In linguistics and logic, a predicate is an expression that can be true of something. Thus, the expressions "yellow" or "likes broccoli" are true of those things that are yellow or like broccoli, respectively. Broadly conceived, linguistics is the scientific study of human language, and a linguist is someone who engages in this study. ... Logic (from Classical Greek λόγος (logos), originally meaning the word, or what is spoken, but coming to mean thought or reason) is most often said to be the study of arguments, although the exact definition of logic is a matter of controversy amongst philosophers (see below). ...

Predicate in traditional grammar

In traditional grammar, a predicate is one of the two main parts of a sentence (the other being the subject, which the predicate modifies). The predicate must contain a verb and can contain objects or phrases governed by the verb. The predicate provides information about the subject, such as what the subject is doing or what the subject is like. Grammar is the study of the rules governing the use of a language. ... In linguistics, the sentence is a unit of language, characterised in most languages by the presence of a finite verb. ... The subject of a sentence is one of the two main parts of a sentence, the other being the predicate. ... A verb is a part of speech that usually denotes action (bring, read), occurrence (to decompose (itself), to glitter), or a state of being (exist, live, soak, stand). Depending on the language, a verb may vary in form according to many factors, possibly including its tense, aspect, mood and voice. ... In linguistics, the object of a transitive verb is one of its core arguments, which generally represents the target of the verbs action. ... A phrase is a group of words that functions as a single unit in the syntax of a sentence. ...

The relation between a subject and its predicate is sometimes called a nexus. The term Nexus (Latin origin) may mean: a place of being connected, something that connects two objects in a group, a connection between two things. ...

A Predicate Nominal is a noun phrase that functions as the main predicate of a sentence, such as "George III is the king of England", the king of England being the Predicate Nominal. The subject and predicate nominal must be connected by a linking verb, also called a copula. In linguistics, a noun phrase is a phrase whose Head is a noun. ... In linguistics, a copula is a word that is used to link the subject of a sentence with a predicate (a subject complement or an adverbial). ... The word copula originates from the Latin noun for a link or tie that connects two different things. ...

A Predicate Adjective is an adjective that functions as a predicate, such as "Jenny is attractive", attractive being the Predicate. The subject and predicate adjective must be connected by a linking verb, also called copula. Some adjectives can't function as a predicate: They can only occur in attributive position. Examples include "main" and "former" (a "*" in front of an expression indicates that it is ungrammatical): An adjective is a part of speech which modifies a noun, usually making its meaning more specific. ... In linguistics, a copula is a word that is used to link the subject of a sentence with a predicate (a subject complement or an adverbial). ... The word copula originates from the Latin noun for a link or tie that connects two different things. ...

This is the main reason

*This reason is main.

This is the former president.

*This president is former.

Other adjectives can only be predicative, i.e. they can't occur in attributive position. An example of this is "alone":

This man is alone.

*This is an alone man.

Most adjectives can occur in both predicative and attributive position.

Secondary Predicates

A secondary predicate, as the name suggests, is a predicate which is additional to the "primary" predicate of the sentence. In the following sentence, the adjective "naked" is a secondary predicate.

He met them naked.

The entire phrase "met them naked" is the primary predicate (some grammarians would reserve that term for "met them" in this case). The secondary predicate in this case is ambiguous between standing in a nexus with the subject of the sentence or with the object of the sentence. In the first interpretation, the subject "he" is interpreted as being naked, and in the second, object nexus interpretation, the object "them" is attributed nudity. If we have two secondary predicates in the same sentence, they will appear in a particular order, i.e. the one closer to the object must stand in a nexus with that, while the one further from the object must stand in a nexus with the subject of the sentence:

John met them naked alone.

In this sentence, John must be interpreted as being alone and "them" is interpreted as being naked. The opposite constellation is impossible.

Another name often used for secondary predicates is depictive adjunct.

Classes of predicates

Carlson classes

After the work of Greg Carlson, predicates have been divided into the following sub-classes, which roughly pertain to how a predicate relates to its subject:

Stage-level predicates

A stage-level predicate ("s-l predicate" for short) is true of a temporal stage of its subject. For example, if John is "hungry", that typically lasts a certain amount of time, and not his entire lifespan.

S-l predicates can occur in a wide range of grammatical constructions and is probably the most versatile kind of predicate.

Individual-level predicates

An individual-level predicate ("i-l predicate") is true throughout the existence of an individual. For example, if John is "smart", this is a property of him, regardless which particular point in time we consider.

I-l predicates are more restricted than s-l ones. I-l predicates can't occur in presentational "there" sentences (a star in front of a sentence indicates that it is odd or ill-formed):

There are firemen available. ("available" is s-l)

*There are firemen altruistic. ("altruistic" is i-l)

S-l predicates allow modification by manner adverbs and other adverbial modifiers. I-l ones do not.

John spoke French loudly in the corridor. ("speak French" can be interpreted as s-l)

*John knew French loudly in the corridor. ("know French" can't be interpreted as s-l)

When an i-l predicate occurs in past tense, it gives rise to what is called a "lifetime effect": The subject must be assumed to be dead or otherwise gone out of existence. The past tense is a verb tense expressing action, activity, state or being in the past. ...

John was available. (s-l no lifetime effect)

John was altruistic. (i-l lifetime effect.)

Kind-level predicates

A kind-level predicate ("k-l predicate") is true of a kind of thing, but cannot be applied to individual members of the kind. An example of this is the predicate "are widespread." One can't meaningfully say of a particular individual John that he is widespread. One may only say this of kinds, as in

Humans are widespread.

Certain types of noun phrase can't be the subject of a k-l predicate. We have just seen that a proper name can't be. Singular indefinite noun phrases are also banned from this environment: In linguistics, a noun phrase is a phrase whose Head is a noun. ... A proper name [is] a word that answers the purpose of showing what thing it is that we are talking about writes John Stuart Mill in A System of Logic (1. ... The word singular may refer to one of several concepts. ... An article is a word that is put next to a noun to indicate the type of reference being made to the noun. ...

*A nightmare is widespread. (compare: Nightmares are widespread.)

Collective vs. distributive predicates

Predicates may also be collective or distributive. Collective predicates require their subjects to be somehow plural, while distributive ones don't. An example of a collective predicate is "formed a line". This predicate can only stand in a nexus with a plural subject:

The students formed a line.

*The student formed a line.

Other examples of collective predicates include "meet in the woods", "surround the house", "gather in the hallway" and "carry the piano together". Note that the last one ("carry the piano together") can be made non-collective by removing the word "together". Quantifiers differ with respect to whether or not they can be the subject of a collective predicate. For example, quantifiers formed with "all the" can, while ones formed with "every" or "each" cannot. In language and logic, quantification is a construct that specifies the extent of validity of a predicate, that is the extent to which a predicate holds over a range of things. ...

All the students formed a line.

All the students gathered in the hallway.

All the students carried a piano together.

*Each student gathered in the hallway.

*Every student formed a line.

Vendler classes

The philosopher Zeno Vendler came up with an aspectual classification of verbs, roughly having to do with how they present the temporal span of the events they refer to. After the work of the Dutch semanticist Henk Verkuyl, it has been widely acknowledged that the Vendler classes pertain to predicates and not to verbs. Whether or not the Vendler classes in their original form are correct is a hotly disputed topic within the semantic theory of aspect and telicity. There is a wide consensus that something like them is relevant, however. For some discussion see the references below. Vendler's classes are as follows. In linguistics, grammatical aspect is a property of a verb that defines the nature of temporal flow (or lack thereof) in the described event or state. ... A verb is a part of speech that usually denotes action (bring, read), occurrence (to decompose (itself), to glitter), or a state of being (exist, live, soak, stand). Depending on the language, a verb may vary in form according to many factors, possibly including its tense, aspect, mood and voice. ... In the main, semantics (from the Greek semantikos, or significant meaning, derived from sema, sign) is the study of meaning, in some sense of that term. ... Aspect can mean one of the following things: In computer programming, an aspect is a feature that is linked to many parts of a program, but which is not necessarily the primary function of the program. ... Telicity or telic aspect is a verb aspect, indicating a reached goal or action completed as intended. ...

States

A predicate is a state if it presents an event as a static state of affairs, i.e. an event where nothing changes. Stative predicates present events as unbounded in time. Put differently, a sentence like "John is sick" says nothing in particular about the temporal extent of the state he's in. Examples of stative predicates are "be sick", "sleep soundly", "know French". States typically can't occur in the progressive in English:

*John is being sick.

*John is knowing French.

They can occur with time-span adverbials like for an hour, but not with time-frame adverbials like "in an hour".

John was sick for an hour/*in an hour.

Activities

Activities are like states in presenting events as unbounded in time, but they differ from states in involving some kind of change. Examples of activity predicates include "run in the park", "snore loudly", "fall through the air", etc.

Activities can occur in the progressive.

John is snoring loudly.

John is falling through the air.

They can occur with time-span adverbials, but not time-frame adverbials:

John snored for an hour/*in an hour.

Accomplishments

Accomplishment predicates also involve change, but they present the events they refer to as bounded in time. They can be decomposed into two endpoints (the beginning and the culmination of the event) and a process part. Examples of accomplishment predicates are "build a house", "run to the store".

Accomplishments can occur in the progressive. They do not occur with time-span adverbials, but do occur with time-frame adverbials.

John is running to the store

John ran to the store in an hour/*for an hour.

Achievements

Achievement predicates are like accomplishments lacking a process part. They denote punctual change. Examples of achievement predicates are "reach the top", "win the race", "find his glasses".

Predicate in logic and model-theoretic semantics

In formal semantics a predicate is thought of as an expression of the semantic type of sets. An equivalent formulation is that they are thought of as characteristic functions of sets, i.e. functions from an entity to a truth value. In the main, semantics (from the Greek semantikos, or significant meaning, derived from sema, sign) is the study of meaning, in some sense of that term. ... At the broadest level, type theory is the branch of mathematics and logic that concerns itself with classifying entities into sets called types. ... In mathematics, a set can be thought of as any well-defined collection of things considered as a whole. ... Some mathematicians use the phrase characteristic function synonymously with indicator function. The indicator function of a subset A of a set B is the function with domain B, whose value is 1 at each point in A and 0 at each point that is in B but not in A... In mathematics, a function is a relation, such that each element of a set (the domain) is associated with a unique element of another (possibly the same) set (the codomain, not to be confused with the range). ... An entity is something that has a distinction, separate existence, though it need not be a material existence. ... In logic, a truth value, or truth-value, is a value indicating to what extent a statement is true. ...

In predicate logic, a predicate can take the role as either a property or a relation between entities. ... // Use of the term The concept of property or ownership has no single or universally accepted definition. ...

References

Carlson, Greg N. 1977. A unified analysis of the English bare plural. Linguistics and Philosophy,1:3, 413-458.

Carlson, Greg N. 1980. Reference to Kinds in English. New York: Garland Publishing. (also distributed by Indiana University Linguistics Club and GLSA UMass/Amherst.)

Jaeger, Gerhard. 2001. Topic-comment structure and the contrast between stage level and individual level predicates, Journal of Semantics 18(2), pp 83-126

Kratzer, Angelika. 1995. Stage Level and Individual Level Predicates," in G. Carlson &F.J. Pelletier (eds.): The Generic Book. Chicago (The University of Chicago Press).

Krifka, Manfred. 1989."Nominal Reference, Temporal Constitution and Quantification in Event Semantics". In R. Bartsch, J. van Benthem, P. von Emde Boas (eds.), Semantics and Contextual Expression, Dordrecht: Foris Publication.

Vendler, Zeno. 1967. Linguistics in Philosophy. Cornell University Press, Ithaca.

Verkuyl, Henk. 1972. On the Compositional Nature of the Aspects. Foundations of Language Supplement Series, nr. 15. Dordrecht. 185 pages.

Verkuyl, Henk. 1993. A Theory of Aspectuality. The Interaction between Temporal and Atemporal Structure.. CSIL 64. Cambridge University Press.