Red Kite (Milvus milvus) in flight, showing remiges and rectrices.

The term flight feather refers to any of the long stiff feathers on the wing or tail of a bird; these feathers lack the insulating "aftershaft" found on contour feathers. Flight feathers found on the wing are called remiges (singular remex) while those on the tail are called rectrices (singular rectrix). These feathers are asymmetrical, with the rachis running closer to the distal side of the feather. This shape allows each flight feather to act as an individual airfoil, improving the generation of lift across wings and tail. The flexibility of the remiges on the wingtips of large soaring birds also allows for the spreading of those feathers, which helps to reduce the creation of wingtip vortices, thereby reducing drag. Binomial name Milvus milvus Linnaeus, 1758 The Red Kite (Milvus milvus) is a medium-large bird of prey in the family Accipitridae, which also includes many other diurnal raptors such as eagles, buzzards and harriers. ... Two feathers Feathers are one of the epidermal growths that form the distinctive outer covering, or plumage, on birds. ... A Laughing Gull with its wings extended in a gull wing profile Aircraft wing planform shapes: a swept wing KC-10 Extender (top) refuels a trapezoid-wing F/A-22 Raptor A wing is a surface used to produce lift and therefore flight, for travel in the air or another... A scorpion tail The tail is the section at the rear end of an animals body; in general, the term refers to a distinct, flexible appendage to the torso. ... “Aves” redirects here. ... Rachis was also king of the Lombards, 744-749. ... In zootomy, several terms are used to describe the location of organs and other structures in the body of bilateral animals. ... The lift force, lifting force or simply lift is a mechanical force generated by a solid object moving through a fluid. ... Vortex created by the passage of an aircraft wing, revealed by coloured smoke A vortex (pl. ... In physics, the drag equation gives the drag experienced by an object moving through a fluid. ...

Remiges

Bird wing bone structure, indicating attachment points of remiges

Remiges are attached to the rear side of the wing; the long calami, or quills, are deeply imbedded into the bones themselves. Corresponding remiges on individual birds are symmetrical between the two wings, matching in size and shape (except in the case of mutation or damage), though not necessarily in pattern.^[1] They are given different names depending on their position along the wing. Grays Anatomy illustration of a human femur. ... It has been suggested that mutant be merged into this article or section. ...

Primaries

Primaries are connected to the manus (carpometacarpus and phalanges); these are the longest and narrowest of the remiges (particularly those attached to the manus), and they can be individually rotated. These feathers are especially important for flapping flight, as they are the principal source of thrust, moving the bird forward through the air. Most thrust is generated on the downstroke of flapping flight. However, on the upstroke (when the bird often draws its wing in close to its body), the primaries are separated and rotated, reducing air resistance while still helping to provide some thrust.^[2] In soaring flight, large birds with broad wings spread their primaries to help reduce the turbulence created by wingtip vortices; this helps to decrease drag.^[3] The phalanges in a human hand The name Phalanges is commonly given to the bones that form fingers and toes. ... Flight is the main mode of locomotion used by most of the worlds bird species. ... Thrust is a reaction force described quantitatively by Newtons Second and Third Laws. ...

Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) in flight with primaries spread to decrease drag and improve lift.

Species vary somewhat in the number of primaries they possess. The number in non-passerines generally varies between nine and 11,^[4] but grebes, storks and flamingos have 12,^[5] and ostriches have 16.^[5] While most modern passerines have ten primaries,^[4] some have only nine. Those with nine are missing the most distal primary (sometimes called the remicle) which is typically very small and sometimes rudimentary in passerines.^[5] Binomial name Haliaeetus leucocephalus (Linnaeus, 1766) Bald Eagle range Subspecies (Linnaeus, 1766) Southern Bald Eagle Audubon, 1827) Northern Bald Eagle or Washingtons Eagle Synonyms Falco leucocephalus Linnaeus, 1766 The Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), also known in the United States as the American Eagle, is a bird of prey found... Flight is the main mode of locomotion used by most of the worlds bird species. ... Genera Podiceps Tachybaptus Podilymbus Aechmophorus Poliocephalus Rollandia Grebes are members of the Podicipediformes order, a widely distributed order of freshwater diving birds, some of which visit the sea when migrating and in winter. ... Genera See text. ... Flamingos are gregarious wading birds in the genus Phoenicopterus and family Phoenicopteridae. ... Binomial name Struthio camelus Carolus Linnaeus, 1758 The present-day distribution of Ostriches. ... Families Many, see text A passerine is a bird of the giant order Passeriformes. ...

The outermost primaries—those connected to the phlanges—are sometimes known as pinions.

Secondaries

Secondaries are connected to the ulna. These feathers remain close together in flight (they cannot be individually separated like the primaries can) and help to provide lift by creating the airfoil shape of the bird's wing. Secondaries tend to be shorter and broader than primaries, with blunter ends (see illustration). They vary in number from a mere 6 in hummingbirds to as many as 40 in some species of albatross.^[6] In general, larger (and longer-winged) species have a larger number of secondaries.^[6] The ulna (Elbow Bone) [Figs. ... Subfamilies Phaethornithinae Trochilinae For a taxonomic list of genera, see: List of hummingbirds in taxonomic order For an alphabetic species list, see: Alphabetic species list Hummingbirds are small birds in the family Trochilidae, native only to the Americas. ... Genera Diomedea Thalassarche Phoebastria Phoebetria Albatrosses, of the biological family Diomedeidae, are large seabirds allied to the procellariids, storm-petrels and diving-petrels in the order Procellariiformes (the tubenoses). ...

Primary (left) and secondary (right) feathers of the Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo); note the asymmetrical orientation of the shafts

Image File history File linksMetadata No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File linksMetadata No higher resolution available. ... Binomial name Buteo buteo (Linnaeus, 1758) The Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo) is a bird of prey from the Old World. ...

Tertials

Tertials are connected to the humerus in some species. These elongated "true" tertials act as a protective cover for all or part of the folded primaries and secondaries, and don't qualify as flight feathers as such.^[7] However, many authorities use the term tertials to refer to the shorter, more symmetrical innermost secondaries of passerines (which perform the same function as true tertials do) in an effort to distinguish them from the other secondaries. The humerus is a long bone in the arm or fore-legs (animals) that runs from the shoulder to the elbow. ...

Emargination

The outermost primaries of large soaring birds, particularly raptors, often show a pronounced narrowing at some variable distance along the feather edges. These narrowings are called either notches or emarginations depending on the degree of their slope.^[8] An emargination is a gradual change, and can be found on either side of the feather. A notch is an abrupt change, and is only found on the wider trailing edge of the remige. (Both are visible on the primary in the photo to the right; they can be found about halfway along both sides of the left hand feather—a shallow notch on the left, and a gradual emargination on the right.) The presence of notches and emarginations creates gaps at the wingtip; air is forced through these gaps, increasing the generation of lift.^[9]

Remiges and wing shape

The size and shape of remiges, along with underlying bone structure and musculature, help to determine a wing's shape. External anatomy of a typical bird 1 Beak, 2 Head, 3 Iris, 4 Pupil, 5 Mantle, 6 Lesser coverts, 7 Scapulars, 8 Coverts, 9 Tertials, 10 Rump, 11 Primaries, 12 Vent, 13 Thigh, 14 Tibio-tarsal articulation, 15 Tarsus, 16 Feet, 17 Tibia, 18 Belly, 19 Flanks, 20 Breast, 21... External anatomy of a typical bird 1 Beak, 2 Head, 3 Iris, 4 Pupil, 5 Mantle, 6 Lesser coverts, 7 Scapulars, 8 Coverts, 9 Tertials, 10 Rump, 11 Primaries, 12 Vent, 13 Thigh, 14 Tibio-tarsal articulation, 15 Tarsus, 16 Feet, 17 Tibia, 18 Belly, 19 Flanks, 20 Breast, 21...

Rectrices

Rectrices lie in a single horizontal row on the rear margin of the anatomical tail. They are always paired, with a vast majority of species having six pairs.^[5] Rectrices are absent in grebes^[10] and some ratites^[11] and greatly reduced in size in penguins,^[12] while Ostriches have the highest recorded count, with 25 to 30 pairs. Some grouse species, including Ruffed Grouse, naturally have a variable number of rectrices, and domestic pigeons have a highly variable number, due to centuries of selective breeding.^[13] Families Struthionidae (ostriches) Rheidae (rheas) Casuariidae (emus etc. ... Modern genera Aptenodytes Eudyptes Eudyptula Megadyptes Pygoscelis Spheniscus For prehistoric genera, see Systematics Some penguins are curious. ... Genera Tetrao Lagopus Falcipennis Centrocercus Bonasa Dendrapagus Tympanuchus Grouse are from the order Galliformes which inhabit temperate and subarctic regions of the northern hemisphere. ... Binomial name Bonasa umbellus (Linnaeus, 1766) The Ruffed Grouse, Bonasa umbellus, is a medium-sized grouse occurring in forests across Canada and the appalachian and northern United States including Alaska. ... Binomial name Columba livia Gmelin, 1789 The Rock Pigeon (Columba livia), is a member of the bird family Columbidae, doves and pigeons. ...

Flight feather numbering conventions

In order to make the discussion of such topics as moult processes or body structure easier, ornithologists assign a number to each flight feather. By convention, the numbers assigned to primary feathers always start with the letter P (P1, P2, P3, etc.), those of secondaries with the letter S, those of tertials with T and those of rectrices with R. In animals, moulting (Commonwealth English) or molting (American English) is the routine shedding off old feathers in birds, or of old skin in reptiles, or of old hairs in mammals (see also coat (dog)). In arthropods, such as insects, arachnids and crustaceans, moulting describes the shedding of its exoskeleton (which... With regard to living things, a body is the integral physical material of an individual. ... Ornithology (from the Greek ornitha = chicken and logos = word/science) is the branch of biology concerned with the scientific study of birds. ... A number is an abstract idea used in counting and measuring. ...

Most authorities number the primaries descendantly, starting from the innermost primary (the one closest to the secondaries) and working outwards; others number them ascendantly, from the most distal primary inwards.^[4] There are some advantages to each method. Descendant numbering follows the normal sequence of most birds' primary moult. In addition, in the event that a species is missing the small distal 10^th primary, as some passerines are, its lack doesn't impact the numbering of the remaining primaries. Ascendant numbering, on the other hand, allows for uniformity in the numbering of non-passerine primaries, as they almost invariably have four attached to the manus regardless of how many primaries they have overall. ^[4] This method is particularly useful for indicating wing formulae, as the outermost primary is the one with which the measurements begin.

Secondaries are always numbered ascendantly, starting with the outermost secondary (the one closest to the primaries) and working inwards.^[4] Tertials are also numbered ascendantly, but in this case, the numbers continue on consecutively from that given to the last secondary (e.g. ... S5, S6, T7, T8, ... etc.).^[4]

Rectrices are always numbered from the centermost pair outwards in both directions.^[14]

Flight feathers and moult

Eurasian Jackdaw (Corvus monedula), showing moult of central rectrices.

Once they have finished growing, feathers are essentially dead structures. Over time, they become worn and abraded, and need to be replaced. This replacement process is known as moult (molt in the United States). The loss of wing and tail feathers can affect a bird's ability to fly (sometimes dramatically) and in certain families can impair the ability to feed or perform courtship displays. The timing and progression of flight feather moult therefore varies between families. Binomial name Corvus monedula (Linnaeus, 1758) The Jackdaw (Corvus monedula) is one of the smallest species (34-39 cm in length) in the genus of crows and ravens. ... In animals, moulting (Commonwealth English) or molting (American English) is the routine shedding off old feathers in birds, or of old skin in reptiles, or of old hairs in mammals (see also coat (dog)). In arthropods, such as insects, arachnids and crustaceans, moulting describes the shedding of its exoskeleton (which... In biological classification, family (Latin: familia, plural familiae) is 1) a rank or 2) a taxon in that rank. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ...

For most birds, moult begins at a certain specific point, called a focus (plural foci), on the wing or tail and proceeds in a sequential manner in one or both directions from there. For example, most passerines have a focus between the innermost primary (P1, using the numbering scheme explained above) and outermost secondary (S1), and a focus point in the middle of the center pair of rectrices.^[15] As passerine moult begins, the two feathers closest to the focus are the first to drop. When replacement feathers reach roughly half of their eventual length, the next feathers in line (P2 and S2 on the wing, and both R2s on the tail) are dropped. This pattern of drop and replacement continues until moult reaches either end of the wing or tail. The speed of the moult can vary somewhat within a species. Some passerines that breed in the Arctic, for example, drop many more flight feathers at once (sometimes becoming briefly flightless) in order to complete their entire wing moult prior to migrating south, while those same species breeding at lower latitudes undergo a more protracted moult.^[16] The red line indicates the 10°C isotherm in July, commonly used to define the Arctic region border Satellite image of the Arctic surface The Arctic is the region around the Earths North Pole, opposite the Antarctic region around the South Pole. ... Flock of Barnacle Geese during autumn migration Many species of birds undertake seasonal journeys of various lengths, a phenomenon known as Bird migration. ... Latitude, usually denoted symbolically by the Greek letter phi, , gives the location of a place on Earth north or south of the equator. ...

In many species, there is more than one focus along the wing. Here, moult begins at all foci simultaneously, but generally proceeds only in one direction. Most grouse, for example, have two wing foci: one at the wingtip, the other between feathers P1 and S1. In this case, moult proceeds descendantly from both foci. Many large, long-winged birds have multiple wing foci.

Birds that are heavily "wing-loaded"—that is, heavy-bodied birds with relatively short wings—have great difficulty flying with the loss of even a few flight feathers. A protracted moult like the one described above would leave them vulnerable to predators for a sizeable portion of the year. Instead, these birds lose all their flight feathers at once. This leaves them completely flightless for a period of three to four weeks, but means their overall period of vulnerability is significantly shorter than it would otherwise be. Eleven families of birds, including loons, grebes and most waterfowl, have this moult strategy. This snapping turtle is trying to make a meal of a Canada goose, but the goose is too wary. ... A year (from Old English gÄ“r) is the time between two recurrences of an event related to the orbit of the Earth around the Sun. ... For the TV station in the Peoria-Bloomington, Illinois market, see WEEK-TV. A week is a unit of time longer than a day and shorter than a month. ... Global distribution of Gaviidae (breeding and winter ranges combined) Species Gavia stellata Gavia arctica Gavia pacifica Gavia immer Gavia adamsii The Loons (N.Am. ... Families Anhimidae Anseranatidae Anatidae †Dromornithidae †Presbyornithidae The order Anseriformes contains about 150 species of birds in three families: the Anhimidae (the screamers), Anseranatidae (the Magpie-goose), and the Anatidae, which includes over 140 species of waterfowl, among them the ducks, geese, and swans. ...

Arboreal woodpeckers, which depend on their tails—particularly the central pair of rectrices—for support while they feed, have a unique tail moult. Rather than moulting their central tail feathers first, as most birds do, they retain these feathers until last. Instead the second pair of rectrices (both R2 feathers) are the first to drop. The pattern of drop and replacement proceeds as described for passerines (above) until all other rectrices have been replaced; only then are the central tail rectrices moulted. This provides some protection to the growing feathers (since they're always covered by at least one existing feather), and also ensures that the bird's newly strengthened tail is best able to cope with the loss of the crucial central tail feathers. Ground-feeding woodpeckers, such as the wrynecks, do not have this modified moult strategy. Genera Melanerpes Sphyrapicus Xiphidiopicus Dendropicos Dendrocopos Picoides Veniliornis Campethera Geocolaptes Dinopium Meiglyptes Hemicircus Micropternus Picus Mulleripicus Dryocopus Celeus Piculus Colaptes Campephilus Chrysocolaptes Reinwardtipicus Blythipicus Gecinulus Sapheopipo For other uses, see Woodpecker (disambiguation). ... Species The wrynecks (genus Jynx) are a small but distinctive group of small Old World woodpeckers. ...

Measuring primary lengths, one of the steps in determining a bird's wing formula.

Wing formulae

A wing formula describes the shape of distal end of a bird's wing in a mathematical way. It can be used to help distinguish between species with similar plumages, and thus is particularly useful for those who ring (band) birds.^[8] Mathematics is commonly defined as the study of patterns of structure, change, and space; more informally, one might say it is the study of figures and numbers. Mathematical knowledge is constantly growing, through research and application, but mathematics itself is not usually considered a natural science. ... Bird ringing (also known as bird banding) is an aid to studying wild birds, by attaching a small individually numbered metal or plastic ring to their legs or wings, so that various aspects of the birds life can be studied by the ability to re-find the same individual...

To determine a bird's wing formula, the distance between the tip of the most distal primary and the tip of its greater covert (the longest of the feathers that cover and protect the shaft of that primary) is measured in millimeters. In some cases, this results in a positive number (e.g., the primary extends beyond its greater covert), while in other cases it's a negative number (e.g. the primary is completely covered by the greater covert, as happens in some passerine species). Next, the longest primary feather is identified, and the differences between the length of that primary and that of all remaining primaries and of the longest secondary are also measured, again in millimeters. If any primary shows a notch or emargination, this is noted, and the distance between the feather's tip and any notch is measured, as is the depth of the notch. All distance measurements are made with the bird's wing closed, so as to maintain the relative positions of the feathers.

While there can be considerable variation across members of a species—and while the results are obviously impacted by the effects of molt and feather regeneration—even very closely related species show clear differences in their wing formulas.^[8]

Age differences in flight feathers

In some species, particularly raptors, there is an often significant difference between the length of remiges and rectrices in adults and juveniles. In some species (such as the Swallow-tailed Kite^[17] and the European Honey Buzzard),^[18] juveniles have shorter flight feathers than adults do. In other species (such as the Bateleur^[17] and the White-tailed Eagle^[18]) the opposite is true. Binomial name Elanus forficatus (Linnaeus, 1758) The Swallow-tailed Kite (Elanus forficatus) is an elanid kite found in southern North America to northern South America. ... Binomial name Pernis apivorus (Linnaeus, 1758) The Honey Buzzard (Pernis apivorus) is a bird of prey in the family Accipitridae which also includes many other diurnal raptors such as kites, eagles and harriers. ... CambridgeBayWeather 22:28, 28 August 2005 (UTC) Categories: Possible copyright violations ... Binomial name Haliaeetus albicilla (Linnaeus, 1758) Light Green: nesting area Blue: wintering area Dark Green: all-year Synonyms Falco albicilla Linnaeus, 1758 Haliaeetus albicilla albicilla Haliaeetus albicilla groenlandicus The White-tailed Eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla[1]), also known as the Sea Eagle, Erne (sometimes Ern), or White-tailed Sea-eagle is...

Specialized flight feathers

Male Pin-tailed Whydah (Vidua macroura) showing modified rectrices.

The flight feathers of some species have undergone evolutionary changes which allow them to provide additional functionality. Binomial name Vidua macroura (Pallas, 1764) The Pin-tailed Whydah, Vidua macroura, is a small songbird. ...

In some species, for example, either remiges or retrices make a sound during flight. These sounds are most often associated with courtship or territorial displays. Male Club-winged Manakins, Machaeropterus deliciosus have evolved feather modifications similar to those in the wings of stridulating insects and use these to produce sounds during courtship.^[19] The outer primaries of male Broad-tailed Hummingbirds produce a distinctive high-pitched trill, both in direct flight and in power-dives during courtship displays; this trill is diminished when the outer primaries are worn, and absent when those feathers have been moulted.^[20] During the Northern Lapwing's zigzagging display flight, the bird's outer primaries produce a humming sound.^[21] The outer primaries of the male American Woodcock are shorter and slightly narrower than those of the female, and are likely the source of the whistling and twittering sounds made during his courtship display flights.^[22] Both Wilson's and Common Snipe have modified outer tail feathers which make noise when they are spread during the birds' roller coaster display flights; as the bird dives, wind flows through the modified feathers and creates a series of rising and falling notes, which is known as "winnowing".^[23] Differences between the sounds produced by these two former conspecific subspecies—and the fact that the outer two pairs of rectrices in Wilson's Snipe are modified, while only the single outermost pair are modified in Common Snipe—were among the characteristics used to justify their splitting into two distinct and separate species. Stridulation is the act of producing sound by rubbing together certain body parts. ... The shield and spear of the Roman god Mars, which is also the alchemical symbol for iron, represents the male sex. ... Binomial name Selasphorus platycercus (Swainson, 1827) The broad-tailed hummingbird, Selasphorus platycercus, is a medium-sized hummingbird, nearly four inches in length. ... Binomial name Vanellus vanellus (Linnaeus, 1758) The Northern Lapwing (Vanellus vanellus), also known as the Peewit or just Lapwing, is a bird in the plover family. ... Binomial name Scolopax minor Gmelin, 1789 The American Woodcock, Scolopax minor, is a small chunky shorebird. ... Binomial name Gallinago gallinago Linnaeus, 1758 Subspecies (Wilsons Snipe) The Common Snipe, Gallinago gallinago, is a small, stocky shorebird. ... Binomial name Gallinago gallinago Linnaeus, 1758 Subspecies The Common Snipe (Gallinago gallinago) is a small, stocky shorebird. ...

Leading edge of an owl feather, showing serrations.

Flight feathers are also used by some species in visual displays. Male Standard-winged and Pennant-winged nightjars have modified P2 primaries (using the descendant numbering scheme explained above) which are displayed during their courtship rituals.^[24] In the Standard-winged Nightjar, this modified primary consists of an extremely long shaft with a small "pennant" (actually a large web of barbules) at the tip. In the Pennant-winged Nightjar, the P2 primary is an extremely long (but otherwise normal) feather, while P3, P4 and P5 are successively shorter; the overall effect is a broadly-forked wingtip with a very long plume beyond the lower half of the fork. Binomial name Macrodipteryx longipennis (Shaw, 1796) The Standard-winged Nightjar, Macrodipteryx longipennis, is a bird in the nightjar family. ...

Males of many species, ranging from the widely introduced Ring-necked Pheasant to Africa's many whydahs, have one or more elongated pairs of rectrices, which play an often-critical role in their courtship rituals. The outermost pair of rectrices in male lyrebirds are extremely long and strongly curved at the ends. These plumes are raised up over the bird's head (along with a fine spray of modified uppertail coverts) during his extraordinary display. Rectrix modification reaches its pinnacle among the birds of paradise, which display an assortment of often bizarrely modified feathers, ranging from the extremely long plumes of the Ribbon-tailed Astrapia (nearly three times the length of the bird itself) to the dramatically coiled twin plumes of the Magnificent Bird of Paradise. Binomial name Phasianus colchicus Linnaeus, 1758 The Common Pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) is a gamebird in the pheasant family Phasianidae of the order Galliformes, gallinaceous birds. ... A world map showing the continent of Africa Africa is the worlds second-largest and second most-populous continent, after Asia. ... Genus Vidua For the pirate ship Whydah, see Whydah Gally The Indigobirds and whydahs, are small passerine birds native to Africa. ... Species Menura novaehollandiae Menura alberti A Lyrebird is either of two species of ground-dwelling Australian birds, most notable for their extraordinary ability to mimic natural and artificial sounds from their environment. ... For the flowering plant of this name, see Strelitzia Genera Cicinnurus Diphyllodes Epimachus Lophorina Manucodia Paradisaea Parotia Ptiloris Seleucidis Lesser Bird of Paradise Paradisaea minor (c)Roderick Eime The birds of paradise are members of the family Paradisaeidae of the order Passeriformes, found in Oceania. ... Binomial name Astrapia mayeri Stonor, 1939 The Ribbon-tailed Astrapia, Astrapia mayeri is a medium-sized, up to 32cm long, velvet black bird of paradise. ... Binomial name Cicinnurus magnificus Pennant, 1781 The Magnificent Bird of Paradise, Cicinnurus magnificus is a small, up to 26cm long, bird of paradise with an extremely complex plumages. ...

Owls have remiges which are serrated rather than smooth on the leading edge. This adaptation disrupts the flow of air over the wings, eliminating the noise that airflow over a smooth surface normally creates, and allowing the birds to fly silently.^[25] Families Strigidae Tytonidae Ogygoptyngidae (fossil) Palaeoglaucidae (fossil) Protostrigidae (fossil) Sophiornithidae (fossil) Synonyms Strigidae sensu Sibley & Ahlquist Owls are a group of birds of prey. ...

The rectrices of woodpeckers are proportionately short and very stiff, allowing them to better brace themselves against tree trunks while feeding. This adaptation is also found, though to a lesser extent, in some other species that feed along tree trunks, including woodcreepers and treecreepers. Genera Melanerpes Sphyrapicus Xiphidiopicus Dendropicos Dendrocopos Picoides Veniliornis Campethera Geocolaptes Dinopium Meiglyptes Hemicircus Micropternus Picus Mulleripicus Dryocopus Celeus Piculus Colaptes Campephilus Chrysocolaptes Reinwardtipicus Blythipicus Gecinulus Sapheopipo For other uses, see Woodpecker (disambiguation). ... Genera Dendrocincla Sittasomus Glyphorynchus Drymornis Nasica Dendrexetastes Hylexetastes Xiphocolaptes Dendrocolaptes Xiphorhynchus Lepidocolaptes Campylorhamphus The woodcreepers are a family of passerine bird species endemic to the neotropics. ... Species C. familiaris C. brachydactyla C. americana C. himalayana C. nipalensis C. discolor The treecreepers are a group of very similar small passerines found throughout the Northern hemisphere. ...

Scientists have not yet determined the function of all flight feather modifications. For instance, male swallows in the genera Psalidoprocne and Stelgidopteryx have tiny recurved hooks on the leading edges of their outer primaries, but the function of these hooks is not yet known; some authorities suggest they may produce a sound during territorial or courtship displays.^[26]

Double-wattled Cassowary, showing modified remiges.

Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1263x1134, 308 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Southern Cassowary ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1263x1134, 308 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Southern Cassowary ... Binomial name Casuarius casuarius Linnaeus, 1758 Distribution of the Southern Cassowary The Southern Cassowary (Casuarius casuarius), also known as Double-wattled Cassowary or Two-wattled Cassowary, is a large flightless black bird with hard and stiff plumage, a brown casque, blue face and neck, red nape and two red wattles...

Flight feathers in flightless birds

Over time, a small number of bird species have lost their ability to fly. Some of these, such as the flightless steamer ducks, show no appreciable changes in their flight feathers. Some, such as the Titicaca Flightless Grebe, have a reduced number of primaries. Species Tachyeres patachonicus (Flying Steamer Duck) Tachyeres pteneres (Magellanic Flightless Steamer Duck) Tachyeres brachypterus (Falkland Flightless Steamer Duck) Tachyeres leucocephalus (White-headed Flightless Steamer Duck) Tachyeres (Steamer Ducks) is a genus of ducks in the bird family Anatidae. ... Binomial name Rollandia microptera (Gould, 1868) The Titicaca Flightless Grebe Rollandia microptera is a grebe found on freshwater lakes on the altiplano of Peru and Bolivia, including Lake Titicaca. ...

The remiges of ratites are soft and downy; they lack the interlocking hooks and barbules that help to stiffen the flight feathers of other birds. In addition, the Emu's remiges are proportionately much reduced in size, while those of the cassowaries are reduced both in number and structure, consisting merely of 5–6 bare quills. Most ratites have completely lost their rectrices; only the Ostrich still has them. Binomial name (Latham, 1790) The Emu has been recorded in the areas shown in black. ... Species Casuarius casuarius Casuarius unappendiculatus Casuarius bennetti Cassowaries (genus Casuarius) are very large flightless birds native to the tropical forests of New Guinea and northeastern Australia. ...

Penguins have lost their differentiated flight feathers. As adults, their wings and tail are covered with the same small, stiff, slightly curved feathers as are found on the rest of their bodies.

Citations

References

• Bostwick, Kimberly S. & Richard O. Prum (2005), "Courting Bird Sings with Stridulating Wing Feathers", Science 309 (5735)
• Campbell, Bruce & Elizabeth Lack, eds. (1985), A Dictionary of Birds, Carlton, England: T and A D Poyser, ISBN 0-85661-039-9
• Cleere, Nigel & Dave Nurney (1998), Nightjars: A Guide to Nightjars and Related Nightbirds, Mountfield, East Sussex: Pica Press, ISBN 1-873403-48-8
• del Hoyo, Josep; Andrew Elliott & Jordi Sargatal, eds. (1992), Handbook of the Birds of the World, vol. 1, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions, ISBN 84-87334-10-5
• del Hoyo, Josep; Andrew Elliott & Jordi Sargatal, eds. (1997), Handbook of the Birds of the World, vol. 4, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions, ISBN 84-87334-22-9
• del Hoyo, Josep; Andrew Elliott & David Christie, eds. (2004), Handbook of the Birds of the World, vol. 9, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions, ISBN 84-87334-69-5
• Ehrlich, Paul R.; Darryl A. Dobkin & Darryl Wheye et al. (1994), The Birdwatcher's Handbook, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-858407-5
• Ferguson-Lees, James & David A. Christie (2001), Raptors of the World, London: Christopher Helm, ISBN 0-7136-8026-1
• Forsman, Dick (1999), The Raptors of Europe and the Middle East, London: T and A D Poyser, ISBN 0-85661-098-4
• Jenni, Lukas & Raffael Winkler (1994), Moult and Ageing of European Passerines, London: Academic Press, ISBN 0-12-384150-X
• Howell, Steve N. G. (2002), Hummingbirds of North America, London: Academic Press, ISBN 0-12-356955-9
• Paulson, Dennis (2005), Shorebirds of North America, London: Christopher Helm, ISBN 0-7136-7377-X
• Sibley, David (2001), The Sibley Guide to Bird Life & Behaviour, London: Christopher Helm, ISBN 0-7136-6250-6
• Trail, Pepper (2001), Wing Feathers, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Retrieved on 2007-05-22

The Handbook of the Birds of the World is a multi-volume series produced by Spanish publishing house Lynx Edicions. ... The Handbook of the Birds of the World is a multi-volume series produced by Spanish publishing house Lynx Edicions. ... The Handbook of the Birds of the World is a multi-volume series produced by Spanish publishing house Lynx Edicions. ... Paul Ralph Ehrlich (born May 29, 1932 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) is a Stanford University professor and a renowned entomologist specializing in Lepidoptera (butterflies). ... David Allen Sibley (born 1962, New York) is an American ornithologist. ...

See also

• Bird anatomy
• Bird flight
• Pinioning
• Plumage

External anatomy of a typical bird 1 Beak, 2 Head, 3 Iris, 4 Pupil, 5 Mantle, 6 Lesser coverts, 7 Scapulars, 8 Coverts, 9 Tertials, 10 Rump, 11 Primaries, 12 Vent, 13 Thigh, 14 Tibio-tarsal articulation, 15 Tarsus, 16 Feet, 17 Tibia, 18 Belly, 19 Flanks, 20 Breast, 21... Flight is the main mode of locomotion used by most of the worlds bird species. ... Diagram of pinioning, from Wild Waterfowl and its Captive Management Vol. ... Closeup on a single white feather A feather is one of the epidermal growths that forms the distinctive outer covering, or plumage, on a bird. ...

External links

• Wing Feathers - US Fish and Wildlife Service document Contains excellent photographic examples of emargination and notching in raptor remiges.
• Video of feeding Magellanic Woodpecker (Campephilus magellanicus) Shows use of rectrices for bracing.
• Video of singing male Superb Lyrebird (Menuta novaehollandiae) Shows long modified rectrices which are used in display (though the video doesn't show full display).
• Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology's American Woodcock (Scolopax minor) recordings #94216 has a good example of the sounds made by remiges during courtship display flight, starting at about 2:32.
• Sound made by rectrices in courtship flight of Common Snipe (Gallinago gallinago)