - would deploy by helicopter. Most deployments were either on foot or in vehicles (Berliet and Unimog trucks). The Portuguese also made wide use of horse mounted cavalry serving as mounted infantry. The helicopters were reserved for support (in a gunship role) or MEDEVAC. The Alouette III was the most widely used helicopter, although the Puma was also used with great success. Other aircraft were employed: for air support the T6 and the Fiat G.91 were used; for reconnaissance the Dornier Do 27 was employed. In the transport role, the Portuguese Air Force used mainly the Nord Noratlas and the C-47 (both were also used for the deployment of Paratroopers). Combatants Republic of Vietnam United States Republic of Korea Thailand Australia New Zealand The Philippines National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam Democratic Republic of Vietnam People’s Republic of China Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea Strength US 1,000,000 South Korea 300,000 Australia 48,000... For other uses, see Helicopter (disambiguation). ... A raid is a brief attack, normally performed by a small military force of commandos, or by irregulars. ... For the denomination of commando see commando, for the Argentine special operations unit see Comandos Anfibios, for other special forces with Commando on its name see list of special forces units. ... Berliet was a French manufacturer of automobiles, trucks and other utility vehicles. ... Unimog (IPA: or IPA: ) designates a range of multi purpose four wheel drive medium trucks produced by Mercedes-Benz, a division of Daimler AG. The name Unimog is pronounced IPA: in German and is a portmanteau from the German UNIversal-MOtor-Gerät, Gerät being the German word for... Mounted infantry were soldiers who rode horses instead of marching, but actually fought on foot with muskets or rifles. ... The term gunship is used in several contexts, all sharing the general idea of a light vessel armed with heavy guns. ... A [PC-12] of the Royal Flying Doctor Service of Australia. ... It has been suggested that IAR 316 be merged into this article or section. ... The Aerospatiale Puma is a medium-sized twin-engined transport/utility helicopter originally manufactured by Aerospatiale of France. ... Close air support (often abbreviated CAS) is the use of military aircraft in a ground attack role against targets in close proximity to friendly troops, in support of ground combat operations. ... This article is about the first T-6 Texan. ... The Aeritalia G.91, also known as the Fiat G.91 and nicknamed Gina, was an Italian fighter aircraft that was intended to serve as standard equipment for NATO air forces in the 1960s. ... Mixed reconnaissance patrol of the Polish Home Army and the Soviet Red Army during Operation Tempest, 1944 Reconnaissance is the military term for the active gathering of information about an enemy, or other conditions, by physical observation. ... Do 27 used by Bernhard Grzimek The Dornier Do 27 was a German single-engine STOL-utility aircraft, manufactured by Dornier GmbH (later DASA Dornier, Fairchild-Dornier). ... The Portuguese Air Force (PoAF) (Portuguese: Força Aérea Portuguesa, FAP) is the air force of Portugal. ... The Nord Noratlas was a French military transport plane built by Nord Aviation in the 1950s. ... The Douglas C-47 Skytrain or Dakota is a military transport that was developed from the Douglas DC-3 airliner. ...

The Portuguese Navy (particularly the Marines) made extensive use of patrol boats, landing craft, and Zodiac inflatable boats. They were employed specially in Guinea, but also in the Congo River (and other smaller rivers) in Angola and in the Zambezi (and other rivers) in Mozambique. They even used small patrol crafts in the Lake Malawi. The Navy also used Portuguese civilian cruisers as troop transports, and drafted Portuguese Merchant Navy personnel to man ships carrying troops and material. Portuguese naval jack The Portuguese Navy (Portuguese: Marinha Portuguesa, also known as Marinha de Guerra Portuguesa or as Armada Portuguesa) is the naval branch of the Portuguese Armed Forces which, in cooperation with the other branches of the Portuguese military, is charged with the defence of Portugal. ... The Portuguese Navy Marines, presently named Corpo de Fuzileiros (Fusilier Corps), are a force of about 2000 men organized in a Base, a School, two Naval Infantry Battalions, a Special Actions Detachment, a Naval Police Unit, plus other support units, like dive sappers The Portuguese Marines were created in 1621... Landing craft Rapière LCU 1656 departs USS Bataan (LHD-5) well deck during Hurricane Katrina relief operations. ... Zodiac Group is a diversified corporation with a worldwide presence and a blue-chip stock specialising in the production of aerosafety systems, aircraft systems, airline equipment, airbags, remote transmissions, boats and swimming pools. ... Two inflatable boats at Horsea Island, England. ... The Congo River (for a time known as Zaire River) is the largest river in Western Central Africa. ... This article includes a list of works cited or a list of external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks in-text citations. ... Lake Malawi (also known as Lake Nyasa, Lake Nyassa, Lake Niassa, and Lago Niassa in Mozambique), is the most southerly lake in the Great African Rift Valley system. ... A cruise ship or a cruise liner is a passenger ship used for pleasure voyages, where the voyage itself and the ships amenities are considered an essential part of the experience. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Shipping. ...

Most weaponry was purchased from France, West Germany and South Africa and, to a lesser extent, Belgium and Israel.

Since 1961, with the beginning of the colonial wars in its overseas territories, Portugal incorporated black Portuguese Africans in the war effort in Angola, Guinea-Bissau and Mozambique through a process based on multi-racialism and on the preservation of the empire.

African engagement varied from marginal roles as servants and informers to more important ones as highly operational combat units. African troops became increasingly important, and on the eve of the military coup of 25 April 1974, Africans accounted for more than 50 percent of the Portuguese contingent fighting the war. The Carnation Revolution (Portuguese, Revolução dos Cravos) was an almost bloodless, leftist, military-led coup détat, started on April 25, 1974, in Lisbon, Portugal, that effectively changed the Portuguese regime from an authoritarian dictatorship to a liberal democracy after two years of a transitional period known as PREC...

Guerrilla movements

The armament of the nationalist groups was mainly from the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe and (specially in Mozambique) China, but they also used western armaments (such as the Thompson submachine gun, and British, French and German weapons). All guerrillas used roughly the same weaponry: the Mosin-Nagant bolt-action rifle, the SKS carbine and the AK-47 series of automatic rifles (the latter was only issued to the best guerilla units),(A common misconception is that the Portuguese Soldiers would use captured AK's because they were thought superior to the G3.This is entirely untrue as they would not be able to find ammo for it considering the AK was only used by the elite guerrilla forces.Also the G3 was thought by most Portuguese soldiers to be superior to the AK-47 because though the round was longer than the AK,the G3 had a significantly smaller amount of recoil than the AK due to the AK's inner workings.Therefore,the G3 had more power and accuracy.)and the PPSh-41 submachine gun. The guerrilla movements also made extensive use of machine guns: the Degtyarev light machine gun was the most widely used, together with the DShK and the SG-43 Goryunov heavy machine guns. The support weapons used were the mortars, recoilless rifles, RPG-2 and specially the RPG-7 (again considered superior to the Portuguese counterpart, the bazooka). Eastern Europe is a concept that lacks one precise definition. ... Tommy Gun redirects here. ... The Mosin-Nagant (Мосин-Наган) is a military rifle of Russia and later the Soviet Union, in service in various forms from 1891 until the 1960s, when it was finally replaced in its final function as a sniper rifle by the SVD rifle (Снайперская винтовка Драгунова - Snayperskaya Vintovka Dragunova - Dragunov... The SKS is a Russian semi-automatic carbine, designed in 1945 by Sergei Gavrilovich Simonov. ... Avtomat Kalashnikova model 1947 g. ... The PPSh-41 (Pistolet-Pulemyot Shpagina; Russian: ; Shpagin Machine Pistol; nicknamed Pah-Pah-sha, Shpagin and Burp Gun) submachine gun was one of the most mass produced weapons of its type of World War II. It was designed by Georgi Shpagin, as an inexpensive alternative to the PPD-40, which... The Ruchnoy Pulemyot Degtyareva pekhotnyi (Degtyarev hand-held infantry machine gun) was a light machine gun used by the Soviet Union starting in 1928. ... The DShK (ДШК, for Дегтярёва Шпагина Крупнокалиберный, Degtyarev-Shpagin Large Calibre) is a Soviet heavy anti-aircraft machine gun firing 12. ... The SG-43 Goryunov was a Soviet medium machine gun that was introduced during the Second World War and is chambered for the 7. ... M67 recoilless rifle. ... The RPG-2 was the first rocket-propelled grenade launcher designed in the Soviet Union. ... The RPG-7 (Russian: ) is a widely-produced, portable, shoulder-launched, anti-tank rocket propelled grenade weapon. ...

Anti-aircraft weapons were also employed, specially by the PAIGC and the Frelimo. The ZPU-4 was the most widely used, but by far the most effective was the Strela 2, introduced in Guinea in 1973 and in Mozambique in 1974. “Flak” redirects here. ... The African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (Portuguese: Partido Africano da Independência da Guiné e Cabo Verde), or PAIGC, was an organisation founed in Portuguese Guinea (today Guinea-Bissau) by the Marxist Amílcar Cabral in 1956, with the aim of achieving independence for Cape... The Mozambican Liberation Front (FRELIMO, pronounced fray-LEE-moo; Portuguese: Frente de Libertação de Moçambique) is a political party that has ruled Mozambique since independence in 1975. ... ZPU-4 in Batey ha-Osef museum, Israel. ... A soldier posing with a Strela launcher. ...

Mines were one of the most successful weapons of the guerrilla movements, and the most feared weapon by the Portuguese forces. All guerrillas used a variety of mines, combining anti-tank with anti-personnel mines with devastating results, successfully undermining the mobility of the Portuguese forces. Some mines that were used includes the PMN (Black Widow), TM-46, and POMZ. Even amphibious mines were used such as the PDM. “Minefield” redirects here. ... An Anti-tank mine, or AT mine is similar to a Landmine except generally designed with a less sensitive trigger and more explosive power so as to be able to take out an armored vehicle, and not go off until such a vehicle comes along. ... Italian Valmara 69 bounding type of Anti-personnel. ... PMN type mines found in Iraq (2003) The PMN-1 and PMN-2 (both called Black Widow) are blast type anti-personnel mines designed and manufactured in Russia. ... TM-46 anti-tank mine The TM-46 mine is a large circular metal cased Russian anti-tank mine. ... POMZ2M mine - line drawing POMZ2A mine - line drawing The POMZ, POMZ-2 and POMZ-2M are three variants of a Russian made stake mounted anti-personnel fragmentation mine. ... The PDM amphibious mines were a series of Russian anti-vehicle mines that could be used on or in beaches, rivers, lakes and shallow coastal waters up to five meters deep. ...

The PAIGC was the better armed, trained and led of all the guerrilla movements. By 1970 it had members in the Soviet Union learning how to fly MIGs and soviet-supplied amphibious assault crafts and APCs. The Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 (Russian: ) (NATO reporting name Fagot) was a jet fighter developed for the USSR by Artem Mikoyan and Mikhail Gurevich. ... Armoured personnel carriers (APCs) are armoured fighting vehicles developed to transport infantry on the battlefield. ...

Opposition

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The government presented as a general consensus that the colonies were a part of the national unity, closer to overseas provinces than to true colonies. The communists were the first party to oppose the official view, since they saw the Portuguese presence in the colonies as an act against the colonies' right to self determination. During its 5th Congress, in 1957, the illegal Portuguese Communist Party (Partido Comunista Português - PCP) was the first political organization to demand the immediate and total independence of the colonies. However, being the only truly organized opposition movement, the PCP had to play two roles. One role was that of a communist party with an anti-colonialist position; the other role was to be a cohesive force drawing together a broad spectrum of opposing parties. Therefore it had to accede to views that didn't reflect its true anticolonial position. This article is about the form of society and political movement. ... This article is about self-determination in politics. ... The Portuguese Communist Party (Portuguese: Partido Comunista Português, pron. ...

Several opposition figures outside the PCP also had anticolonial opinions, such as the candidates to the fraudulent presidential elections, like Norton de Matos (in 1949), Quintão Meireles (in 1951) and Humberto Delgado (in 1958). The communist candidates had, obviously, the same positions. Among them were Rui Luís Gomes and Arlindo Vicente, the first would not be allowed to participate in the election and the second would support Delgado in 1958. José Maria Mendes Ribeiro Norton de Matos, GCL (b. ... Humberto da Silva Delgado (15 May 1906 in Torres Novas - 13 March 1965 near Olivenza) was a Portuguese general and politician. ...

After the electoral fraud of 1958, Humberto Delgado formed the Independent National Movement (Movimento Nacional Independente - MNI) that, in October of 1960, agreed that there was a need to prepare the people in the colonies, before giving them the right of self-determination. Despite this, no detailed policies for achieving this goal were set out.^{[citation needed]} Jan. ... Year 1960 (MCMLX) was a leap year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ...

In 1961, the nº8 of the Military Tribune had as its title "Let's end the war of Angola". The authors were linked to the Patriotic Action Councils (Juntas de Acção Patriótica - JAP), supporters of Humberto Delgado, and responsible for the attack on the barracks of Beja. The Portuguese Front of National Liberation (Frente Portuguesa de Libertação Nacional - FPLN), founded in December 1962, attacked the conciliatory positions. The official feeling of the Portuguese state, despite all this, was the same: Portugal had inalienable and legitimate rights over the colonies and this was what was transmitted through the media and through the state propaganda. Year 1961 (MCMLXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1962 (MCMLXII) was a common year starting on Monday (the link is to a full 1962 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ...

In April 1964, the Directory of Democratic-Social Action (Acção Democrato-Social - ADS) presented a political solution rather than a military one. In agreement with this initiative in 1966, Mário Soares suggested there should be a referendum on the overseas policy Portugal should follow, and that the referendum should be preceded by a national discussion to take place in the six months prior to the referendum.^{[citation needed]} Also Nintendo emulator: 1964 (emulator). ... Year 1966 (MCMLXVI) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar) of the 1966 Gregorian calendar. ... Mário Alberto Nobre Lopes Soares GColTE, GCC, GColL, KE (pron. ...

The end of Salazar's rule in 1968, due to illness, did not prompt any change in the political panorama.^{[citation needed]} The radicalization of the opposition movements started with the younger people who also felt victimized by the continuation of the war.^{[citation needed]}

The universities played a key role in the spread of this position. Several magazines and newspapers were created, such as Cadernos Circunstância, Cadernos Necessários, Tempo e Modo, and Polémica that supported this view. It was in this environment that the Armed Revolutionary Action (Acção Revolucionária Armada - ARA), the armed branch of the Portuguese Communist party created in the late 1960s, and the Revolutionary Brigades (Brigadas Revolucionárias - BR), a left-wing organization, became an important^{[citation needed]} force of resistance against the war, carrying out multiple acts of sabotage and bombing against military targets. The ARA began its military actions in October of 1970, keeping them up until August of 1972. The major actions were the attack on the Tancos air base that destroyed several helicopters on March 8, 1971, and the attack on the NATO headquarters at Oeiras in October of the same year. The BR, on its side, began armed actions on 7 November 1971, with the sabotage of the NATO base at Pinhal de Armeiro, the last action being carried out 9 April 1974, against the Niassa ship which was preparing to leave Lisboa with troops to be deployed in Guinea. The BR acted even in the colonies, placing a bomb in the Military Command of Bissau on 22 February 1974.^{[citation needed]} For the community in Florida, see University, Florida. ... Year 1970 (MCMLXX) was a common year starting on Thursday (link shows full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1972 (MCMLXXII) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 67th day of the year (68th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1971 (MCMLXXI) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar) of the 1971 Gregorian calendar. ... This article is about the military alliance. ... For other places with the same name, see Oeiras (disambiguation). ... is the 311th day of the year (312th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1971 (MCMLXXI) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar) of the 1971 Gregorian calendar. ... is the 99th day of the year (100th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1974 (MCMLXXIV) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar) of the 1974 Gregorian calendar. ... Categories: Stub | Provinces of Mozambique ... is the 53rd day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1974 (MCMLXXIV) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar) of the 1974 Gregorian calendar. ...

Aftermath

In early 1974, the Portuguese had secured all cities, towns and villages in Angola and Mozambique, protecting its white, black and mixed race populations from any sort of armed threat. Vila Pery, Portuguese Overseas Province of Mozambique (now Chimoio, Mozambique) was the only heavily populated urban area which suffered a short-lived attack by terrorist guerrillas during the entire war. A sound environment of security and normality was the norm in almost all Portuguese Africa outside Guiné-Bissau. Economic growth and economic development in mainland Portugal and its overseas territories were at a record high during this period.^[14] After a long period of economic divergence before 1914, the Portuguese economy recovered slightly until 1950, entering thereafter on a path of strong economic convergence. Portuguese economic growth in the period 1950-1973 created an opportunity for real integration with the developed economies of Western Europe. Through emigration, trade, tourism and foreign investment, individuals and firms changed their patterns of production and consumption, bringing about a structural transformation. Simultaneously, the increasing complexity of a growing economy raised new technical and organizational challenges, stimulating the formation of modern professional and management teams.^[17] However, Portuguese junior military officers, under the influence of the communists,^[12] would later successfully overthrow the Portuguese regime of Estado Novo in a bloodless military coup known as Carnation Revolution on 25 April 1974 in Lisbon. In Portugal this lead to a temporary communist government and a collapse of the economy. The communist government was soon overthrown and Portugal converted to a democratic government.^[8] But it would take 30 years and membership of the European Union for the Portuguese economy to recover from the effects of the Carnation revolution. The effects of having to integrate hundreds of thousand of refugees from the colonies (collectively known as retornados), nationalisation of industries and the resultant brain drain due to political intimidation by the government of the entrepreneurial class would cripple the Portuguese economy for decades to come.^[18] Guinea-Bissau - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ... World GDP/capita changed very little for most of human history before the industrial revolution. ... Economic development is the development of economic wealth of countries or regions for the well-being of their inhabitants. ... Estado Novo (Portuguese for New State; pron. ... The Carnation Revolution (Portuguese, Revolução dos Cravos) was an almost bloodless, leftist, military-led coup détat, started on April 25, 1974, in Lisbon, Portugal, that effectively changed the Portuguese regime from an authoritarian dictatorship to a liberal democracy after two years of a transitional period known as PREC... is the 115th day of the year (116th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1974 (MCMLXXIV) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar) of the 1974 Gregorian calendar. ... For other uses, see Lisbon (disambiguation). ... Nationalization is the act of taking assets into state ownership. ...

Monument in Lisbon to Portuguese soldiers killed in Africa (1961-1975).

The war had a profound impact on Portugal - the use of conscription led to the illegal emigration of thousands of young men (mainly to France and the US); it isolated Portugal internationally, effectively brought about the end of the Estado Novo regime and put an end to the 500 + years of Portuguese presence in Africa. Following a trend of the Portuguese, it was the military (the MFA) who led the revolution, and for a brief time (May 1974 - November 1975) the country was on the brink of civil war between left-wing hardliners (Vasco Gonçalves, Otelo Saraiva de Carvalho and others) and the moderate forces (Francisco da Costa Gomes, António Ramalho Eanes and others). The moderates eventually won, preventing Portugal from becoming a communist state.^[19] For other uses, see Lisbon (disambiguation). ... Estado Novo (Portuguese for New State; pron. ... The Movement of the Armed Forces (Movimento das Forças Armadas - MFA) was an organisation of lower-ranked officers in the military which was responsible for the Carnation Revolution of 25 April 1974, coup which ended the corporatist New State in Portugal. ... This article is about the definition of the specific type of war. ... General Vasco dos Santos Gonçalves (pron. ... Otelo Saraiva de Carvalho. ... Francisco da Costa Gomes (pron. ... António dos Santos Ramalho Eanes GColTE, GCL, KE (pron. ... Forms of government Part of the Politics series Politics Portal This box:      This article is about a form of government in which the state operates under the control of a Communist Party. ...

Portugal had been the first European power to establish a colony in Africa when it captured Ceuta in 1415 and now it was one of the last to leave. The departure of the Portuguese from Angola and Mozambique increased the isolation of Rhodesia, where white minority rule ended in 1980 when the territory gained international recognition as the Republic of Zimbabwe with Robert Mugabe as the head of government. The former Portuguese territories in Africa became sovereign states with Agostinho Neto (followed in 1979 by José Eduardo dos Santos) in Angola, Samora Machel (followed in 1986 by Joaquim Chissano) in Mozambique and Luís Cabral (followed in 1983 by Nino Vieira) in Guinea-Bissau, as heads of state. Capital Ceuta City Official language(s) Spanish Area  â€“ Total  â€“ % of Spain Ranked  28 km²   Population  â€“ Total (2006)  â€“ % of Spain  â€“ Density Ranked  75,861    2,709. ... This article is about the former British colony of Southern Rhodesia, todays Zimbabwe. ... A dominant minority is a group that has overwhelming political, economic or cultural dominance in a country or region despite representing a small fraction of the overall population (a demographic minority). ... Mugabe redirects here. ... António Agostinho Neto (September 17, 1922–September 10, Angola (1975–1979), a poet and nationalist leader. ... José Eduardo dos Santos (born August 28, 1942 in Luanda) is the current President, Head of Government, and Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of Angola. ... Samora Machel Samora Moisés Machel (September 29, 1933 – October 19, 1986) was a Mozambican military commander, revolutionary socialist leader and eventual President of Mozambique. ... Joaquim Chissano Joaquim Alberto Chissano (born 22 October 1939) served as the second President of Mozambique for nineteen years from 6 November 1986 until 2 February 2005. ... Luís de Almeida Cabral (born 10 April 1931), the first President of Guinea-Bissau, served from 1973 to 1980, when a military coup détat deposed him. ... João Bernardo Vieira João Bernardo Nino Vieira (born 27 April 1939 in Bissau) has been President of Guinea-Bissau since 1 October 2005. ... A head of state or chief of state is the chief public representative of a nation-state, federation or commonwealth, whose role generally includes personifying the continuity and legitimacy of the state and exercising the political powers, functions and duties granted to the head of state in the countrys...

The end of the war after the Carnation Revolution military coup of April 1974 in Lisbon, resulted in the exodus of thousands of Portuguese citizens, including military personnel, of European, African and mixed ethnicity from the newly-independent African territories to Portugal. Devastating civil wars also followed in Angola and Mozambique, which lasted several decades and claimed millions of lives and refugees.^[3] The former colonies became worse off after independence. Economic and social recession, corruption, poverty, inequality and failed central planning, eroded the initial impetus of nationalistic fervor. A level of economic development comparable to what had existed under Portuguese rule, became the goal of the independent territories. There was black racism in the former overseas provinces through the use of hatred against both ethnic Portuguese and many mulatto Africans.^[4] After departure of the Portuguese, and following independence, local soldiers that fought along with the Portuguese Army against the independence guerrillas were slaughtered by the thousands. A small number escaped to Portugal or to other African nations. The most famous massacre occurred in Bissorã, Guinea-Bissau. In 1980 PAIGC admitted in its newspaper "Nó Pintcha" (dated 29/11/1980) that many were executed and buried in unmarked collective graves in the woods of Cumerá, Portogole and Mansabá. The Carnation Revolution (Portuguese, Revolução dos Cravos) was an almost bloodless, leftist, military-led coup détat, started on April 25, 1974, in Lisbon, Portugal, that effectively changed the Portuguese regime from an authoritarian dictatorship to a liberal democracy after two years of a transitional period known as PREC... For other uses, see Lisbon (disambiguation). ... Manifestations Slavery Racial profiling Lynching Hate speech Hate crime Genocide (examples) Ethnocide Ethnic cleansing Pogrom Race war Religious persecution Blood libel Paternalism Police brutality Movements Policies Discriminatory Race / Religion / Sex segregation Apartheid Redlining Internment Ethnocracy Anti-discriminatory Emancipation Civil rights Desegregation Integration Equal opportunity Counter-discriminatory Affirmative action Racial quota... Portuguese Army troops heading for Angola, during World War I. Portuguese Army troops in the jungle, during the 1960s and 1970s Colonial Wars in Africa. ... Bissorã is a town located in the Oio Region of Guinea-Bissau. ... The African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (Portuguese: Partido Africano da Independência da Guiné e Cabo Verde), or PAIGC, was an organisation founed in Portuguese Guinea (today Guinea-Bissau) by the Marxist Amílcar Cabral in 1956, with the aim of achieving independence for Cape...

Economic consequences of the war

Evolution of the expenditure of the Portuguese state with the military during the war

See also: Economic history of Portugal

The Government budget increased significantly during the war years. The country's expenditure on the armed forces ballooned since the beginning of the war in 1961. The expenses were divided into ordinary and extraordinary ones; the latter were the main factor in the huge increase in the military budget. Since the rise of Marcelo Caetano, after Salazar's incapacitation, spending on military forces increased even further.^{[citation needed]} Image File history File links Nt-DE_das_FA_e_Estado. ... Image File history File links Nt-DE_das_FA_e_Estado. ... ĢÕãÒòùäÊŞ Ă ßõî ŔûñÑèđ òΝ ýëŗ pæŇţž This page may meet Wikipedias criteria for speedy deletion. ... Marcelo Caetano Marcelo José das Neves Alves Caetano also spelled Marcello Caetano (pron. ...

It is often stated that war in the colonies was having a severe impact but the accuracy of these statements have to be questioned. Especially in light of the vast natural resources of Angola. To put this in context prior to the Carnation Revolution - Angola was one of the largest oil producers in Africa. With the oil shock of 1974 - oil alone could have easily paid for the war in all of the colonies. The former overseas provinces of Portugal in Africa, had a large variety of important natural resources like oil, natural gas, diamonds, aluminium, hydroelectric power capacity, forests and fertile arable lands. In some areas of Portuguese Africa, these huge resource stock, despite its wide availabiblity, was barely exploited by the early 1970s, but its potential future use was already anticipated by all parts involved in the conflict, including the world's cold war superpowers. In fact, both oil extraction and diamond mining would play a huge financial and funding role in the decades long civil war that would cost millions of lives and refugees in post-independence Angola^[20] and which would primarily benefit the despotic post-independence rulers of the country, the USA (then Gulf Oil what is now called ChevronTexaco) and the Soviet Union. The Carnation Revolution (Portuguese, Revolução dos Cravos) was an almost bloodless, leftist, military-led coup détat, started on April 25, 1974, in Lisbon, Portugal, that effectively changed the Portuguese regime from an authoritarian dictatorship to a liberal democracy after two years of a transitional period known as PREC... Synthetic motor oil being poured. ... The 1973 oil crisis began on October 17, 1973, when the members of Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC, consisting of the Arab members of OPEC plus Egypt and Syria) announced, as a result of the ongoing Yom Kippur War, that they would no longer ship oil to nations... For other uses, see Natural gas (disambiguation). ... This article is about the mineral. ... Aluminum redirects here. ... Hydroelectric dam diagram The waters of Llyn Stwlan, the upper reservoir of the Ffestiniog Pumped-Storage Scheme in north Wales, can just be glimpsed on the right. ... This article is about a community of trees. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... For other uses, see Cold War (disambiguation). ... Superpowers redirects here. ... An oil well is seen in Texas. ... This article is about the mineral. ... Despotism is government by a singular authority, either a single person or tightly knit group, which rules with absolute power. ... Motto: (traditional) In God We Trust (official, 1956–present) Anthem: The Star-Spangled Banner Capital Washington, D.C. Largest city New York City Official language(s) None at the federal level; English de facto Government Federal Republic  - President George W. Bush (R)  - Vice President Dick Cheney (R) Independence - Declared - Recognized... Gulf Oil was a major global oil company from the 1900s to the 1980s. ... ChevronTexaco Corporation ( NYSE: CVX) is one of the worlds largest global energy companies. ...

The African territories became worse off after independence. The deterioration in central planning effectiveness, economic development and growth, security, education and health system efficiency, was rampant. None of the newly independent African States made any significant progress economically or social economically in the following decades. Almost all sank at the bottom of human development and GDP per capita world tables. After a few years, the former colonies had reached high levels of corruption, poverty, inequality and social imbalances.^[4] A planned economy is an economic system in which decisions about the production, allocation and consumption of goods and services are planned ahead of time, usually in a centralized fashion, though some proposed systems favour decentralized planning. ... Economic development is the development of economic wealth of countries or regions for the well-being of their inhabitants. ... Human development may refer to: Human development (biology) Human development (psychology) see Developmental psychology Occasionally, it may refer to both, but because each of these is already an immense area, few if any contemporary academic discussions attempt to tackle both with any completeness. ... Gross Domestic Product (GDP), a calculation method in national accounting (see Measures of national income and output) is defined as the total value of final goods and services produced within a countrys borders in a year, regardless of ownership. ... A boy from Jakarta, Indonesia shows his find. ... This article is about inequalities in mathematics. ...

In mainland Portugal, the coup itself was led by junior officers - which implies that the better informed senior officers did not believe the war was lost or that the economy was in severe crises.^[8] A further illustration would be to compare the economic growth rates of Portugal in the war years 6%- to post war years 2-3%. This is substantially higher than the vast majority of other European nations (and much higher than what Portugal has actually been able to achieve after the war). Other indicators like GDP as percentage of Western Europe would indicate that Portugal was rapidly catching up to its European neighbours. It would take almost 30 years for Portugal reach the same level of GDP as a percentage of Western Europe GDP averages as it had during the war.^{[citation needed]} Continental Portugal (Portuguese: Portugal Continental) is the designation of the mainland Portugal territory, in the Iberian Peninsula, located in the Continental Europe. ...

The impact of the military coup in Lisbon on the Portuguese economy in areas as diverse as shipping, chemical industry, finance, agriculture, mining and defence, was extremely negative. The communist inspired military coup and the chaotic abandonment of the Portuguese territories in Africa had a more severe, devastating and lasting impact on both Portugal and its overseas territories than the actual Colonial War. Without one single exception - all the overseas territories were economically and socially worse off after independence than prior to independence.^{[citation needed]}

It would take several decades and joining of the European Community before the Portuguese economy would see any signs of recovering. To date, it has not matched growth rates achieved during the Colonial war.^[21][22]

See also

• Angolan War of Independence
• Guinea-Bissau War of Independence
• Mozambican War of Independence
• Operation Gordian Knot
• Rhodesian Bush War
• South African Border War
• Carnation Revolution
• Comandos
• Special Operations Troops Centre
• Parachute Troops School
• Portuguese Marine Corps
• Portuguese Armed Forces
• Military history of Africa
• Operation Vijay (1961) (Portuguese India)
• Angolan Civil War
• Mozambican Civil War

Portugal was the leading country in the European exploration of the world in the 15th century. ...

References

JSTOR®, begun in 1995, is an online system for archiving academic journals. ... Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz (born on August 13, 1926) is the current President of Cuba but on indefinite medical hiatus. ... Erich Honecker (August 25, 1912 – May 29, 1994) was a German Communist politician who led the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) from 1971 until 1989. ... The Cable News Network, commonly known as CNN, is a major cable television network founded in 1980 by Ted Turner. ... JSTOR®, begun in 1995, is an online system for archiving academic journals. ... For other uses, see Cold War (disambiguation). ... The Cable News Network, commonly known as CNN, is a major cable television network founded in 1980 by Ted Turner. ... Fidel Castro and Raúl Castro Raúl Castro Ruz (born June 3, 1931) is a Cuban politician and revolutionary, the brother of Fidel Castro. ... The Cable News Network, commonly known as CNN, is a major cable television network founded in 1980 by Ted Turner. ... The ISCTE - Instituto Superior de Ciências do Trabalho e da Empresa, in Lisbon, is a public university institute which offers courses in Management, Anthropology, Sociology, History, Economics and Psychology. ... The University of Coimbra (Portuguese: Universidade de Coimbra) is a Portuguese public university in Coimbra, Portugal. ... The headquarters of the Cambridge University Press, in Trumpington Street, Cambridge. ... Kaúlza de Arriaga (January 18, 1915 - February 3, 2004) was a Portuguese general, writer, professor and politician. ... Kaúlza de Arriaga (January 18, 1915 - February 3, 2004) was a Portuguese general, writer, professor and politician. ... António Sebastião Ribeiro Spínola, GCTE (pron. ... Kaúlza de Arriaga (January 18, 1915 - February 3, 2004) was a Portuguese general, writer, professor and politician. ... Aveiro University is a Portuguese public university located in Aveiro, and created in 1973. ... The University of Beira Interior is a Portuguese university located in Covilhã, Castelo Branco district, created in 1979. ... (Clockwise from upper left) Time magazine covers from May 7, 1945; July 25, 1969; December 31, 1999; September 14, 2001; and April 21, 2003. ... JSTOR®, begun in 1995, is an online system for archiving academic journals. ... The University of Beira Interior is a Portuguese university located in Covilhã, Castelo Branco district, created in 1979. ... Aveiro University is a Portuguese public university located in Aveiro, and created in 1973. ...

Bibliography

• Kaúlza de Arriaga - Published works of the General Kaúlza de Arriaga
• Becket, Ian et all., A Guerra no Mundo, Guerras e Guerrilhas desde 1945, Lisboa, Verbo, 1983
• Marques, A. H. de Oliveira, História de Portugal, 6ª ed., Lisboa, Palas Editora, Vol. III, 1981
• Mattoso, José, História Contemporânea de Portugal, Lisboa, Amigos do Livro, 1985, «Estado Novo», Vol. II e «25 de Abril», vol. único
• Mattoso, José, História de Portugal, Lisboa, Ediclube, 1993, vols. XIII e XIV
• Pakenham, Thomas, The Scramble for Africa, Abacus, 1991 ISBN 0-349-10449-2
• Reis, António, Portugal Contemporâneo, Lisboa, Alfa, Vol. V, 1989;
• Rosas, Fernando e Brito, J. M. Brandão, Dicionário de História do Estado Novo, Venda Nova, Bertrand Editora, 2 vols. 1996
• Vários autores, Guerra Colonial, edição do Diário de Notícias
• Jornal do Exército, Lisboa, Estado-Maior do Exército
• Cann, John P, Counterinsurgency in Africa: The Portuguese Way of War, 1961-1974, Hailer Publishing, 2005

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