The Principate is, according to its etymological derivation from the Latin word princeps, meaning chief or first, the political regime dominated by such a political leader, whether or not he is formally head of state and/or head of government. The Roman Kingdom (Latin: Regnum Romanum) was the monarchal government for the city of Rome and its territories from its founding. ... See also Roman Republic (18th century) and Roman Republic (19th century). ... The Roman Empire is the name given to both the imperial domain developed by the city-state of Rome and also the corresponding phase of that civilization, characterized by an autocratic form of government. ... The Dominate was the despotic last of the two phases of government in the ancient Roman Empire between its establishment in 27 BC and the formal date of the collapse of the Western Empire in AD 476. ... The Western Roman Empire is the western half of the Roman Empire after its division by Diocletian in 286. ... Byzantine Empire at its greatest extent c. ... Magistratus ordinarii (ordinary magistrates) and Magistratus extraordinarii (extraordinary magistrates) were two categories of officials who held political, military, and, in some cases, religious power in the Roman Republic. ... This article is about the highest office of the Roman Republic. ... // Definition According to Cicero, Praetor was a title which designated the consuls as the leaders of the armies of the state. ... Quaestores were elected officials of the Roman Republic who supervised the treasury and financial affairs of the state, its armies and its officers. ... See Roman Governor for the duties of a promagistrate as a governor of a province A promagistrate is a person who acts in and with the authority and capacity of a magistrate, but without holding a magisterial office. ... Aedile (Latin Aedilis, from aedes, aedis temple, building) was an office of the Roman Republic. ... Tribune (from the Latin: tribunus; Greek form tribounos) was a title shared by several elected magistracies and other governmental and/or (para)military offices of the Roman Republic and Empire. ... Censor was the title of two magistrates of high rank in the Roman Republic. ... A Roman governor was an official either elected or appointed to be the chief adminstator of Roman law throughout one or more of Ancient Romes many provinces. ... Magistratus ordinarii (ordinary magistrates) and Magistratus extraordinarii (extraordinary magistrates) were two categories of officials who held political, military, and, in some cases, religious power in the Roman Republic. ... The Master of the Horse was (and in some cases, is) a historical position of varying importance in several European nations. ... The Tribuni militum consulari potestate, or Consular Tribunes were tribunes elected with consular power during the Conflict of the Orders in the Roman Republic, starting in 444 BCE and then continuiously from 408 BCE to 394 BCE, and again from 391 BCE to 367 BCE. According the the histories of... Dictator was a political office of the Roman Republic. ... The term triumvirate is commonly used to describe a political regime dominated by three powerful political and/or military leaders. ... Decemviri (singular decemvir) is a Latin term meaning Ten Men which designates any such commission in the Roman Republic (cf. ... Alternate meanings: see Pontifex (disambiguation) In Ancient Rome, the Pontifex Maximus was the high priest of the collegium of the Pontifices, the most august position in Roman religion, open only to a patrician, until 254 BC, when a plebeian first occupied this post. ... A legatus (often anglicized as legate) was equivalent to a modern general officer in the Roman army. ... The Misspeling of Ducks ... Officium (plural officia) is a Latin word with various meanings, including service, (sense of) duty, courtesy, ceremony and the likes. ... A prefect (from the Latin praefectus, perfect participle of praeficere: make in front, i. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... The Vigintisexviri (sing. ... The lictor, derived from the Latin ligare (to bind), was a member of a special class of Roman civil servant, with special tasks of attending magistrates of the Roman Republic and Empire who held imperium. ... Magister militum (Latin for Master of the Soldiers) was a top-level command used in the later Roman Empire, dating from the reign of Constantine. ... The Latin word imperator was a title originally roughly equivalent to commander during the period of the Roman Republic. ... The princeps senatus (plural principes senatus) was the leader of the Roman senate. ... Roman Emperor is the term historians use to refer to rulers of the Roman Empire, after the epoch conventionally named the Roman Republic. ... Augustus (plural augusti) is Latin for majestic, the increaser, or venerable. The feminine form is Augusta. ... Caesar (plural Caesars), Latin: Cæsar (plural Cæsares), is a title of imperial character. ... The Tetrarchs, a porphyry sculpture sacked from a Byzantine palace in 1204, Treasury of St. ... This is a tentative list of topics regarding political institutions of Ancient Rome. ... The Roman Senate (Latin: Senatus) was the main governing council of both the Roman Republic, which started in 509 BC, and the Roman Empire, which ended in the 6th century AD. The word Senatus is derived from the Latin word senex, meaning old man or elder. ... The cursus honorum (Latin: succession of magistracies) was the sequential order of public offices held by aspiring politicians in both the Roman Republic and the early Empire. ... The Roman assemblies were the Comitia Calata, the Comitia Curiata, the Comitia Centuriata, and the Comitia Tributa. ... Collegiality is the relationship between colleagues. ... Roman law is the legal system of ancient Rome. ... The toga was the characteristic garment of the Roman citizen. ... Auctoritas is the Latin origin of English authority. According to Benveniste [citation?], auctor (which also gives us English author) is derived from Latin augeó (to augment): The auctor is is qui auget, the one who augments the act or the juridical situation of another. ... Imperium can, in a broad sense, be translated as power. ... Latin is an ancient Indo-European language originally spoken in Latium, the region immediately surrounding Rome. ... The Latin word Princeps (plural: principes) means the first. This article is devoted to a number of specific historical meanings the word took, by far the most important of which follows first. ... Queen Elizabeth II, is the Head of State of 16 countries including: the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, Jamaica, New Zealand and the Bahamas, as well as crown colonies and overseas territories of the United Kingdom. ... The Head of Government is the chief officer of the executive branch of a government, often presiding over a cabinet. ...

History

The title, in full princeps senatus / princeps civitatis (first amongst the senators, i.e. legislators, viz. amongst the citizens), was first adopted by Octavian Caesar Augustus (r. 27 BC-AD 14), the first Roman 'Emperor', who chose - like the assassinated dictator for life, Julius Caesar, who had formally refused the crown - not to (re)introduce a legal monarchy, but to establish the political stability desperately needed after the exhausting civil wars by a de facto regime within the constitutional framework of the republic, which had been devised precisely as an alternative to the hated early kingdom. The famous statue of Octavian at the Prima Porta Caesar Augustus (Latin:IMP·CAESAR·DIVI·F·AVGVSTVS) ¹ (23 September 63 BC–19 August AD 14), known to modern historians as Octavian for the period of his life prior to 27 BC, is considered the first and one of the most... Events First year of tianfeng era of the Chinese Xin Dynasty. ... Gāius JÅ«lius Caesar (IPA: ;[1]), July 12 or July 13, 100 BC – March 15, 44 BC) was a Roman military and political leader and one of the most influential men in world history. ...

The title itself derived from the position of the princeps senatus, traditionally was the oldest member of the Senate who had the right to be heard first on any debate. Although dynastic pretences crept in from the start, formalising this in a monarchic style remained constitutionally unthinkable.

Often, in a more limited and precise chronological sense, the term is applied either to the empire (in the sense of post-republican) or specifically the earlier of the two phases of 'imperial' government in the ancient Roman Empire extending from when Augustus claimed auctoritas for him, as princeps, until Rome's military collapse in the West (fall of Rome) in 476, leaving the Byzantine empire sole heir, or, depending on the source, up to the rule of Domitianus, of Commodus or of Diocletian; afterwards, imperial rule in the empire is designated as the dominate, which is subjectively more like an (absolute) monarchy while the earlier principate is still more 'republican'. The Roman Empire is the name given to both the imperial domain developed by the city-state of Rome and also the corresponding phase of that civilization, characterized by an autocratic form of government. ... Auctoritas is the Latin origin of English authority. According to Benveniste [citation?], auctor (which also gives us English author) is derived from Latin augeó (to augment): The auctor is is qui auget, the one who augments the act or the juridical situation of another. ... The History of The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, a major literary achievement of Eighteenth Century, was written by the English historian, Edward Gibbon. ... Events August - The usurper Basiliscus is deposed and Zeno is restored as Eastern Roman Emperor. ... Domitianus was a Roman military commander who declared himself emperor of the secessionist Gallic Empire (the provinces of Gaul (France and the Rhineland) and Britain) for a short time in about 271. ... Coin of Bruttia Crispina Augusta, wife of Commodus. ... Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus ( 245– 312), born Diocles (Greek Διοκλής) and known in English as Diocletian,[1] was Roman Emperor from November 20, 284 to May 1, 305. ... The Dominate was the despotic last of the two phases of government in the ancient Roman Empire between its establishment in 27 BC and the formal date of the collapse of the Western Empire in AD 476. ...

Under this 'Principate stricto sensu', the political reality of autocratic rule by the Emperor was still scrupulously masked by forms and conventions of oligarchic self-rule inherited from the political period of the 'uncrowned' Roman Republic (509 BC-27 BC) under the motto SPQR. Initially, the theory implied the 'first citizen' had to earn his extraordinary position (de facto evolving to nearly absolute monarchy) by merit in the style that Augustus himself had gained the position of auctoritas. Imperial propaganda developed a 'paternalistic' ideology, presenting the Princeps as the very incarnation of all virtues attributed to the ideal ruler (much like a Greek tyrannos earlier), such as clemency and justice, and in turn placing the impetus upon the Princeps to play this designated role within Roman society, as his political insurance as well as a moral duty. What specifically was expected of the Princeps seems to have varied according to the times; Tiberius, who amassed a huge surplus for the city of Rome, was criticized as a miser, while Caligula was criticized for his lavish spending on games and spectacles. Generally speaking it was the duty of the emperor to be seen as generous, not just as a good ruler but also from his personal fortune (as in the proverbial "bread and circuses" – panem et circenses – meaning various public games, not just gladiators and horse races, but also artistic, as well as distributions of food), charitable institutions, de facto public works, et cetera, as popularity boosters, in the way of the Greek leitourgia (called munera in Latin) and the republican election campaigns. Autocracy is a form of government where unlimited power is held by a single individual. ... The office of Roman Emperor went through a complex evolution over the centuries of its existence. ... Oligarchy (Greek , Oligarkhía) is a form of government where political power effectively rests with a small, elite segment of society (whether distinguished by wealth, family or military prowess). ... See also Roman Republic (18th century) and Roman Republic (19th century). ... Centuries: 7th century BC - 6th century BC - 5th century BC Decades: 550s BC - 540s BC - 530s BC - 520s BC - 510s BC - 500s BC - 490s BC - 480s BC - 470s BC - 460s BC - 450s BC Events and Trends 509 BC - Foundation of the Roman Republic 508 BC - Office of pontifex maximus created... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC 30s BC - 20s BC - 10s BC 0s 10s 20s 30s Years: 32 BC 31 BC 30 BC 29 BC 28 BC 27 BC 26 BC 25 BC 24 BC 23 BC 22... The inscription in the Arch of Titus Modern coat of arms of Rome Manhole cover in Rome with SPQR inscription SPQR is an initialism from a Latin noun phrase, Senatus Populusque Romanus (The Senate and the People of Rome), referring to the government of the ancient Roman Republic, and used... A tyrant (from Greek τύραννος týrannos) is a usurper of rightful power, possessing absolute power and ruling by tyranny. ... Tiberius Caesar Augustus, born Tiberius Claudius Nero (November 16, 42 BC – March 16 AD 37), was the second Roman Emperor, from the death of Augustus in AD 14 until his own death in 37. ... Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (August 31, 12 – January 24, 41), most commonly known as Caligula, was the third Roman Emperor and a member of the Julio-Claudian dynastyhe also liked to have sex with animals, ruling from 37 to 41. ... The phrase panem et circenses (bread and circuses) is attributed to Juvenal, a Roman satiric poet of the 1st century AD, to describe the primary pursuits of the Roman populace. ...

With the fall of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, Julius Caesar's bloodline, the Principate was redefined in formal terms under the emperor Vespasian. The position of Princeps became a distinct entity within the broader -formally stll republican- Roman constitution. While many of the cultural and political expectations remained, the Princeps was no longer a position extended on the basis of merit, or auctoritas, but on a firmer basis, allowing Vespasian and future emperors to designate their own heir without those heirs having to earn the position through years of success and public favor. Under the Antonine dynasty, it was the norm for the emperor to appoint a successful and politically promising general as his successor. In modern historical analysis this is treated by many authors as an "ideal" situation; the individual who was most capable was promoted to the position of Princeps. Of the Antonine dynasty, Gibbon famously wrote that this was the happiest and most productive period in human history, and credited the system of succession as the key factor. Other historians have pointed out that the generals appointed to the Principate during the Antonine dynasty were largely made heirs because they constituted the greatest threat to the emperor as well as his eventual heir, should he chose someone different. Additionally, the promotion of individuals to the position of Princeps based mainly on their military prowess is seen by many as contributing directly to the downfall of the Principate, the chaos of the third century and the rise of the militaristic dominate. Imperator Caesar Vespasianus Augustus (November 17, 9 – June 23, 79), known originally as Titus Flavius Vespasianus and usually referred to in English as Vespasian, was emperor of Rome from 69 to 79. ... The Dominate was the despotic last of the two phases of government in the ancient Roman Empire between its establishment in 27 BC and the formal date of the collapse of the Western Empire in AD 476. ...

This first phase was to be followed by, or rather evolved into, the so-called Dominate. Starting with the emperor Domitian, oriental type of styles like dominus ('Lord, Master', suggesting the citizens became servi, servants or slaves) became current, though not legal, but there could by definition never be a clear, constitutional turning point, so this appreciation remains subjective. The reality is gradual development. This process is also said to be established by the emperor Septimus Severus; while the Severan dynasty initially began the terminology of the dominate in reference to the emperor, the various emperors and their usurpers throughout the third century appealed to the people as both military dominus and political princeps. The Dominate was the despotic last of the two phases of government in the ancient Roman Empire between its establishment in 27 BC and the formal date of the collapse of the Western Empire in AD 476. ... Domitian bust in the Louvre Titus Flavius Domitianus (24 October 51 – 18 September 96), commonly known as Domitian, was a Roman emperor of the gens Flavia. ... Emperor Septimius Severus Lucius Septimius Severus, (April 11, 146 - February 4, 211) was Roman emperor from April 9, 193 to 211. ...

After the Crisis of the Third Century almost resulted in the Empire's political collapse, the Emperor Diocletian replaced the one-headed Principate with the tetrarchy (circa 300 AD, two Augusti ranking above two Caesares), in which the remaining pretense of the old Republican forms was largely done away with. The title of princeps was abandoned -like the territorial unity of the empire-, in favor of dominus, and the position of the emperor(s), especially in the Western Roman Empire, was entirely dependent on his control of the armed forces. The Dominate developed more and more, especially in the Byzantine empire, along the lines of an oriental absolute monarchy, where the subjects, and even diplomatic allies, could be termed servus or doulos 'servant/slave' to express the exalted position of the Emperor as second only to God, and on earth to none (except when reality took over, e.g. a victorious Persian ruler Chosroes was addressed with much more respect). Crisis of the Third Century (also known as the Military Anarchy or the Imperial Crisis ) is a commonly applied name for the crumbling and near collapse of the Roman Empire between 235 and 284 caused by the three simultaneous crises of external invasion, internal civil war and economic collapse. ... Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus ( 245– 312), born Diocles (Greek Διοκλής) and known in English as Diocletian,[1] was Roman Emperor from November 20, 284 to May 1, 305. ... The Tetrarchs, a porphyry sculpture sacked from a Byzantine palace in 1204, Treasury of St. ... Khosrau, Khusrau, Khosru and also Khusraw (Kasrâ in Arabic; Chosroes or Chosroës in Greek) was the name of a mythical Persian leader, in the Avesta known as Kavi Haosravah, with the meaning with good reputation. A number of rulers of Persia and the Middle East were known by this...

Sources and references

• Pauly-Wissowa (in German)