The bust of Posidonius as an older man depects his character as a Stoic philosopher. His brow is slightly creased to indicate the effort of thinking, but his expression is calm. His hair and philosopher’s beard are cut short and groomed plainly to indicate his concern with matters deeper than mere appearance.

Posidonius (Greek: Ποσειδώνιος) "of Rhodes" (ο Ροδος) or, alternatively, "of Apameia" (ο Απαμεύς) (ca. 135 BCE - 51 BCE), was a Greek Stoic philosopher, politician, astronomer, geographer, historian, and teacher. He was acclaimed as the greatest polymath of his age. Next to his teacher Panaetius of Rhodes, he did most, by writings and personal contacts, to spread Stoicism in the Roman world. The word Greek has a number of meanings relating to Greece, including: Architecture of Ancient Greece Art in Ancient Greece Greek alphabet Greek colonies Cuisine of Greece Greek salad Ethnic Greek Greco-Turkish relations Greece The Greek People Greek-Americans History of Greece History of Mycenaean Greece History of Ancient... This article is about the Greek island of Rhodes. ... (Redirected from 135 BCE) Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC 140s BC - 130s BC - 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC 80s BC Years: 140 BC 139 BC 138 BC 137 BC 136 BC - 135 BC... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 100s BC 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC - 50s BC - 40s BC 30s BC 20s BC 10s BC 0s BC Years: 56 BC 55 BC 54 BC 53 BC 52 BC 51 BC 50 BC 49 BC 48... Ancient Greece is the term used to describe the Greek-speaking world in ancient times. ... Stoicism is a school of philosophy commonly associated with such Greek philosophers as Zeno of Citium, Cleanthes, or Chrysippus and with such later Romans as Cicero, Seneca, Marcus Aurelius, and Epictetus. ... A philosopher is a person devoted to studying and producing results in philosophy. ... Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ... A geographer is a scientist whose area of study is geography, the study of the physical environment and human habitat. ... Generally speaking, a historian is a person who studies history. ... Categories: Renaissance | Stub ...

Life

Posidonius (also spelled Poseidonius), nicknamed "the Athlete", was born to a Greek family in Apamea, a Roman city on the river Orontes in northern Syria, and probably died in Rome or Rhodes. The Orontes or ‘Asi is a river of Lebanon and Syria. ... The Syrian Arab Republic or Syria is a country in the Middle East, bordering (from south to north) on Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, Iraq and Turkey. ... The Roman Colosseum Rome (Italian and Latin Roma) is the capital city of Italy, and of its Lazio region. ... This article is about the Greek island of Rhodes. ...

Posidonius completed his higher education in Athens, where he was a student of the aged Panaetius, the head of the Stoic school. The Acropolis in central Athens, one of the most important landmarks in world history. ...

He settled around 95 BCE in Rhodes, a maritime state which had a reputation for scientific research, and became a citizen.

Political Offices

In Rhodes, Posidonius actively took part in political life, and his high standing is apparent from the offices he held. He attained the highest public office as one of the prytaneis (presidents, having a six months tenure) of Rhodes. He served as an ambassador to Rome in 87 - 86 BCE, during the Marian and Sullan era. The prytaneis (literally presidents) of ancient Athens were members of the boule chosen to perform executive tasks during their term (a prytany), which lasted about one month and then was rotated to other members of the boule. ...

Posidonius, along with other Greek intellectuals, favored Rome as the stabilizing power in a turbulent world. His connections to the Roman ruling class was for him not only politically important and sensible but was also important to his scientific researches. His entry into the highest government circles enabled Posidonius to underake his travels into the west beyond the borders of Roman control, which, for a Greek traveler, would have been impossible without such Roman support,

Travels

After he had established himself in Rhodes, Posidonius made one or more journeys traveling throughout the Roman world and even beyond its boundaries to conduct scientific research. He traveled in Greece, Spain, Africa, Italy, Sicily, Dalmatia, Gaul, Liguria, North Africa, and on the eastern shores of the Adriatic. Greece, officaly called the Hellenic Republic (Greek: Ελληνική Δημοκρατία), is a country in the southeast of Europe on the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula. ... The Kingdom of Spain or Spain (Spanish and Galician: Reino de España or España; Catalan: Regne dEspanya; Basque: Espainiako Erresuma) is a country located in the southwest of Europe. ... The Italian Republic or Italy (Italian: Repubblica Italiana or Italia) is a country in southern Europe. ... Sicily (Sicilia in Italian) is an autonomous region of Italy and the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, with an area of 25,700 sq. ... Dalmatia ( Croatian Dalmacija, Italian Dalmazia, Serbian Далмација) is a region of Croatia on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea, spreading between the island of Pag in the northwest and the Bay of Kotor in the southeast. ... Gallia (in English Gaul) is the Latin name for the region of western Europe occupied by present-day France, Belgium, western Switzerland and the parts of the Netherlands and Germany on the west bank of the Rhine river. ... Liguria is a coastal region of north-western Italy, the third smallest of the Italian regions. ... Categories: Africa geography stubs | North Africa ... The Adriatic Sea is an arm of the Mediterranean Sea separating the Apennine peninsula (Italy) from the Balkan peninsula, and the system of the Apennine Mountains from that of the Dinaric Alps and adjacent ranges. ...

In Spain, on the Atlantic coast at Glades (the modern Cadiz), Posidonius studied the tides. He observed that the daily tides were connected with the orbit and the monthly tides with the cycles of the Moon , and he hypothesized about the connections of the yearly cycles of the tides with the equinoxes and solstices. This article is about the Spanish city. ... For other moons in the solar system see natural satellite. ...

In Gaul, he studied the Celts. He left vivid descriptions of things he saw with his own eyes: men who were paid to allow their throats to be slit for public amusement and the nailing of skulls as trophies to the doorways. But he noted that the Celts honored the Druids, whom Posidonius saw as philosophers, and concluded that even among the barbaric 'pride and passion give way to wisdom, and Ares stands in awe of the Muses'. Posidonius wrote a geographic treatise on the lands of the Celts which has since been lost, but which has been assumed to be one of the sources for Tacitus Germania. This article is about the European people. ... Druidry or Druidism was the religion of the ancient druids, the priestly class in ancient Celtic and Gallic societies through much of Western Europe north of the Alps and in the British Isles. ... This article is about the European people. ... This article is about the historian Tacitus. ... The Germania (Latin title: De Origine et situ Germanorum), written by Gaius Cornelius Tacitus around 98, is an ethnographic work on the diverse set of Germanic tribes outside the Roman Empire. ...

School

Posidonius's extensive writings and lectures gave him authority as a scholar and made him famous everywhere in the Graeco-Roman world, and a school grew around him in Rhodes. His grandson Jason, who was the son of his daughter and Menekrates of Nysa, followed in his footsteps and continued Posidonius's school in Rhodes. Although little is known of the organization of his school, it is clear that Posidonius had a steady stream of Greek and Roman students. Nysa disambiguation: Nysa was a mythical place in Greek mythology where the young god Dionysus was raised. ...

Partial Scope of Writings

Posidonius was celebrated as a polymath throughout the Greco-Roman world because he came near to mastering all the knowledge of his time, similar to Aristotle and Eratosthenes. He attempted to create a unified system for understanding the human intellect and the universe which would provide an explanation of and a guide for human behavior. Aristotle (sculpture) Aristotle ( Greek: Αριστοτέλης Aristotelēs) ( 384 BC – March 7, 322 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher. ... Eratosthenes (Ερατοσθένης) Eratosthenes (Ερατοσθένης) (276 BC - 194 BC) was a Greek mathematician, geographer and astronomer with (probably) Chaldean origins. ...

Posidonius wrote on physics (including, meterology and physical geography), astronomy, astrology and divination, seismology, geology and mineralogy, hydrology, botany, ethics, logic, mathematics, history, natural history, anthropology, and tactics. His studies were major investigations into their subjects, although not without errors. Most of his works are now lost, and survive only in fragments, although the titles and subjects are still known.[1]  (http://assets.cambridge.org/052160/4419/toc/0521604419_toc.pdf)

Philosophy

For Posidonius, philosophy was the dominant master art and all the individual sciences were subordinate to philosophy, which alone could explain the cosmos. All his works, from scientific to historical, were inseparably philosophical.

He accepted the Stoic categorization of philosophy into physics (natural philosophy, including metaphysics and theology, logic (including dialectic), and ethics. These three categoies for him were, in Stoic fashion, inseparable and interdependent parts of an organic, natural whole. He compared them to a living being, with physics the meat and blood, logic the bones and tendons which held the organism together, and ethics - the most important part - the soul.

Although a firm Stoic, Posidonius was, like Panaetius and other Stoics of the middle period, eclectic. He followed not only the older Stoics, but Plato and Aristotle. Although it is not certain, Posidonius may have written a commentary on Plato's Timaeus. Stoicism is a school of philosophy commonly associated with such Greek philosophers as Zeno of Citium, Cleanthes, or Chrysippus and with such later Romans as Cicero, Seneca, Marcus Aurelius, and Epictetus. ... For the computing technology, see PLATO System. ... Aristotle (sculpture) Aristotle ( Greek: Αριστοτέλης Aristotelēs) ( 384 BC – March 7, 322 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher. ... Timaeus (c. ...

He was the first Stoic to depart from the orthodox doctrine that passions were faulty judgments and posit that Plato's view of the soul had been correct, namely that passions were inherent in human nature. In addition to the rational faculties, Posidonius taught that the human soul had faculties that were spirited (anger, desires for power, possessions, etc.) and desiderative (desires for sex and food). Ethics was the problem of how to deal with these passions and restore reason as the dominant faculty.

Posidonius upheld the Stoic doctrine of Logos, which ultimately passed into Judeo-Christian belief. Posidonius also affirmed the Stoic doctrine of the future conflagration. This page is only about the meaning of the word Logos in (ancient Greek) philosophy (prefiguring the meaning of this word in more recent psychological schools) and its meaning in (early) Christianity - for other uses of the word Logos (as proper name, etc. ... Judeo-Christian tradition (also spelled Judaeo-Christian) is the body of concepts and values held in common by Christianity and Judaism. ...

Physics

In Stoic physics, Posidonius advocated a theory of cosmic "sympathy", the organic interrelation of all appearances in the world, from the sky to the earth, as part of a rational design uniting humanity and all things in the universe. Although Panaetius had doubted divination, Posidonius accepted divination as a kind of scientific prediction.

Astronomy

Some fragments of his writings on astronomy survive through the treatise by Cleomedes On the Circular Motions of the Celestial Bodies, the first chapter of the second book appearing to be have been mostly copied from Posidonius.

Posidonius advanced the theory that the Sun eminated a vital force which permeated the world.

He attempted to measure the distance and size of the Sun. In about 90 BCE Posidonius estimated the astronomical unit to be a₀/r_E = 9893, which was still too small by half. In measuring the size of the Sun, however, he reached a figure larger and more accurate than those proposed by other Greek astronomers and Aristarchus. The Sun (occasionally referred to as Sol) is the star at the centre of our solar system. ... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 140s BC 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC - 90s BC - 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC Years: 95 BC 94 BC 93 BC 92 BC 91 BC - 90 BC - 89 BC 88 BC 87... The astronomical unit (AU or au or a. ... Aristarchus (310 BC _ circa 230 BC) was a Greek astronomer and mathematician, born in Samos, Greece. ...

Posidonius also calculated the size and distance of the Moon. For other moons in the solar system see natural satellite. ...

Posidonius constructed an orrery, which exhibited the diurnal motions of the sun, moon, and the five known planets. An orrery is a mechanical device that illustrates the relative positions and motions of the planets and moons in the solar system in heliocentric model. ...

Geography and Geology

Posidonius measured Earth's circumference from the position of the star Canopus. As explained by Cleomedes, Posidonius used the elevation of Canopus, to determine the difference in latitude between Rhodes and Alexandria. Due to observational errors, his result was was 240,000 stadia, or about a third smaller than the actual circumfrance of the Earth.[2] (http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Distances.htm) Earth, also known as the Earth or Terra, is the third planet outward from the Sun. ... Canopus has a number of meanings, including the following: Canopus, or Alpha Carinae, is the brightest star in the southern constellation of Carina. ... Introduction Many systems of weights and measures have existed throughout history in different civilisations. ...

Like Pytheas, he believed the tide is caused by the Moon. Posidonius was, however, wrong about the cause. Thinking that the Moon was a mixture of air and fire, he attributed the cause of the tides to the heat of the Moon, hot enough to cause the water to swell but not hot enough to evaporate it. Pytheas (c. ... This article is about tides in the ocean. ... For other moons in the solar system see natural satellite. ...

He recorded observations on earthquakes and volcanoes, including accounts of the eruptions of the volcanoes in the Aeolian Islands, north of Sicily. The Aeolian Islands (Italian Isole Eolie) lie to the north of Sicily and are in the summer a main tourist resort, attracting up to 200,000 visitors. ... Sicily (Sicilia in Italian) is an autonomous region of Italy and the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, with an area of 25,700 sq. ...

Meteorology

Posidonius in his writings on meterology followed Aristotle. He theorized on the causes of clouds, mist, wind, and rain as well as frost, hail, lightning, and rainbows.

Mathematics

In addition to his writings on geometry, Posidonius was credited for creating some mathematical definitions, or for articulting views on technical terms, for example 'theorem' and 'problem'.

History and Tactics

In his Histories, Posidonius continued the World History of Polybius. His history of the period 146 - 88 BCE is said to have filled 52 volumes. His Histories continue the account of the rise and expansion of Roman dominance, which he appears to have supported. Posidonius did not follow Polybius's more detached and factual style, for Posidonius saw events as caused by human psychology; while he understood human passions and follies, he did not pardon or excuse them in his historical writing, using using his narrative skill in fact to enlist the readers' approval or condemnation. Polybius (ca 203 BC - 120 BC) was a Greek historian of the Mediterranean world, especially the rise of the Roman Republic, which he attributed to Roman fitness and to the excellence of Roman civic and military institutions. ...

Of Posidonius's work on tactics, The Art of War, the Roman historian Arrian complained that it was written 'for experts', which suggests that Posidonius may have had first hand experience of military leadership or, perhaps, utilized knowledge he gained from his acquaintance with Pompey. Lucius Flavius Arrianus Xenophon (c 92-c 175), known in English as Arrian, was a Roman historian. ... This article refers to the Roman General. ...

Reputation and Influence

Although his ornate and rhetorical style of writing passed out of fashion soon after his death, Posidonius was aclaimed during his life for his literary ability and as a stylist. In his own era, his writings on almost all the principal divisions of philosophy made Posidonius a renowned international figure throughout the Graeco-Roman world and he was widely cited by writers of his era, including Cicero, Livy, Plutarch, Strabo (who called Posidonius "the most learned of all philosophers of my time"), Cleomedes, Seneca the Younger, and others. For other uses see Cicero (disambiguation) Marcus Tullius Cicero (January 3, 106 BC - December 7, 43 BC) was an orator and statesman of Ancient Rome, and is generally considered the greatest Latin prose stylist. ... Titus Livius (around 59 BC - 17 AD), known as Livy in English, wrote a monumental history of Rome, Ab Urbe Condita, from its founding (traditionally dated to 753 BC). ... Mestrius Plutarch (c. ... Strabo (squinty) was a term employed by the Romans for anyone whose eyes were distorted or deformed. ... Seneca has several significant meanings: Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Seneca tribe Seneca crater Seneca (plant) Seneca College, Toronto, Ontario Places in the United States of America: Seneca, Pennsylvania Seneca, South Carolina Seneca, Wisconsin Seneca County, New York Seneca, New York Seneca Lake Seneca Falls (village), New York Senecaville...

Posidonius appears to have moved with ease among the upper echelons of Roman society as an ambassador from Rhodes. He associated with some of the leading figures of late republican Rome, including Cicero and Pompey, both of whom visited him in Rhodes. In his twenties, Cicero attended his lectures (77 BCE) and they continued to correspond. Cicero in his De Finibus closely followed Posidonius's presentation of Panaetius's ethical teachings. Posidonius met Pompey when he was Rhodes's ambassador in Rome and Pompey visited him in Rhodes twice, once in 66 BCE during his campaign against the pirates and again in 62 BCE during his eastern campaigns, and asked Posidonius to write his biography. As a gesture of respect and great honor, Pompey lowered his fasces before Posidonius's door. Other Romans who visited Posidonius in Rhodes were Velleius, Cotta, and Lucilius. For other uses see Cicero (disambiguation) Marcus Tullius Cicero (January 3, 106 BC - December 7, 43 BC) was an orator and statesman of Ancient Rome, and is generally considered the greatest Latin prose stylist. ... Fasces on the reverse of the US dime A statue of Cincinnatus, returning the Roman fasces The fasces lictoriae (bundles of the lictors) (in Italian, fascio littorio) were, in ancient Rome, a symbol of power and authority (imperium). ... Lucilius is the nomen of the gens Lucilia of ancient Rome. ...

Ptolemy was impressed by the sophistication of Posidonius's methods, which included correcting for the refraction of light passing through denser air near the horizon. Ptolemy's approval of Posidonius's result, rather than Eratosthenes's earlier and more correct figure, caused it to become the accepted value for the Earth's circumference for the next 1,500 years. This article is about the geographer and astronomer Ptolemy. ...

Posidonius fortified the Stoicism of the middle period with contemporary learning. A century later, Seneca referred to Posidonius as one of those who had made the largest contribution to philosophy.

His influence on philosophical thinking lasted until the Middle Ages, as is shown by citation in the Suda, the massive medieval lexicon. Suda (Σουδα or alternatively Suidas) is the name of a massive medieval lexicon, not an author as was formerly supposed. ... The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times, beginning with the Renaissance. ... A lexicon is a list of words together with additional word-specific information, i. ...

At one time, scholars perceived Posidonius's influence in almost every subsequent writer, whether warranted or not. Today, Posidonius seems to be recognized as having had an inquiring and wide-ranging mind, not entirely original, but with a breadth of view that connected, in accordance with his underlying Stoic philosophy, all things and their causes and all knowledge into an overarching, unified world view.

The Posidonius crater on the Moon is named for him. Posidonius is a lunar impact crater that is located on the western edge of Mare Serenitatis, to the south of Lacus Somniorum. ... For other moons in the solar system see natural satellite. ...

References

• Posidonius  (http://32.1911encyclopedia.org/P/PO/POSIDONIUS.htm) (from the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica)
• E. Vernon Arnold, Roman Stoicism (http://www.geocities.com/stoicvoice/authors.htm), 1911.
• Edwyn Bevan, Stoics and Skeptics. ISBN: 0890053642, 1913.
• I.G. Kidd, Posidonius: Volume 3, The Translation of the Fragments. ISBN: 0521604419, 1999.
• Prof. Dr. Juergen Malitz, Poseidonios  (http://www.gnomon.ku-eichstaett.de/LAG/poseidonios.html) from Grosse Gestalten der griechischen Antike. 58 historische Portraits von Homer bis Kleopatra. Hrsg. von Kai Brodersen. München: Verlag C.H. Beck. S. 426-432.
• F.H. Sandbach, The Stoics, 2nd ed. ISBN: 0872202534, 1994.

(Redirected from 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica) The Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica (1911) in many ways represents the sum of knowledge at the beginning of the 20th century. ...

External links

• Theosophy Library Online page: http://theosophy.org/tlodocs/teachers/PosidoniusOfApamea.htm
• Technology Museum of Thessaloniki page http://www.tmth.edu.gr/en/aet/7/82.html

This article incorporates text from the public domain 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica. The White Tower The Arch of Galerius Map showing the Thessaloníki prefecture Thessaloníki (Θεσσαλονίκη) is the second-largest city of Greece and is the principal city and the capital of the Greek region of Macedonia. ... The public domain comprises the body of all creative works and other knowledge—writing, artwork, music, science, inventions, and others—in which no person or organization has any proprietary interest. ... The Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica ( 1911) in many ways represents the sum of knowledge at the beginning of the 20th century. ...