History of Poland
Chronology
Until 966 966–1385 1385–1569 1569–1795 1795–1918 1918–1939 1939–1945 1945–1989 1989–present Jan Matejko (1838-1893) The two-dimensional work of art depicted in this image is in the public domain in the United States and in those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100 years. ... Over the past millennium, the territory ruled by Poland has shifted and varied greatly. ... Dates and most important events in Polish history from prehistoric times up to the present day. ... In the first centuries of its existence, the Polish nation was led by a series of strong rulers who converted the Poles to Christendom, created a strong Central European state, and integrated Poland into European culture. ... Poland and Lithuania in 1387 The Jagiellon Era 1385-1569, was dominated by the union of Poland with Lithuania under the Jagiellon Dynasty, founded by the Lithuanian grand duke Jogaila. ... Main article: Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth The Nihil novi act adopted by the Polish Diet in 1505 transferred all legislative power from the king to the Diet. ... Although the majority of the szlachta was reconciled to the end of the Commonwealth in 1795, the possibility of Polish independence was kept alive by events within and without Poland throughout the nineteenth century. ... The History of interwar Poland starts with the recreation of independent Poland in 1918, and ends with the conquest of Poland by Nazi Germany, starting the Second World War. ... The history of Poland from 1939 through 1945 encompasses the German invasion of Poland through to the end of World War II. On September 1, 1939, without a formal declaration of war, Germany invaded Poland. ... The history of Poland from 1945 to 1989 spans the period of Soviet Communist dominance over the Peoples Republic of Poland in the decades following World War II. These years, while featuring many improvements in the standards of living in Poland, were marred by political instability, social unrest, and... In the 1970s and 1980s the whole system in Poland was deeper and deeper in the crisis and was beginning to crumble as was the whole Eastern bloc with the USSR as the fading superpower. ...
Topics
Culture Demography (Jews) Economics Politics (Monarchs and Presidents) Military (Wars) Territorial changes (WWII) This article needs additional references or sources for verification. ... Historical demography of Poland show that in the past, Polands demography were much more diverse then at present. ... Poland has steadfastly pursued a policy of economic liberalization throughout the 1990s with mixed results. ... Politics of Poland takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic, whereby the Prime Minister is the head of government, and of a pluriform multi-party system. ... Mieszko I. Bolesław I Chrobry. ... Following are the successive heads of state of Poland. ... Below is a list of military conflicts in which Polish armed forces participated or which took place on Polish territory. ... Main article: History of Poland In the period following its emergence in the 10th century, the Polish nation was led by a series of strong rulers who converted the Poles to Christianity, created a strong Central European state and integrated Poland into European culture. ... Territorial changes of Poland after World War II have been very extensive. ...

The prehistory of Poland, or the history of Poland before 966 CE, is a period about which relatively little is known, especially when compared to the later eras. The available information is obtained mainly by archeological methods. Events April 14 or April 30 - Mieszko I, first duke of Poland, baptised a Christian Births Fujiwara no Michinaga, Japanese regent Deaths King Dubh I of Scotland Categories: 966 ... “BCE” redirects here. ... For the magazine about archaeology, see Archaeology (magazine). ...

Prehistory of Polish lands from earliest human settlements through the Roman Empire times

From Homo erectus and then during the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages and throughout the Late Antiquity, the lands of present day Poland were populated by many different peoples, often known archeologically, but of uncertain ethnicity or linguistic affiliation. Celtic, Germanic and Baltic peoples were among the prominent groups. The most famous archeological finding is the Biskupin fortified settlement on the lake, of the Lusatian culture of the early Iron Age, by some past researchers considered to be a Proto-Slavic development. Binomial name (Dubois, 1892) Synonyms † Pithecanthropus erectus † Sinanthropus pekinensis † Javanthropus soloensis † Meganthropus paleojavanicus Homo erectus (Latin: upright man) is an extinct species of the genus Homo. ... Stone Age fishing hook. ... The Bronze Age is a period in a civilizations development when the most advanced metalworking has developed the techniques of smelting copper from natural outcroppings and alloys it to cast bronze. ... Iron Age Axe found on Gotland This article is about the archaeological period known as the Iron Age, for the mythological Iron Age see Iron Age (mythology). ... Late Antiquity is a rough periodization (c. ... Archaeology or sometimes in American English archeology (from the Greek words αρχαίος = ancient and λόγος = word/speech) is the study of human cultures through the recovery, documentation and analysis of material remains, including architecture, artefacts, biofacts, human remains, and landscapes. ... An ethnic group or ethnicity is a population of human beings whose members identify with each other, either on the basis of a presumed common genealogy or ancestry[1], or recognition by others as a distinct group[2], or by common cultural, linguistic, religious, or territorial traits. ... Linguistics is the scientific study of language, which can be theoretical or applied. ... Celts, normally pronounced // (see article on pronunciation), refers primarily to the members of any of a number of peoples in Europe using the Celtic languages or descended from those who did. ... http://www. ... Gate to the reconstructed settlement Biskupin is an archaeological site and a life-size model of an Iron Age fortified settlement (gród) in Poland, Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodship. ... A simplified map of the central European cultures, ca 1200 BC. The purple area is the Lusatian culture, the central blue area is the Knoviz culture, the red area is the central urnfield culture, and the orange area is the northern urnfield culture. ...

Homo erectus

Human settlements on Polish lands occurred later than in the more climatically hospitable regions of southern and western Europe and were dependent on the recurring episodes of glaciation. The earliest remnants of the Homo genus campsites, together with their inhabitants' primitive stone tools, bones of the animals they hunted and of the fish they caught, were found below the San River glaciation period sediments in Trzebnica and are about 500 thousand years old. Younger Homo erectus sites were found at Rusko near Strzegom, located, like Trzebnica, in the Lower Silesia region. This archeologically represents the microlithic complexes of the Lower Paleolithic period, but biologically Homo erectus was a separate species of early humans.^[1][2] For other uses, see Europe (disambiguation). ... A glaciation (a created composite term meaning Glacial Period, referring to the Period or Era of, as well as the process of High Glacial Activity), often called an ice age, is a geological phenomenon in which massive ice sheets form in the Arctic and Antarctic and advance toward the equator. ... Species Homo sapiens See text for extinct species. ... For other uses, see Genus (disambiguation). ... Length 433 km Basin area 16,861 km² Origin Carpathian Mountains Tributary of Vistula River Countries Poland, Ukraine San River. ... Trzebnica is a city near Wroclaw in Silesia, capital of Trzebnica County. ... Binomial name (Dubois, 1892) Synonyms † Pithecanthropus erectus † Sinanthropus pekinensis † Javanthropus soloensis † Meganthropus paleojavanicus Homo erectus (Latin: upright man) is an extinct species of the genus Homo. ... Parish church in Strzegom Strzegom (German: ) is a town in Poland, in Lower Silesia, in Świdnica County. ... Lower Silesia (German: ; Polish: ; Latin: Silesia Inferior) is the northwestern part of the historical and geographical region of Silesia. ... A microlith is a small stone tool, typically knapped of flint or chert, usually about three centimetres long or less. ... The Lower Paleolithic (or Lower Palaeolithic) is the earliest subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age. ... Biology studies the variety of life (clockwise from top-left) E. coli, tree fern, gazelle, Goliath beetle Biology (from Greek: βίος, bio, life; and λόγος, logos, knowledge), also referred to as the biological sciences, is the study of living organisms utilizing the scientific method. ... For other uses, see Species (disambiguation). ...

Homo neanderthalensis

Now often also considered a distinct species, Homo neanderthalensis (otherwise known as Homo sapiens neanderthalensis) lived in the southern half of Poland during the Middle Paleolithic, that is between 300,000 and 40,000 BC. Various relics were found and different Neanderthal cultures are distinguished, even though no actual human bones from this period have been identified. Examination of the Micoquien-Prądnik culture sites in the Prądnik River Valley north of Kraków and in Zwoleń near Radom from about 85,000 to 70,000 BC (early phase of the Vistula River glaciation period) shows that some Neanderthals were skilled collective hunters, able to kill numerous large mammals characteristic of the cold Paleolithic climate and process the meat, skin and bones using specialized tools.^[1] For other uses, see Neanderthal (disambiguation). ... The Middle Paleolithic (or Middle Palaeolithic) is the second subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age as it is understood in Europe, Africa and Asia. ... For other uses, see Krakow (disambiguation). ... ZwoleÅ„ is a town in Poland, in Mazowsze Voivodship, about 30 km east of Radom. ... Radom (pronounce: [radÉ”m]) is a city in central Poland with 227 309 inhabitants. ... Vistula river basin Vistula (Polish Wisła), is the longest river in Poland. ... Subclasses & Infraclasses Subclass †Allotheria* Subclass Prototheria Subclass Theria Infraclass †Trituberculata Infraclass Metatheria Infraclass Eutheria Mammals (class Mammalia) are warm-blooded, vertebrate animals characterized by the presence of sweat glands, including those that produce milk, and by the presence of: hair, three middle ear bones used in hearing, and a neocortex...

Homo sapiens

Homo sapiens proper (Homo sapiens sapiens, the Cro-Magnon type) appears beginning with the Upper Paleolithic, which lasted from 40,000 to 9,000 BC. Upper Paleolithic in Poland was not continuous in terms of human inhabitation, because during the coldest part of this Ice Age period, 20,000 to 15,000 BC, the humans were absent. During the earlier part the Neanderthal probably still existed and coexisted with the modern man. The latter, warmer part, after the climatic discontinuity and the reappearance of humans, is therefore considered the Late Paleolithic. Homo sapiens (Latin: wise man) is the scientific name for the human species. ... For the avant garde collective, see Cromagnon (band). ... The Upper Paleolithic (or Upper Palaeolithic) is the third and last subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age as it is understood in Europe, Africa and Asia. ... Variations in CO2, temperature and dust from the Vostok ice core over the last 400 000 years For the animated movie, see Ice Age (movie). ...

Upper Paleolithic people were specialized in group big game hunting, sometimes pursuing and driving into traps entire herds. Their nutritional needs were met, over the many thousand years when the vegetation was limited to tundra and steppe and the land was covered by ice and snow for long periods, largely by meat consumption. More sophisticated tool making methods resulted in the production of long (even over two feet), narrow and sharp flintstone splits. In a cave near Nowy Targ a 30,000 years old (world's oldest) boomerang was found - a crescent-shaped 70 cm long object with fine finish, made of mammoth tusk. For other uses, see Tundra (disambiguation). ... A steppe in Western Kazakhstan in early spring In physical geography, a steppe (Russian: - , Ukrainian: - , Kazakh: - ), pronounced in English as , is a plain without trees (apart from those near rivers and lakes); it is similar to a prairie, although a prairie is generally considered as being dominated by tall grasses... This article is about the sedimentary rock. ... Nowy Targ is a town in southern Poland with 34,000 inhabitants (2006). ... This article is about the wooden implement. ... This article is about the genus Mammuthus. ... Pacific Walrus at Cape Peirce A tusk is an extremely long tooth of certain mammals that protrudes when the mouth is closed. ...

A rich source of Late Paleolithic sites and artifacts (the Magdalenian culture of 14,500 BC) is again the Prądnik River Valley.^[1] Magdalenian horse head carving Magdalenian people dwelt not just in caves but also used tents like this one of Pincevent (France) Magdalenian weapons of bone The Magdalenian, also spelled Magdalénien, refers to one of the later cultures of the Upper Palaeolithic in western Europe. ...

Mesolithic hunters and gatherers

The Mesolithic lasted from 9000 BC (rapid climate warming) to 5500 BC (arrival of first farmers from the Danube River area). It was the last period when the food production economy was entirely opportunistic, based on assimilation of plant and animal material found in nature, that is gathering and hunting. Because of warmer temperatures, complex forest ecosystems and wetlands developed and this natural diversity necessitated new hunting and fishing strategies. Hunters and fishermen working individually or in small groups had to pursue single large and small animals using traps, javelins, bows and arrows, boats and fishing equipment, and utilizing dogs. Women engaged in gathering of such products as roots, herbs, nuts, bird eggs, mollusks, fruit or honey, which possibly was even more important than hunting. Mesolithic human settlements became quite numerous and by the end of this period the economy of harvesting nature became very highly developed. Tools and devices were made of materials such as stone (flint strip mines have been found at the northern edge of Świętokrzyskie Mountains), bone, wood, horn, or plant material for rope and baskets, and included such fine utensils as fishing hooks and sewing needles. Animal figurines were made of amber. At least during the later Mesolithic, the dead were placed in graves and outfitted with familiar objects of their surroundings. One such well preserved grave of an apparent tool-maker, together with his tools and other items was found in Janisławice near Skierniewice and dated 5500 BC.^[3] The Mesolithic (Greek mesos=middle and lithos=stone or the Middle Stone Age[1]) was a period in the development of human technology between the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods of the Stone Age. ... Length 2,888 km Elevation of the source 1,078 m Average discharge 30 km before Passau: 580 m³/s Vienna: 1,900 m³/s Budapest: 2,350 m³/s just before Delta: 6,500 m³/s Area watershed 817,000 km² Origin Black Forest (Schwarzwald-Baar, Baden- Württemberg... Trinomial name Canis lupus familiaris The dog (Canis lupus familiaris) is a domestic subspecies of the wolf, a mammal of the Canidae family of the order Carnivora. ... ÅšwiÄ™tokrzyskie Mountain landscape ÅšwiÄ™tokrzyskie Mountains (sometimes also known as the Holy Cross Mountains, Polish  Góry ÅšwiÄ™tokrzyskie?) are a mountain range in central Poland, in the vicinity of the city of Kielce. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... Skierniewice - a town in central Poland with 47,900 inhabitants (1995). ...

Introduction of agriculture - Danubian cultures of farming communities

Early Neolithic era begins around 5500 BC with the arrival from the Danube area of people (their land tilling predecessors had been coming into the Balkans and then the Danube region from Anatolia beginning a thousand years earlier) who kept livestock, cultivated crops and made pottery. They formed the first settled rural communities, thus forging the most fundamental civilizational advance. An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, axe heads, chisels, and polishing tools. ... This article is about the Danube River. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Anatolia and Europe Anatolia (Turkish: from Greek: Ανατολία - Anatolia) is a peninsula of Western Asia which forms the greater part of the Asian portion of Turkey, as opposed to the European portion (Thrace, or traditionally Rumelia). ...

The original newcomers are referred to as the Linear Pottery culture - their uniform culture survived in Poland in its original form until about 4600 BC. Despite the big impact they made, the first waves came in small numbers - hundreds, or at most a few thousand people, judging by the sizes of the known settlements. They populated mainly fertile soils of southern highlands and river valleys further north, all the way to the Baltic Sea. They lived alongside the more numerous native people who were still pursuing the Mesolithic lifestyle, but during the Linear Pottery culture times there wasn't much interaction, as the two groups inhabited different environments. Their villages consisted of several or more long (even over 30 meters) rectangular homes supported by wooden posts, the oldest of which come from the Lower Silesia region. One such location from about 5000 BC was also unearthed at Olszanica, which is now at the west end of Kraków just within the city limits. Plants were cultivated mostly in small nearby gardens, but wheat and barley were also grown on small fields obtained by burning the forest. Further out were the pastures, the entire area utilized by a single settlement having a radius of about 5 km. Cattle, sheep and goats were even more numerous in the northern flatlands, where the land was less fertile. The Danubian people communities kept in touch and exchanged goods over large areas, all the way to their regions of origin beyond the Carpathian Mountains. // Linear pottery. ... The Baltic Sea is located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N latitude and from 20°E to 26°E longitude. ... For other uses, see Krakow (disambiguation). ... Satellite image of the Carpathians. ...

After 5000 BC new waves of immigrants arrived from the south again, which accelerated the process of differentiation of the agrarian society into several distinct cultures during the first half of 5th millennium BC and afterwards. In the Oder River basin mostly there was the culture named after the punctured variety of Linear Band pottery - Stroked Pottery culture, while in the Vistula River basin the Lengyel and Polgár cultures appeared. The two regions developed in some separation, but within them the different cultural traditions of the younger Danubian circle often overlapped. The houses were now of an elongated trapezoidal shape, up to 40 meters long, grouped in larger complexes, often protected by beam and earth walls, moats and other fortifications, as such defensive measures apparently became necessary against people from the still Mesolithic native population or other Danubian settlements. The complicated, time and resources consuming defensive structures were being built beginning in mid 5th millennium BC. Their design followed that of the similar construction that was taking place in the Danube River areas, starting in the early part of this millennium. Large cemeteries and graves supplied with fancier objects such as jewelry, including the first so-called "princely" graves (the princesses had imported copper necklaces, earrings and diadems in addition to locally made decorations), testify to the emergence of a relatively more affluent society. Cattle husbandry and trading (large varieties resulted from cross-breeding with the aurochs) and land tillage provided basic sustenance. Salt was obtained and traded and became a much sought after commodity, at first probably to help preserve stored food. The Danubian people produced many richly decorated objects, including clay vessels with animal head ornaments and figurines of women. Among the large explored settlements of the Lengyel culture from the 4400-4000 BC period, there is one in Brześć Kujawski, and another one in Osłonki, solidly fortified about 4200 BC after an assault incident involving arson and murder, both located in the Kujawy region. The Oder (known in Czech, Slovak and Polish as Odra) is a river in Central Europe. ... // Linear pottery. ... Stroke-ornamented ware is a kind of zig-zag decorated Neolithic pottery found in central and eastern Europe. ... Vistula river basin Vistula (Polish Wisła), is the longest river in Poland. ... Map of European Neolithic at the apogee of Danubian expansion, c. ... Polgár (burger in Hungarian language) refers to: Polgár (city) is a city in Hungary. ... Length 2,888 km Elevation of the source 1,078 m Average discharge 30 km before Passau: 580 m³/s Vienna: 1,900 m³/s Budapest: 2,350 m³/s just before Delta: 6,500 m³/s Area watershed 817,000 km² Origin Black Forest (Schwarzwald-Baar, Baden- Württemberg... Binomial name Subspecies Bos primigenius primigenius   (Bojanus, 1827) Bos primigenius namadicus   (Falconer, 1859) Bos primigenius mauretanicus   (Thomas, 1881) See Ur (rune) for the rune. ... Kuyavia (sometimes spelt Cuyavia, Polish Kujawy) is a historical region of Poland, between the Vistula to the east and Noteć river to the west and between Noteć and Krówka river to the south. ...

The Malice farming culture of southern Poland (5th millennium and until 3800 BC, named after a site in Malice near Sandomierz^[4]) was the first Neolithic culture to originate north of the Carpathian Mountains and spread south.^[5] Flag of Sandomierz Sandomierz Coat of Arms Sandomierz(Sandomir) ( listen) is a city in south-eastern Poland with 25,714 inhabitants (2006). ...

Neolithic cultures developed by native populations

After 4500 BC the Ertebølle culture of northwestern origin entered a ceramic phase with its own forms of pottery. They lived by the Baltic Sea shores and were specialized in utilizing the resources of the sea, thus still representing the Mesolithic ways of life. At their settlement in Dąbki near Koszalin Stroke-ornamented pottery was found, obtained probably through trade with the Danubian people. Map of European Neolithic at the apogee of Danubian expansion, c. ... The Baltic Sea is located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N latitude and from 20°E to 26°E longitude. ... Coordinates: , Country Poland Voivodeship West Pomeranian Powiat City County Gmina Koszalin Estabilished 11th century City Rights 1266 Government  - Mayor MirosÅ‚aw MikietyÅ„ski Area  - City 83 km²  (32 sq mi) Population (2006)  - City 106,125  - Density 1,265/km² (3,276. ... Stroke-ornamented ware is a kind of zig-zag decorated Neolithic pottery found in central and eastern Europe. ...

The native Mesolithic populations were slow in gradually assimilating the agricultural way of life, beginning with just the use of ceramics. It took a thousand years into the Neolithic period before they adopted animal husbandry (which became especially important to them) and plant cultivation to any appreciable degree. When they eventually developed interest in the more fertile areas utilized by the late Danubian cultures, they became the threat that compelled the Danubian farmers to fortify their settlements.

The first truly native Neolithic culture was the Funnelbeaker culture named after the shape of their typical clay vessels, which developed starting around 4400 BC and lasted some two thousand years. Like other post-Mesolithic cultures the Funnelbeaker culture was Megalithic - they built tombs of large stones, some of them huge and resembling pyramids. Few survived till now because of the demand for stone as building material, but a well-preserved one from the first half of 4th millennium BC was found in Wietrzychowice near Włocławek. From this place and period comes the skull, on which the trepanation procedure was performed for medical or magic reasons. Timewise the beginnings of the post-Mesolithic cultures in Poland coincide with the beginnings of the Eneolithic period in the Balkans. Copper objects, mostly ornamental or luxurious items, were traded and then developed locally, first by the Danubian and then by the indigenous people. Copper metallurgy facilities were identified in Złota near Sandomierz. Clay decorative objects include realistic representations of animals and containers with images engraved on them - a pot from Bronocice, Pińczów County (3400 BC) has a unique narrative scene and the world's oldest semblance of a four-wheeled cart drawn on its surface. Stone tools became most highly developed and acquired their then characteristic smooth surfaces. Well preserved settlements with rectangular buildings were unearthed in Gródek Nadbużny near Hrubieszów (where remnants of a vertical loom for weaving were found) and in Niedźwiedź near Kraków. Originating from central European lowlands, the Funnelbeaker people moved south into the regions previously developed by the Danubian cultures, all the way to Bohemia and Moravia. Being more numerous, better fit for the environment, organized and economically more productive the Funnelbeaker culture people replaced the Danubian cultures in their late phase, and themselves lasted a long time^[6]. The Funnelbeaker culture is the archeological designation for a late Neolithic culture in what is now northern Germany, the Netherlands, southern Scandinavia and Poland. ... Megalithic tomb, Mane Braz, Brittany Bronze age wedge tomb in the Burren area of Ireland For the record label, see Megalith Records. ... WÅ‚ocÅ‚awek (pronounce: [vÈ—oʦwavek]) is a town in central Poland on the Vistula river, with population of approximately 123 000. ... 18th century French illustration of trepanation Trepanation (also known as trepanning, trephination, trephining or burr hole) is a form of surgery in which a hole is drilled or scraped into the skull, thus exposing the dura mater in order to treat health problems related to intracranial diseases, though in the... The Chalcolithic (Greek khalkos + lithos copper stone) period or Copper Age period (also known as the Eneolithic (Aeneolithic)), is a phase in the development of human culture in which the use of early metal tools appeared alongside the use of stone tools. ... Flag of Sandomierz Sandomierz Coat of Arms Sandomierz(Sandomir) ( listen) is a city in south-eastern Poland with 25,714 inhabitants (2006). ... PiÅ„czów is a town in Poland, in ÅšwiÄ™tokrzyskie Voivodship, about 40 km south of Kielce. ... Hrubieszów is a town in south-eastern Poland with 20,200 inhabitants (1995). ... Flag of Bohemia Bohemia (Czech: ; German: ) is a historical region in central Europe, occupying the western and middle thirds of the Czech Republic. ... Flag of Moravia Moravia (Czech and Slovak: Morava; German: ; Hungarian: ; Polish: ) is a historical region in the east of the Czech RepublicCzechia. ...

Globular Amphora culture was the next major Neolithic culture. It originated in the Polish lowlands during the first half of 4th millennium BC, lasted to about 2400 BC and is named after the bulging shape of its representative pottery. They specialized in breeding domestic animals and lived in a semi-settled state, seeking optimal pastures and moving as needed. This semi-nomadic lifestyle was probably necessitated by the poor condition of the soils, by that time depleted and rendered infertile because of the preceding centuries of forest burning and extensive exploitation. Globular Amphora were the first culture in Poland known for utilizing the domesticated horse and swine became important as the source of food. Ritual animal, especially cattle burial sites, often with two or more individuals buried together and supplied with objects as strange as drums have been discovered, but their role is not well understood. Approximate extent of the Corded Ware horizon with adjacent 3rd millennium cultures (after EIEC). ...

The Baden culture in southern Poland was the latest of the Danubian ancestry cultures and continued between 3200 and 2600 BC. They made vessels with characteristic protruding radial ornaments. A large fortified Baden culture settlement of around 3000 BC was found in Bronocice near Pińczów. Approximate extent of the Corded Ware horizon with adjacent 3rd millennium cultures (after EIEC). ... PiÅ„czów is a town in Poland, in ÅšwiÄ™tokrzyskie Voivodship, about 40 km south of Kielce. ...

Finally there were still in existence the Forest Zone cultures, representing the ceramic phase of hunting and gathering communities. Some of them lasted into the early Bronze Age. The Bronze Age is a period in a civilizations development when the most advanced metalworking has developed the techniques of smelting copper from natural outcroppings and alloys it to cast bronze. ...

The major industry of this period was flintstone mining. One of the largest such mines with preserved underground passages is located in Krzemionki Opatowskie near Ostrowiec Świętokrzyski.^[7] Krzeminki - archeological museum and reserve near Ostrowiec ÅšwiÄ™tokrzyski, Poland. ... Ostrowiec ÅšwiÄ™tokrzyski is a town in central Poland with 79,200 inhabitants (1995). ...

Late Neolithic arrivals from eastern and western regions of Europe

The Corded Ware culture, in existence in central Europe between 3000 and 2000 BC, originated most likely from Proto-Indo-European nomadic people of the Black Sea steppes. It was a pastoral culture at least in its early stages, lacking permanent settlements and known primarily from the burial grounds (a large one with many richly furnished graves was discovered in Złota near Sandomierz). They moved together with their herds of cattle, sheep and goats along the river valleys of southern Poland, but also engaged in flint mining and manufacturing of tools and weapons for their own use and trade. Approximate extent of the Corded Ware horizon with adjacent 3rd millennium cultures (after EIEC). ... Proto-Indo-European (PIE) may refer to: Proto-Indo-European language the hypothetical common ancestor of the Indo-European languages Proto-Indo-Europeans, the hypothetical speakers of the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European language Proto-Indo-European roots, A list of reconstructed Proto-Indo-European roots Categories: | ... For other uses, see Black Sea (disambiguation). ... Flag of Sandomierz Sandomierz Coat of Arms Sandomierz(Sandomir) ( listen) is a city in south-eastern Poland with 25,714 inhabitants (2006). ...

The Rzucewo culture (named after the village near Puck where the discoveries took place) developed from northern populations of the Corded Ware culture as an offshoot specialized in exploitation of the sea resources and lasted in parallel with their mother culture for a comparable period of time. Their settlements consisting of characteristic sea erosion reinforced houses were located along the Bay of Gdańsk and east of there. They engaged in fishery and hunting, especially of seals, then numerous along the Baltic coast. The Rzucewo culture people produced in special shops the widely used and traded amber decorative items. Look up puck in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... The Bay of GdaÅ„sk (also known as the GdaÅ„sk Bay or Gulf of GdaÅ„sk; in Polish Zatoka GdaÅ„ska; in Kashubian/Pomeranian GduÅ„skô Hôwinga; in German Danziger Bucht) is a southeastern bay of the Baltic sea enclosed by a large curve of the shores of... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ...

From the opposite end of Europe (the Iberian Peninsula) came the few people who formed during the 2500-1900 BC period the Bell-Beaker culture, named after the shape of their typical, carefully finished and precisely ornamented pottery - southwestern Poland was at the eastern edge of their range. Because of their mobility, they helped spread new inventions, including developing metallurgy, over large areas of Europe.^[8] The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe, and includes modern day Spain, Portugal, Andorra and Gibraltar. ... approximate extent of the Beaker culture The Bell-Beaker culture (sometimes shortened to Beaker culture, Beaker people, or Beaker folk; German: ), ca. ...

Unetice and other Bronze Age cultures

The Bronze Age in Poland, as well as elsewhere in central Europe, begins with the innovative Unetice culture, in existence in western Poland during the first period of this era, that is from before 2200 to 1600 BC. This fundamentally settled agricultural society originated from the Corded Ware populations influenced by the Bell-Beaker people, kept in touch with the highly developed cultures south of the Carpathian Mountains, had trade links with the cultures of early Greece and echoes influence coming all the way from the highly developed civilizations of the Middle East. Characteristic of the Unetice societies was greater general affluence and developed social stratification. Objects made of bronze, often of luxurious or prestigious nature, were in high demand as symbols of power and importance and are typically found in the graves of "princes". 14 such burial sites, mounds of earth material heaped up on top of wooden, clay and stone structures, some as large as 30 meters in diameter, were found in Łęki Małe near Grodzisk Wielkopolski, erected 2000-1800 BC, suggesting the existence of a local dynasty. Proliferation of bronze items (Uneticean daggers were in high demand all over Europe and in Anatolia) far from the centers of ore mining or bronze craftsmanship shows that the elites were able to control the trade routes, which involved also the transportation of amber from the Baltic Sea shores to the Aegean Sea area artisans. Many concealed (for unknown reasons) bronze treasures have been found, including a fine one from Pilszcz near Głubczyce. Stylistically refined Uneticean ceramics shows inspiration by the Achaean vessels. Fortified settlements were built (one actively researched site, that was utilized and went through a number of phases during the 2000-1500 BC period^[9], is in Bruszczewo in Kościan County), which together with the nature of the weapons and other items found suggests a chronic state of warfare and the emergence of the warrior class. In civilizational forefront of its time and place, the Unetice culture eventually succumbed to internal deterioration of its social and economic structure; its demise may had been hastened by destructive raids waged by the warriors of the belligerent Burial Mound culture, which in the end replaced it. The Bronze Age is a period in a civilizations development when the most advanced metalworking has developed the techniques of smelting copper from natural outcroppings and alloys it to cast bronze. ... Unetice, or more properly ÚnÄ›tice, culture, (German: Aunjetitz) is the name given to an early Bronze Age culture, preceded by the Beaker culture and followed by the Tumulus culture. ... A map showing countries commonly considered to be part of the Middle East The Middle East is a region comprising the lands around the southern and eastern parts of the Mediterranean Sea, a territory that extends from the eastern Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf. ... Grodzisk Wielkopolski is a town in central Poland, situated in the Greater Poland Voivodship (since 1999), previously in Poznan Voivodship (1975-1998). ... Anatolia and Europe Anatolia (Turkish: from Greek: Ανατολία - Anatolia) is a peninsula of Western Asia which forms the greater part of the Asian portion of Turkey, as opposed to the European portion (Thrace, or traditionally Rumelia). ... Look up Aegean Sea in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Coordinates: , Country Voivodeship Powiat GÅ‚ubczyce County Gmina GÅ‚ubczyce Estabilshed 12th century City Rights 13th century Government  - Mayor Adam Krupa Area  - Town 12. ... This article is about the ancient people of the Achaeans. ... KoÅ›cian is a town on Obra canal in central Poland with 24,600 inhabitants (1995). ... The Tumulus culture which followed the Únêtice, and from which they descended, dominated central Europe during much of the second part of the second millenium B.C.E.. As the name implies, the Tumulus culture is distinguished by the practice of burying the dead beneath burial mounds. ...

East of the Unetice culture, in Lesser Poland and further north to the Masovia region, during roughly the same span of time was the territory of the Mierzanowice culture, named after the village near Opatów. These descendants of the Corded Ware culture at first lived as mobile cattle breeders, but around 2200 BC started building permanent settlements and became preoccupied with plant cultivation as well. Mierzanowice culture was a conservative egalitarian society, frequently still using stone tools and copper decorations. Of the same cultural sphere, still further east was the Strzyżów culture, named after the village near Hrubieszów. Kraków Katowice WrocÅ‚aw Łódź PoznaÅ„ Bydgoszcz Lublin BiaÅ‚ystok GdaÅ„sk Szczecin Warsaw M A S O V I A S I L E S I A G R E A T E R P O L A N D L E S S E R P O... Historical division of Masovia Masovia (Polish: Mazowsze) is a geographical and historical region situated in central Poland with its capital at Warsaw. ... Saint Martins Church in Opatów, a Romanesque church from the second half of the 12th century Opatów is a town in Poland, in ÅšwiÄ™tokrzyskie Voivodship. ... Hrubieszów is a town in south-eastern Poland with 20,200 inhabitants (1995). ...

The above three cultures constitute the first (early) period of the Bronze Age, ca. 2300 to 1600 BC, according to the Polish chronology system.

Throughout their range and beyond the Mierzanowice and Strzyżów cultures were replaced by the Trzciniec culture. It was named after Trzciniec near Puławy and lasted from 1700 to 1100 BC, that is throughout the second and third period of the Bronze Age. It was probably made up of various and diverse Post-Neolithic populations, whose common characteristic was the type of pottery - large vessels with a thickened upper edge and a horizontal decorative protrusion around the neck, first found around northern Germany at the beginning of the millennium. Their own production of bronze objects came late and only in the western part of this culture's range. Trzciniec culture is an archaeological culture in Central Europe, that existed between 1700 BCE and 1200 BCE. Its remnants have been found in Kujawy, MaÅ‚opolska, Mazowsze, Podlasie and in western Ukraine. ... PuÅ‚awy is a city in eastern Poland, in Lublin Voivodeship (province), on the Vistula and Kurówka Rivers. ...

Proto-Lusatian (on Polish lands) Burial Mound culture thrived in western Poland during the 1700-1400 BC period, contributed to the birth and rise of the Urnfield cultures, and around 1400 BC was replaced by the most important of them - the Lusatian culture. Burial Mound again was a complex of cultures, which replaced the Unetice culture and had an earth and stone mound grave as their common trait. The burials are skeletal, as opposed to the cremation practices of the later Urnfield cultures. There are no substantial settlements left by the Burial Mound people, whose agricultural practices were apparently limited mostly to animal husbandry. They developed bronze metallurgy to a large extend, to satisfy their own needs for weapons and richly designed and executed decorations. Their dominant social class were the warriors, who were equal and were the only men entitled to a burial under the mound. The Tumulus culture which followed the Únêtice, and from which they descended, dominated central Europe during much of the second part of the second millenium B.C.E.. As the name implies, the Tumulus culture is distinguished by the practice of burying the dead beneath burial mounds. ... The Urnfield culture of central European culture is dated roughly between 1300 BC and 750 BC. The name describes the custom of cremating the dead and placing them in cemeteries. ... A simplified map of the central European cultures, ca 1200 BC. The purple area is the Lusatian culture, the central blue area is the Knoviz culture, the red area is the central urnfield culture, and the orange area is the northern urnfield culture. ...

The Piliny culture (1500-1200 BC, roughly the third or middle period of the Bronze Age) of Hungary and Slovakia, but also southern Lesser Poland, where like others they left bronze treasures, is an early example of the Urnfield cultures. These cultures' burial customs involved cremation of bodies and placing the ashes in urns (often with small apertures, presumably for the soul to escape). The urns were buried without a mound, sometimes forming huge cemeteries with thousands of such graves.^{[10] [11]} Kraków Katowice Wrocław Łódź Poznań Bydgoszcz Lublin Białystok Gdańsk Szczecin Warsaw M A S O V I A S I L E S I A G R E A T E R P O L A N D L E S S E R P O...

Lusatian culture of the later Bronze Age

The Lusatian culture lasted on Polish lands from 1450 to 250 BC, through the remainder of the Bronze Age (middle and beginning ca. 1150 BC late periods) and then into the Iron Age, from 750 BC on. Although archeologically it presents itself in a fairly uniform way, it is believed to had been ethnically nonhomogeneous, originating from groups arriving from outside, as well as from populations in existence in Poland adopting new cultural patterns. This manifests itself in the continuation of the east-west cultural disparity. For example the use of metal objects was less common in the eastern regions, while in the western zone besides the urns the burials contained often many other vessels. The western zone ceramics of the early Lusatian period had very prominent protuberances around the lower part of the container. Not only these regional differences didn't disappear, they became even more pronounced with time. In addition a number of smaller subcultures are distinguished, such as the one in Upper Silesia, where after a 250 year hiatus, beginning at about 900 BC, atypically for the Urnfield cultural sphere, skeletal burials are found again. A simplified map of the central European cultures, ca 1200 BC. The purple area is the Lusatian culture, the central blue area is the Knoviz culture, the red area is the central urnfield culture, and the orange area is the northern urnfield culture. ... Iron Age Axe found on Gotland This article is about the archaeological period known as the Iron Age, for the mythological Iron Age see Iron Age (mythology). ... Map of Upper Silesia, 1746 Upper Silesia (Polish: Górny Śląsk, German: Oberschlesien, Czech: Horní Slezsko) is the south-eastern part of Silesia, a historical and geographical region of Poland (Opole Voivodship and Silesian Voivodship) and of the Czech Republic (Silesian-Moravian Region). ...

Bronze Age Lusatian rural settlements were limited to low-lying areas and (until late in this period) lacked fortifications or other defensive measures - during these more peaceful times protection was not as essential as in the centuries to follow. The houses were made of beams insulated by clay or moss, supported by poles, with slanting roofs covered by straw or reed. Inside there were hearths, stools, beds, places for economic activity such as metallurgical production shops, vertical looms and hand operated mills. Some livestock were also kept inside, and some were culled before winter because of insufficient ability to store feed.

The materials used were still wood, horn and bone, and, especially in the eastern zone - stone. Women were commonly engaged in spinning and weaving. Pottery was being produced still without the potter's wheel and furnaces for burning or baking pots were just making their first appearance. During the late bronze periods specialized centers manufactured beautifully painted ceramics, much of it for sale. Bronze metallurgy and craftsmanship became also highly developed and acquired locally different styles - luxurious decorative items, tools and arms were made around Legnica and elsewhere in western and southern Poland. Legnica ( , formerly Lignica; German: ) is a town in Silesia in southwestern Poland. ...

Lusatian social organization was based on the family and extended family, although early tribal communities may had also been developing. Social, professional and trade groups were gradually forming, including warriors, priests and metallurgists, but there is no evidence of hereditary ruling class or other social elites.

Many objects recovered by archeologists are believed to be related to a cult of the sun and the solar deity. Those include ceramics with painted solar images and molded into bird figures, bronze wheeled mini-carts with animal ornaments and bronze clasps with bird images, probably worn as parts of a ceremonial robe by priests-sorcerers. Anthropomorphic figurines and zoomorphic containers and plates related to solar or other forms of cult are found in the Lusatian western zone; they come from the last centuries of the Bronze Age and continue into the Iron Age. Engraved on a vase-urn found in Łazy in Milicz County and dated 850-650 BC are representations of mythical deer-man figures^[12]. Some such vessels, jewelry and drawings are similar to the contemporary ones found in Syria, Palestine, Greece and Italy. A panpipe (syrinx), a musical instrument of the type popular in northern Italy and eastern Hallstatt circles, was found in a grave in Przeczyce near Zawiercie from the late bronze or early iron periods.^[13] Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ... This article is about the geographical area known as Palestine. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Zawiercie is a town in Silesian Voivodship, south Poland with 55,800 inhabitants (2005). ...

Lusatian culture of the early Iron Age

Several factors destabilized the situation at the outset of the Iron Age. The climate cooling caused a degradation of the Asian steppes which forced the nomadic people who lived there to move out and started a chain of consequences - horsemen from Asia armed with iron weapons were able to penetrate large areas of Europe. The Europeans responded by building large fortified settlements, adopting the warring methods of the Asian invaders, developing a specialized military caste and a strong power system based on a prince-ruler. The Hallstatt culture, which developed west and south of Poland, itself imitating the Mediterranean civilizations and cultivating close contacts with them, turned out to be a major influence on the Lusatian people on Polish lands, whose culture reached its peak during the 750-550 BC period. The Hallstatt culture was the predominant Central European culture during the local Bronze Age, and introduced the Iron Age. ... The Mediterranean Sea is an intercontinental sea positioned between Europe to the north, Africa to the south and Asia to the east, covering an approximate area of 2. ...

Baltic amber was traded in return for weapons and luxurious objects from southern Europe, including fancy personal grooming items such as nail clipping devices, and trade relations with the Nordic area peoples were similarly well developed. The latter factor was especially true in the case of the western Pomerania region, which had increasingly been falling under the Nordic cultural zone (southern Scandinavian Peninsula, Denmark and northern Germany) influence throughout the later bronze periods, with its artisans imitating the Nordic imports. The Lusatian culture of the Hallstatt periods included most lands of present day Poland, including the related ^[14] Białowice culture (Zielona Góra County) in some of the westernmost parts, in existence during the Hallstatt periods C, D and beyond and credited with the passing of a "cist" (rock encasement) grave type to the Pomeranian culture. Western Poland was more highly developed, with local manufacturing - jewelry and other decorative products made of iron, bronze, glass, amber and other materials as well as luxurious painted ceramics were patterned after the Hallstatt craft. In many graveyards the dead were buried in wooden chambers. The burials found in Gorszewice (Szamotuły County) in Greater Poland (650-550 BC) are supplied with fancy equipment and resemble the graves of the Hallstatt tribal chiefs, and similarly there are other treasures of luxurious and prestigious objects. But despite this apparent fascination with the lifestyles of the western elites (and to some degree creation of their own), the Lusatian people never acquired a comparable level of social stratification and there were no hereditary "princes". Political map of the Nordic countries and associated territories. ... Pommern redirects here. ... For other uses, see Scandinavia (disambiguation). ... Motto: Miasto przyszÅ‚oÅ›ci City of future Coordinates: , Country Poland Voivodeship Lubusz Powiat city county Gmina Zielona Góra Estabilished 13th century City Rights 1323 Government  - Mayor Janusz Kubicki Area  - City 58. ... SzamotuÅ‚y - town in Poland, in Greater Poland Voivodship, about 30 km northwest of PoznaÅ„. It is the capital of SzamotuÅ‚y County. ... Voivodship wielkopolskie since 1999 Coat of Arms for voivodship wielkopolskie Greater Poland (also Great Poland; Polish: , German: Großpolen, Latin: Polonia Maior) is a historical region of west-central Poland. ...

Agricultural activities were the mainstay of the economy, supplemented as before by hunting and gathering. Simple butting plows were already used, pulled by oxen. Millet, wheat, rye, oat and barley were grown in the fields, while in the gardens bean and lentil were cultivated, as well as oil producing poppy, turnip and flax, which was also used to obtain fiber used to make yarn. Animal husbandry methods improved when iron utensils became more common, that is beginning in 6th century BC. Horses were bred and utilized more often, in addition to the traditionally kept cattle, swine, sheep and goats and improved feed storage allowed keeping the herds throughout the winter season. Salt springs were used for salt production and in southern Poland the Lusatians tried to exploit the locally available metal ores.

Beginning around 900 BC the Lusatian people gradually fortified more and more of their settlements, first in the Silesia region. By 650-600 BC there were quite a few of them there and all over the western zone. Often built in locations naturally easy to defend, they were surrounded by walls built of earth, stone and wood, and moats, and could cover anywhere from 0.5 to 20 hectares. Smaller strongholds were built at strategic locations such as mountain passes and trade routes, from where the residents could control and police the area, but also functioned as industrial centers. A good example of a trade-manufacturing fortified settlement is the one in Komorów, located near the Gorszewice cemetery. Some of the large fortified areas didn't have many structures inside and served probably as temporary sanctuaries for the local population at times of danger, and there was no shortage of danger. Beginning in 6th century BC several waves of Scythian invasions went through the Polish lands. The routes they traveled can be seen from the trail they left: The burnt out settlements of the Lusatian people. Dramatic material testimony of violent death and destruction was found among the ashes of a perished fortified settlement in Wicina near Nowogród Bobrzański. On the other hand a golden Scythian treasure was discovered near a Lusatian settlement in Witaszkowo near Gubin - elements of arms and decorations patterned after zoomorphic Greek art motifs and dated 550 BC, probably a booty seized from a wounded Scythian chief. Silesia (English pronunciation [], Czech: ; German: ; Latin: ; Polish: ; Silesian: Åšlůnsk) is a historical region in central Europe, located along the upper and middle Oder River, upper Vistula River, and along the Sudetes, Carpathian (Silesian Beskids) mountain range. ... The Scythians (, also ) or Scyths ([1]; from Greek ), a nation of horse-riding nomadic pastoralists who spoke an Iranian language[2], dominated the Pontic steppe throughout Classical Antiquity. ... Coordinates: , Country Voivodeship Powiat Zielona Góra County Gmina Nowogród BobrzaÅ„ski City rights 13th century - 1945 1988 - Government  - Mayor Grzegorz Ludwik Jankowski Area  - Town 14. ... Gubin is a town in Krosno OdrzaÅ„skie County, southwestern Poland. ...

Of a different and far less common type is the famous, very well preserved Biskupin wooden fortress on the lake, built from 738 BC. The houses (almost a hundred) inside the walls were densely and regularly arranged and the streets were covered by wood, which some see as a proto-urban imitation of the Mediterranean cities. But they were all alike, so the chieftain, if the community had one, lived like everybody else. This central to Polish archeology site has been under active and intense research since 1934. Gate to the reconstructed settlement Biskupin is an archaeological site and a life-size model of an Iron Age fortified settlement (gród) in Poland, Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodship. ... Year 1934 (MCMXXXIV) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display full 1934 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ...

The descendants of the Biskupin dwellers, like of most Lusatian people, were very likely incorporated into the Pomeranian culture, and with it eventually into the Germanic mainstream.

In 5th century BC the Lusatians stopped building fortified settlements. The Scythian expansion severed their trade links with the Hallstatt societies, while climatic changes damaged their agriculture. All this forced them to disperse and caused disintegration of their social structures. Less developed population from the eastern zone migrated west, highly developed ceramic and metallurgic industries waned, the Pomeranian culture expanded into the previously Lusatian areas. By 4th century BC the Lusatian culture was for the most part gone, with the last, small populations surviving in western and southern Poland.^[15]

Pomeranian culture, Western Baltic Kurgans culture

The last major extinct culture covering most Polish lands, the Pomeranian culture, developed in 7th century BC in eastern Pomerania. This region had preserved a distinct cultural identity throughout the middle and late bronze periods - unlike the rest of the Lusatian lands they kept the custom of raising burial mounds or barrows above the graves. Those were covered by a layer of stones and the urns were placed in a chest, or cist built of rock pieces. The Pommeranian culture is an Iron Age culture in Poland. ... Pommern redirects here. ... A cist (IPA ) is a small stone-built coffin-like box used to hold the bodies of the dead (notably during the Bronze Age in Britain and occasionally in Native American burials). ...

At the outset of the Iron Age the eastern Pomeranians became involved in long distance amber trade that ranged from the Sambian Peninsula, through Pomerania, the Lusatian and Hallstatt lands all the way to Italy and which gave them access to imported products. At roughly the same time climatic changes favored a rural economy different from that typical of the Lusatian societies - animal husbandry and the less demanding cereals (rye and barley) became more important, as the villages had to be built at higher altitudes. This in turn favored small communities based on the family and extended family, flexible and capable of greater mobility - all such factors gave the Pomeranian people a competitive advantage over the traditional Lusatian settlements. Sambia (German: ; Polish: ; Russian: ) is a peninsula in the Kaliningrad Oblast of Russia, on the south-eastern shore of the Baltic Sea. ...

Accordingly the Lusatian large urn fields were replaced by small, family size burial sites with several or more urns. The cist graves were now mostly flat, without mounds, forming a rectangle with up to two meter long sides built of vertical slabs, containing the urns (sometimes as many as thirty and in separate compartments) inside and covered with another plate. Further south and east, as the Pomeranian culture expanded into central and southeastern Poland, there were also burials where the urn was placed under a "globe", that is inside a large, spherical ceramic container, itself sometimes placed in a cist (areas with this arrangement are sometimes recognized a distinct subculture). The Pomeranians left two peculiar types of urns, house-urns and face-urns. House-urns stand on several legs, have a large opening in front, come from an earlier period, 7-6th century BC and mostly from the Lębork region. Face-urns from the same period are round, bulging containers with a unique and often realistic image of a face around the neck area and a hat-like lid, while the younger ones tend to be less elaborate. Sometimes on the outside they were variously decorated, with tools and toilet accessories placed inside. Face-urns from the 650-450 BC period unearthed in Borucino, Kartuzy County and elsewhere present a rich assortment of engraved narrative scenes. Those include horse drawn chariots that apparently depict the nightly trips of the sun-god through the underworlds, which symbolically represents the cyclical renewal of life; carts pulled by oxen and representing lunar symbolism are also present. Solar images were placed on the lids^[16]. House- and face-urns are believed to represent Etruscan influence. LÄ™bork (Kashubian/Pomeranian: Lãbórg; German Lauenburg) is a town (town 1341) on the rivers Leba and Okalica in Middle Pomerania region, north-western Poland with some 37,000 inhabitants. ... Kartuzy (Kashubian/Pomeranian: Kartuzë; see also Cities alternative names) is a town in the Kashubia or Eastern Pomerania region, northwestern Poland, with some 16,000 inhabitants. ... Extent of Etruscan civilization and the twelve Etruscan League cities. ...

Pomeranian rural economy was based on small, open settlements. Their livestock included horses and many dogs. Plowing was done with all wooden (bare) spatula-plows, which required multiple runs. The Pomeranians cultivated several different grains and practiced fishery. Bronze and iron processing became very highly developed. Of the weapons, tools, decorative items and jewelry manufactured, the large bronze necklaces made of many rigs, running around the neck and upper chest area, connected by a latticed buckle in the back (600-450 BC) are especially impressive. Advanced bronze metallurgy facilities were found at Juszkowo near Pruszcz Gdański. At Pruszcz itself an amber processing workshop was found - the material used was imported from Sambia. At the iron works material obtained from the local ore deposits (Góry Świętokrzyskie) was most likely used. Another highly developed craft was pottery, which found its highest expression in the above described face-urns. Pruszcz GdaÅ„ski (Kashubian/Pomeranian: Pruszcz GduÅ„sczi, German: Praust) is a town in Eastern Pomerania, northwestern Poland with some 21,200 inhabitants (1995). ... ÅšwiÄ™tokrzyskie Mountains chain Mountain rock rubble (GoÅ‚oborze) ÅšwiÄ™tokrzyskie Mountains (Holy Cross Mountains), (Polish, IPA: ) are a mountain range in central Poland, in the vicinity of the city of Kielce. ...

The already existing Pomeranian culture expanded further when the Lusatian culture entered the crisis stage. In 5th century BC major acquisitions took place in the western and southern directions, when northern Silesia and Lesser Poland were taken over. The older Lusatian populations were pushed out or assimilated. The Pomeranians themselves were changing in the process, either as a result of encountering new environmental conditions, or because of being influenced by the Lusatian people (face-urns for example disappeared here). In 3rd century BC the Pomeranian culture in its original form mostly vanished, with regional enclaves only surviving till the middle of 2nd century BC.^[17]

The Western Baltic Kurgans culture existed in Masuria, Warmia, Sambia and northern Masovia during the 650-50 BC period. It originated partially from the people who migrated there from the Dnieper River area and assimilated elements of the Warmian-Masurian Lusatian branches (themselves preceded by the middle Bronze Age Sambian Kurgans culture) as well as of the old Forest Zone cultures. They were related in a number of ways, including funeral vessels, to their contemporary, the Pomeranian culture. Upon radial stone structures they built burial mounds - kurgans, or barrows, some of them quite large and containing a number of individual burials. A large kurgan site from 3rd century BC was located and investigated in Piórkowo in Braniewo County. The dead were cremated and the ashes placed in urns. They built small fortified settlements at naturally suitable places, such as hilltops, and characteristically, within shallow bodies of water, which involved sinking logs and special pile construction. Underwater exploration allowed a conceptual reconstruction of such settlement (3rd-2nd century BC) on Orzysz Lake near Orzysz in Pisz County. The Western Baltic Kurgans economy was traditional, based on animal husbandry (herds kept in a semi-wild state). Land tilling was done to a lesser extend and only later in this culture's history. Hunting, fishing and gathering were also important. Tool manufacturing was old-fashioned, mostly non-metallic. Ceramic containers often had round (semi-spherical) bottoms and modest punctured or engraved ornamentation. The Western Baltic Kurgans culture is the predecessor culture of the Western Baltic culture (cultural sphere of Western Baltic tribes), which developed during the first several centuries CE.^[18][19][20] Sailing on Lake MikoÅ‚ajki. ... Warmia in 1547 Warmia (Polish: , German: , Latin: Varmia, also historically known as Ermeland) is a region between Pomerania and Masuria in northeastern Poland. ... Sambia (German: ; Polish: ; Russian: ) is a peninsula in the Kaliningrad Oblast of Russia, on the south-eastern shore of the Baltic Sea. ... Historical division of Masovia Masovia (Polish: Mazowsze) is a geographical and historical region situated in central Poland with its capital at Warsaw. ... The Dnieper River (Russian: , Dnepr; Belarusian: , Dniapro; Ukrainian: , Dnipro) is a river which flows from Russia, through Belarus and Ukraine, ending its flow in the Black Sea. ... Sarmatian Kurgan 4th c. ... Braniewo (until 1945 Polish: ; German: ) is a city in northeastern Poland, in the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship, with a population of 18,068 (2004). ... Pisz is a town in the Masuria province of Poland. ... http://www. ...

Celtic peoples

The first Celtic people arrived in Poland, coming from Bohemia and Moravia, around or after 400 BC, just a few decades after their La Tène culture was born. They formed several enclaves mostly in the southern part of the country, within the Pomeranian or Lusatian populations. The cultures or groups that were Celtic, or had a Celtic element in them (mixed Celtic and autochthonous), lasted at their furthest extend to 170 CE (the Púchov culture). After the Celts moved in and during their tenure (they had always remained only a small minority), the bulk of the population had begun acquiring the Germanic cultural traits. The Germanic pressure checked and reversed the Celtic expansion. Celts, normally pronounced // (see article on pronunciation), refers primarily to the members of any of a number of peoples in Europe using the Celtic languages or descended from those who did. ... Flag of Bohemia Bohemia (Czech: ; German: ) is a historical region in central Europe, occupying the western and middle thirds of the Czech Republic. ... Flag of Moravia Moravia (Czech and Slovak: Morava; German: ; Hungarian: ; Polish: ) is a historical region in the east of the Czech RepublicCzechia. ... The La Tène culture was an Iron Age culture named after the archaeological site of La Tène on the north side of Lake Neuchatel in Switzerland, where a rich trove of artifacts was discovered by Hansli Kopp in 1857. ... Púchov (Hungarian: Puhó, German: Puchau) is an industrial town in the centre of Púchov district in Slovakia, with a population close to 20,000. ...

At first two groups established themselves in Silesia: One on the left bank of the Oder River south of Wrocław, in the area that included Mount Ślęża, and one around the Głubczyce fertile highlands; both stayed in their respective regions during the 400-120 BC period. Burial and other significant Celtic sites in Głubczyce County were investigated in Kietrz and Nowa Cerekiew. The Ślęża group disintegrated eventually within the local population, while the one at Głubczyce Highlands apparently migrated out in the southern direction. In another hundred years or more another two groups arrived and settled the upper San River basin (270-170 BC) and the Kraków area. This last one, together with the local population developing at about that time the Przeworsk culture characteristics (see the next section), formed the mixed Tyniec group, in existence 270-30 BC. In 1st century BC another small group settled probably much further north, in Kujawy. And finally there was the long-lasting (270 BC - 170 CE) mixed Púchov culture (associated based on Roman sources with the Kotins Celtic tribe^[21]), whose northern reaches included parts of the Beskids mountain range. The Celts practiced advanced agriculture and favored fertile lands; they brought with them and disseminated the inventions and other achievements of La Tène culture. Silesia (English pronunciation [], Czech: ; German: ; Latin: ; Polish: ; Silesian: Åšlůnsk) is a historical region in central Europe, located along the upper and middle Oder River, upper Vistula River, and along the Sudetes, Carpathian (Silesian Beskids) mountain range. ... The Oder (known in Czech, Slovak and Polish as Odra) is a river in Central Europe. ... Motto: Miasto spotkaÅ„ (the meeting place) Coordinates: , Country Poland Voivodeship Lower Silesian Powiat city county Gmina WrocÅ‚aw Established 10th century City Rights 1262 Government  - Mayor RafaÅ‚ Dutkiewicz Area  - City 292. ... Mount Åšlęża is a mountain in the Sudetes Highlands (Pogórze Sudeckie) in Lower Silesia, southern Poland. ... Coordinates: , Country Voivodeship Powiat GÅ‚ubczyce County Gmina GÅ‚ubczyce Estabilshed 12th century City Rights 13th century Government  - Mayor Adam Krupa Area  - Town 12. ... Length 433 km Basin area 16,861 km² Origin Carpathian Mountains Tributary of Vistula River Countries Poland, Ukraine San River. ... For other uses, see Krakow (disambiguation). ... The green area is the Przew