Proportional representation (sometimes referred to as full representation, or PR), is a category of electoral formula aiming at a close match between the percentage of votes that groups of candidates (grouped by a certain measure) obtain in elections and the percentage of seats they receive (usually in legislative assemblies). It is often contrasted to plurality voting systems, where disproportional seat distribution results from the division of voters into multiple electoral districts, especially "winner takes all" plurality (FPTP) districts. Single-winner voting systems are voting systems in which a predetermined constituency elects a single person to some office; they contrast generally with proportional representation, in which constituencies are combined to elect several representatives at once. ... An example of a plurality ballot. ... An example of runoff voting. ... Preferential voting (or preference voting) is a type of ballot structure used in several electoral systems in which voters rank a list or group of candidates in order of preference. ... The Condorcet candidate or Condorcet winner of an election is the candidate who, when compared in turn with each of the other candidates, is preferred over the other candidate. ... A Condorcet method is a single winner election method in which voters rank candidates in order of preference. ... Copelands method is a Condorcet method in which the winner is determined by finding the candidate with the most pairwise victories. ... The Kemeny-Young method is a voting system that uses preferential ballots, a tally table, and sequence scores to identify the most popular choice, and also identify the second-most popular choice, the third-most popular choice, and so on down to the least-popular choice. ... Minimax is often considered to be the simplest of the Condorcet methods. ... The Borda count can be combined with an Instant Runoff procedure to create hybrid election methods that are called Nanson method and Baldwin method. ... It has been suggested that Maximize Affirmed Majorities be merged into this article or section. ... The Schulze method is a voting system developed in 1997 by Markus Schulze that selects a single winner using votes that express preferences. ... Bucklin is a voting system that can be used for single-member districts and also multi-member districts. ... The Coombs method, created by Clyde Coombs, is a voting system used for single-winner elections in which each voter rank-orders the candidates. ... Example Instant-runoff voting ballot Instant-runoff voting (IRV) is a voting system most commonly used for single member elections in which voters have one vote, but can rank candidates in order of preference. ... On an approval ballot, the voter can vote for any number of candidates. ... Range voting (also called ratings summation, average voting, cardinal ratings, 0–99 voting, or the score system or point system) is a voting system for one-seat elections under which voters score each candidate, the scores are added up, and the candidate with the highest score wins. ... A points method ballot design like this one is the most common for governmental elections using cumulative voting. ... Mixed member proportional representation, also termed mixed-member proportional voting and commonly abbreviated to MMP, is a voting system used to elect representatives to numerous legislatures around the world. ... Party-list proportional representation systems are a family of voting systems used in multiple-winner elections (e. ... Open list describes any variant of party-list proportional representation where voters have at least some influence on the (by the political party itself supplied) order in which party candidates are elected. ... Closed list describes the variant of party_list proportional representation where voters can (effectively) only vote for political parties as a whole and thus have no influence on the (party-supplied) order in which party candidates are elected. ... The DHondt method (equivalent to Jeffersons method, and Budder-Ofer method) is a highest averages method for allocating seats in party-list proportional representation. ... The highest averages method is one way of allocating seats proportionally for representative assemblies with party list voting systems. ... The largest remainder method is one way of allocating seats proportionally for representative assemblies with party list voting systems. ... The Sainte-Laguë method of the highest average (equivalent to Websters method or divisor method with standard rounding) is one way of allocating seats proportionally for representative assemblies with party list voting systems. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... This STV ballot for the Australian Senate illustrates group voting tickets. ... The Additional Member System (AMS) is a voting system in which some representatives are elected from geographic constituencies and others are elected under proportional representation from party lists. ... Parallel voting describes a mixed voting system where voters in effect participate in two separate elections using different systems, and where the results in one election have little or no impact on the results of the other. ... A points method ballot design like this one is the most common for governmental elections using cumulative voting. ... The Single Non-Transferable Vote or SNTV is an electoral system used in multi-member constituency elections. ... Bloc voting (or block voting) refers to a class of voting systems which can be used to elect several representatives from a single multimember constituency. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Sortition is the method of random selection, particularly in relation to the selection of decision makers also known as allotment. ... A voting system is a means of choosing between a number of options, based on the input of a number of voters. ... A Legislative Assembly in some parts of the Commonwealth refers to a legislature, or a chamber of the legislature. ... An example of a plurality ballot. ... The first-past-the-post electoral system is a voting system for single-member districts, variously called first-past-the-post (FPTP or FPP), winner-take-all, plurality voting, or relative majority. ...

Various forms of proportional representation exist, such as party-list proportional representation, where the above-mentioned groups correspond directly with candidate lists as usually given by political parties. Within this form a further distinction can be made depending on whether or not a voter can influence the election of candidates within a party list (open list and closed list respectively). Another kind of electoral system covered with the term proportional representation is the single transferable vote (STV), which, in turn, does not depend on the existence of political parties (and where the above-mentioned "measure of grouping" is entirely left up to the voters themselves). Elections for the Australian Senate use what is referred to as above-the-line voting where candidates belonging to registered political parties are grouped together on the ballot paper with the voter provided with the option of "group voting" a semi-open party list/individual candidate system. Party-list proportional representation systems are a family of voting systems used in multiple-winner elections (e. ... “Political Parties” redirects here. ... Open list describes any variant of party-list proportional representation where voters have at least some influence on the (by the political party itself supplied) order in which party candidates are elected. ... Closed list describes the variant of party_list proportional representation where voters can (effectively) only vote for political parties as a whole and thus have no influence on the (party-supplied) order in which party candidates are elected. ... This STV ballot for the Australian Senate illustrates group voting tickets. ... Australian Senate chamber Entrance to the Senate The Senate is the upper of the two houses of the Parliament of Australia. ...

There are also electoral systems, single non-transferable vote (SNTV) and cumulative voting, all which offer a variant form of proportional representation. These systems are not true proportional representation, however. They are truly minority representation systems where as many different parties as there are seats should be elected if everyone votes honestly, but often major parties will split their votes in order to make it proportional. Also, with small two or three member districts such systems often give similar results as proportional systems. The Single Non-Transferable Vote or SNTV is an electoral system used in multi-member constituency elections. ... A points method ballot design like this one is the most common for governmental elections using cumulative voting. ...

Coalition governments

More parties exist in nations with full representation, making it close to impossible for a single party to obtain the majority of votes and seats. Coalitions therefore occur, often between two parties, sometimes based on the cooperation of three or more parties. On rare occasions, a minority government can be formed, which consists of a coalition government that has less than half the seats, but is allowed to govern as long as the majority agrees to their actions. The particular system in place matters, as for instance in New Zealand, where two especially large parties result, leaving them with no other options than to form a government together or to form a government of one of the two large parties with several small parties. The particular system as found in most Scandinavian countries, delivers many parties, but with three or four larger parties, who can often create a government with just two parties. A coalition is an alliance among entities, during which they cooperate in joint action, each in their own self-interest. ... A majority is a subset of a group that is more than half of the entire group. ... A grand coalition is a coalition government in a parliamentary system where political parties representing a vast majority of the parliament unite in a coalition. ... Political map of the Nordic countries and associated territories. ...

Coalition governments are often based on the direct support of about a third to half of all eligible voters, while elections in districts tend to deliver a ruling party that is supported by a fourth to a fifth of all eligible voters. For instance, based on the Federal Election Commission of the United States, the 109th US Senate was led by the Republican Party with the direct support of only 17% of all eligible voters [1]. The Federal Election Commission (or FEC) is an independent regulatory agency created in 1975 by the United States Congress to administer and enforce campaign finance legislation in the United States. ...

History

A proportional representation system was devised in the late 19th century, by Victor D'Hondt of Belgium. Victor Considérant, a utopian socialist, also devised the system in an 1892 book. After some Swiss cantons (beginning with Ticino in 1890), Belgium was the first country to adopt list-PR for the 1900 elections to its national parliament. Similar systems were implemented in many European countries during or after World War I. Single Transferable Vote was first used in Denmark in 1857, making STV the oldest PR system, but the system used there never really spread. STV was re-invented (apparently independently) in Britain, but the British parliament rejected it. It was, however, then used in Tasmania in 1907, and has spread from there. STV has been used in the Republic of Ireland since 1919. Victor D’Hondt (November 20, 1841 - May 30, 1901) was a Belgian lawyer, professor of civil law at Ghent University and a mathematician. ... Victor Prosper Considerant (1808–1893) was a French utopian Socialist and disciple of Fourier. ... Utopian socialism is a term used to define the first currents of modern Socialist thought. ... “The Great War ” redirects here. ... This STV ballot for the Australian Senate illustrates group voting tickets. ... Slogan or Nickname: The Apple Isle; Holiday Isle Motto(s): Ubertas et Fidelitas (Fertility and Faithfulness) Other Australian states and territories Capital Hobart Government Constitutional monarchy Governor William Cox Premier Paul Lennon (ALP) Federal representation  - House seats 5  - Senate seats 12 Gross State Product (2004-05)  - Product ($m)  $16,114...

Proportional representation is actually used by more nations than the plurality voting system. All of the members of the European Parliament, or MEPs, including those elected from constituencies in Britain, are elected by proportional representation. Proportional representation is also used in many European countries. A Member of the European Parliament (English abbreviation MEP)[1] is a member of the European Unions directly-elected legislative body, the European Parliament. ...

While first-past-the-post is commonly found in countries based on the British parliamentary system, and in the Westminster Elections in the United Kingdom, a form of proportional representation known as the mixed member system is now being used in the United Kingdom to elect the members of the Scottish Parliament and the Welsh National Assembly. Although once an unknown system, proportional representation is now gaining popularity in Canada with five provinces: British Columbia, Ontario, Quebec, Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick currently debating whether to abolish the first past the post system, and at the federal level, a Parliamentary Committee explored the issue in 2005. Political analysts point out the fact that the current attitude and sequence of events is very similar to what happened in New Zealand when New Zealand opted for Mixed Member Proportional Representation and the analysts conclude Canada is heading towards the same direction.^{[citation needed]} The Additional Member System (AMS) is a voting system where some representatives are elected from geographic constituencies and others are elected under proportional representation from party lists. ... For the national legislative body up to 1707, see Parliament of Scotland. ... The National Assembly for Wales (or NAW) (Welsh: Cynulliad Cenedlaethol Cymru) was established in 1998, following a 1997 referendum in which a small majority of voters (but not the electorate) voted in favour of the Labour Governments plans for devolution. ... Mixed member proportional representation, also termed mixed-member proportional voting and commonly abbreviated to MMP, is a voting system used to elect representatives to numerous legislatures around the world. ...

Proportional representation does have some history in the United States. Many cities, including New York City, once used it for their city councils as a way to break up the Democratic Party monopolies on elective office. In Cincinnati, Ohio, proportional representation was adopted in 1925 to get rid of a Republican Party party machine, but the Republicans successfully overturned proportional representation in 1957. With proportional representation, otherwise marginalized social, political and racial minorities were able to attain elected office, and this fact was ironically a key argument opponents of proportional representation used in their campaigns — "undesirables" were gaining a voice in electoral politics.^{[citation needed]} From 1870 to 1980, the State of Illinois used a semi-proportional system of cumulative voting to elect its State House of Representatives. Each district across the state elected both Republicans and Democrats year-after-year. While most jurisdictions no longer use proportional representation, it is still used in Cambridge, Massachusetts and Peoria, Illinois. San Francisco did not have proportional elections; rather it had city-wide elections where people would cast votes for five or six candidates simultaneously, delivering some of the benefits of proportional representation, but not all. A comparison [2] between San Francisco and Rotterdam shows how emancipation and access are more entrenched in district elections. New York, New York and NYC redirect here. ... Federal courts Supreme Court Circuit Courts of Appeal District Courts Elections Presidential elections Midterm elections Political Parties Democratic Republican Third parties State & Local government Governors Legislatures (List) State Courts Local Government Other countries Atlas  Politics Portal      Further information: Politics of the United States#Organization of American political parties The Democratic... “Cincinnati” redirects here. ... The Republican Party is one of two major contemporary political parties in the United States of America, along with the Democratic Party. ... A points method ballot design like this one is the most common for governmental elections using cumulative voting. ... Location in Massachusetts Coordinates: , Country United States State Massachusetts County Middlesex County Settled 1630 Incorporated 1636 Government  - Type Mayor-council city  - Mayor Kenneth Reeves (D) Area  - City  7. ... : See how it plays in Peoria United States Illinois Peoria 46. ... This page is a candidate for speedy deletion. ...

Some electoral systems incorporate additional features to ensure absolutely accurate or more comprehensive representation, based on gender or minority status (like ethnicity or race). Note that features such as this are not strictly part of proportional representation; depending on what kind of PR is used, people tend to be already represented proportionally according to these standards without such additional rules.

Proportional representation is the dominant electoral system in Europe. It is in place in Germany, most of northern and eastern Europe, and is also used for European Parliament elections. In France, proportional representation was adopted at the end of World War II, discarded in 1958, then used once more for parliament elections in 1986 and terminated immediately afterwards. Established 1952, as the Common Assembly President Hans-Gert Pöttering (EPP) Since 16 January 2007 Vice-Presidents 14 Rodi Kratsa-Tsagaropoulou (EPP) Alejo Vidal-Quadras (EPP) Gérard Onesta (Greens – EFA) Edward McMillan-Scott (ED) Mario Mauro (EPP) Miguel Angel Martínez Martínez (PES) Luigi Cocilovo (ALDE) Mechtild...

In Ireland, proportional representation has resulted in a situation whereby a mainly centrist party with a large support base, Fianna Fáil, typically receives 30%-50% of the vote but the opposition parties, traditionally the centre-right Fine Gael and the centre-left Labour Party, are comparatively weak. This has led to a series of coalition governments in power, including coalitions between Fianna Fáil and Labour, Fine Gael and Labour, the current coalition between Fianna Fáil and the right-wing Progressive Democrats and a rainbow coalition featuring every non Fianna Fáil member of the dáil. The lack of a unified opposition in Ireland has resulted in a series of centre-right led governments since the state's creation in 1921. Since 1932 Fianna Fáil is the only party in the Republic of Ireland to form a government on its own. Fianna Fáil – The Republican Party (Irish: ), commonly referred to as Fianna Fáil (IPA ; traditionally translated by the party into English as Soldiers of Destiny, though the actual meaning is Soldiers [Fianna] of Ireland[1]), is currently the largest political party in Ireland with 55,000 members. ... Fine Gael – The United Ireland Party, usually referred to as Fine Gael (IPA: , though often anglicised to ; approximate English translation: Family/Tribe of the Irish, is the second largest political party in the Republic of Ireland with a membership of over 34,000, and is the largest opposition party in... The Labour Party (Irish: Páirtí an Lucht Oibre) is a social democratic political party in the Republic of Ireland. ... The Progressive Democrats (Irish An Páirtí Daonlathach, lit. ...

In his essay, Overcoming Practical Difficulties in Creating a World Parliamentary Assembly, Joseph E. Schwartzberg proposes the use of proportional representation in the United Nations Parliamentary Assembly in order to prevent, for instance, lower castes of Indians from being excluded [3]: A United Nations Parliamentary Assembly, or United Nations Peoples Assembly (UNPA), is a proposed addition to the United Nations System that eventually would allow for direct election of UN delegates by citizens of member states. ...

There are certain other advantages to proportional representation. Political parties Part of the Politics series Politics Portal This box:      A two-party system is a form of party system where two major political parties dominate the voting in nearly all elections. ...

Methods of proportional representation

There are different methods of proportional representation, which achieve either a greater degree of proportionality or a greater degree of determinate outcome.

Party list system in a multi-member constituency

Main article: Party-list proportional representation

The parties each list their candidates according to that party's determination of priorities. In a closed list, voters vote for a list, not a candidate. Each party is allocated seats in proportion to the number of votes, using the ranking order on its list. In an open list, voters may vote, depending on the model, for one person, or for two, or indicate their order of preference within the list. Party-list proportional representation systems are a family of voting systems used in multiple-winner elections (e. ...

• This system is used in Israel (where the whole country is one closed list constituency), Brazil (open list), the Netherlands (open list) and for elections to the European Parliament in all European Union countries (closed list) as well as in Finland using multi-member districts and open lists.

Established 1952, as the Common Assembly President Hans-Gert Pöttering (EPP) Since 16 January 2007 Vice-Presidents 14 Rodi Kratsa-Tsagaropoulou (EPP) Alejo Vidal-Quadras (EPP) Gérard Onesta (Greens – EFA) Edward McMillan-Scott (ED) Mario Mauro (EPP) Miguel Angel Martínez Martínez (PES) Luigi Cocilovo (ALDE) Mechtild... Open list describes any variant of party-list proportional representation where voters have at least some influence on the (by the political party itself supplied) order in which party candidates are elected. ...

Additional-member system, mixed-member system

Main articles: Additional Member Systems - mixed member proportional representation and parallel voting; alternative vote and alternative vote top-up

Mixed election systems combine a proportional system and a single seat district system, attempting to achieve some of the positive features of both of these. Mixed systems are often helpful in countries with large populations, since they balance the mechanisms of elections focusing on local or national issues. They are used in nations with widely varying voting populations in terms of geographic, social, cultural and economic realities, including Bolivia, Germany, Lesotho, Mexico and the United Kingdom. The Additional Member System (AMS) is a voting system in which some representatives are elected from geographic constituencies and others are elected under proportional representation from party lists. ... Mixed member proportional representation, also termed mixed-member proportional voting and commonly abbreviated to MMP, is a voting system used to elect representatives to numerous legislatures around the world. ... Parallel voting describes a mixed voting system where voters in effect participate in two separate elections using different systems, and where the results in one election have little or no impact on the results of the other. ... When the single transferable vote voting system is applied to a single-winner election it is sometimes called instant-runoff voting (IRV), as it is much like holding a series of runoff elections in which the lowest polling candidate is eliminated in each round until someone receives majority vote. ... The Alternative Vote Plus (AV+) or Alternative Vote Top-up is a voting system intended for use in elections to an assembly or legislature. ... Mixed member proportional representation, also termed mixed-member proportional voting and commonly abbreviated to MMP, is a voting system used to elect representatives to numerous legislatures around the world. ...

• Such systems, or variations of them, are used in Germany, Lesotho, Mexico, Bolivia, New Zealand, the Scottish Parliament and the Welsh Assembly. Italy has changed between sub-systems.

For the national legislative body up to 1707, see Parliament of Scotland. ... The National Assembly for Wales (or NAW) (Welsh: Cynulliad Cenedlaethol Cymru) was established in 1998, following a 1997 referendum in which a small majority of voters (but not the electorate) voted in favour of the Labour Governments plans for devolution. ...

Single transferable vote in a multi-member constituency

Main article: Single Transferable Vote

This method of proportional representation uses a system of preferential voting to determine the results of the election This STV ballot for the Australian Senate illustrates group voting tickets. ... Preference (or taste) is a concept, used in the social sciences, particularly economics. ...

A constituency elects two or more representatives per electorate. Consequently the constituency is proportionally larger than a single member constituency. Parties tend to offer as many candidates as they most optimistically could expect to win: the major parties may nominate almost as many candidates as there are seats, while the minor parties and independents rather fewer. Voters mark their ballot, allocating preferences to their preferred ranking for some or all candidates. A successful candidate must achieve a quota being the total number of votes received divided by the number of candidates to be elected plus one ie in a nine member constituency the nquota would be the number of votes divided by 10 (9 + 1), Only in a few cases is this achieved at the first count. For the second count, if a candidate wins election his surplus vote, in excess of the quota, is transferred to his voters' second choices; otherwise, the least popular candidate is eliminated and his votes redistributed according to the second preference shown on them. If there are more than one candidate who can not get enough votes after the transfer of votes of least popular canditate, he will be eliminated too (as he could not avoid it on the next round under any circumstance).

This process continues for as many counts as are needed until all seats are filled either by the required number of canditates achieving a quota and being deemed to be elected or until there are only the number of canditates remaining as there are number of seats. Although the counting process is complicated, voting is clear and most voters get at least one of their preferences elected.

All deputies are answerable directly to their local constituents. Some political scientists argue that STV is more properly classified as 'semi-proportional' as there is no assurance of a proportional result at a nationwide level. Indeed, many advocates of STV would argue that preventing nationwide proportionality is one of the primary goals of the system, to avoid the perceived risks of a very highly fragmented legislature.

• This system is used in Australia (Senate), the Republic of Ireland, Northern Ireland (assembly and local government elections), Malta, local government elections in Scotland and selected (optional) local governments in New Zealand.

Northern Ireland (Irish: ) is a part of the United Kingdom lying in the northeast of the island of Ireland, covering 5,459 square miles (14,139 km², about a sixth of the islands total area). ... The logo of the Northern Ireland Assembly, a six flowered linen or flax plant. ... Northern Ireland is divided into 26 districts for local government purposes. ... An election is a decision making process whereby people vote for preferred political candidates or parties to act as representatives in government. ... This article is about the country. ...

Partial proportionality

Some nations with proportional elections, like Israel and the Netherlands, have one electoral district only: the entire nation, and the entire pie is cut up according to the entire outcome. Most nations have district systems in place where more than one person is elected per district. The constituency or district magnitude (DM) of a system is therefore measured by the number of seats in a constituency, and plays a vital role in determining how proportional an electoral system can be. The greater the number of seats in a constituency, the more proportional the outcome will be. PR applied to a single-member district (SMD) is by necessity majoritarian. If the constituency is in a jurisdiction using list PR in its multi-member districts (MMDs) the winning candidate simply needs a plurality, otherwise called a simple or relative majority, of the vote to win, so that the election in the SMD is by first-past-the-post. If the constituency is in a jurisdiction using PR-STV in its MMDs, an absolute majority of 50% plus 1 will likely be the minimum required for victory (depending on which quota is used) so that the election in the SMD is by the alternative vote. Four elected officials per district delivers a threshold of 20% (1/M+1) to gain a single seat. However, constituency borders can still be gerrymandered to reduce the overall proportionality. This may be achieved by creating "majority-minority" constituencies - constituencies in which the majority is formed by a group of voters that are in the minority at a higher level. Proportional representation with the entire nation electing the single body, cannot be gerrymandered. A plurality, relative majority or simple majority is the largest share of something, which may or may not be considered a majority, i. ... The first-past-the-post electoral system is a voting system for single-member districts, variously called first-past-the-post (FPTP or FPP), winner-take-all, plurality voting, or relative majority. ... When the single transferable vote voting system is applied to a single-winner election it is sometimes called instant-runoff voting (IRV), as it is much like holding a series of runoff elections in which the lowest polling candidate is eliminated in each round until someone receives majority vote. ... Redrawing electoral districts in this example creates a guaranteed 3-to-1 advantage for Party 1. ...

Multiple-member districts do not necessarily ensure that an electoral system will be proportional. The bloc vote can result in "super-majoritarian" results in which geographical variations can create majority-minority districts that become subsumed into the larger districts. Also, in theory, a party, who does not provide a list with enough people to fill all the seats won by it, may be given those unfilled seats. This is termed an underhang. Bloc voting (or block voting) (also called Plurality-at-large) refers to a class of voting systems which can be used to elect several representatives from a single constituency. ... Underhang seats can arise in elections under any list electoral system, when a party is entitled to more seats according to party votes than it has put candiates forward for. ...

Some nations, with either exclusively proportional representation or — as is the case with Germany — additional member systems, require a party list to achieve an election threshold — a certain minimum percentage of votes to receive any seats. Typically, this lower limit is set at between two and five percent of the total number of votes cast. Parties who do not reach that margin will not be represented in parliament, making majorities, coalitions and thus governments easier to achieve. Proponents of election thresholds argue that they discourage excessive fragmentation, disproportionate power, or extremist parties. Opponents of thresholds argue that they cause unfair redirection of support from minor parties, thus giving the parties which cross the threshold disproportionally high percentages of the seats and creating the possibility that a party or group of parties will assume control of the legislature without gaining a majority of votes. The Additional Member System (AMS) is a voting system in which some representatives are elected from geographic constituencies and others are elected under proportional representation from party lists. ... Party lists are used in elections to legislatures which use Party-list proportional representation or additional member proportional representation to designate a partys nominees in the at-large portion of the vote. ... In party-list proportional representation systems, an election threshold is a clause that stipulates that a party must receive a minimum percentage of votes, either nationally or within a particular district, to get any seats in the parliament. ... Balance of power is a central concept of realist theories of international relations. ...

There are several ways of measuring proportionality, the most common being the Gallagher Index. The Gallagher Index (or least squares) can be used to measure the disproportionality of electoral systems, in particular majoritarian systems. ...

Center based proportional and multi-party systems

Election systems based on proportional representation tend to favor a multi-party result which demands a coalition to form a government supported by a majority of the voters or elected candidates. If the election system as well as the mechanisms for forming a governing coalition also tend to support the existence of a centrist party, the resulting over-all system is often defined as a "center-based proportional representation multi-party system". Election systems which tend to result in so-called two-block (many parties forming coalitions, blocks, but with no party, or "block", in the "center") systems are not seen as "center-based" but multi-party variations of two-party (two-block) systems.

The undesirable "extreme" of a "Center Based" system might be seen as a party system where the "center" has an unproportional and undesirable strong position in the formation of any governing coalition.

Disadvantages

One of the concerns with proportional systems is that they can encourage and enable special interest groups to target single issues, and thus elect candidates who are answerable only to the group. Most proportional systems have a thresholding system to minimize the damage that these single-issue factions can cause. A legislature dominated by factions sometimes faces paralysis, when individual parties are unable to form a consensus on a particular issue.

Other criticisms and strengths of proportional representation can found at Plurality voting system. An example of a plurality ballot. ...

List of countries using proportional representation

This is a list of countries using proportional representation[4].

Image File history File links Flag_of_Algeria. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Angola. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Austria. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Argentina. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Belgium_(civil). ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Bolivia. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Brazil. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Bulgaria. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Burkina_Faso. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Burundi. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Cambodia. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Cape_Verde. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Chile. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Colombia. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Costa_Rica. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Cyprus. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Denmark. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_the_Dominican_Republic. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Equatorial_Guinea. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Estonia. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Finland. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Germany. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Guinea-Bissau. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Guyana. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Hungary. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Iceland. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Indonesia. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Ireland. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Israel. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Italy. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Latvia. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Lesotho. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Liberia. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Liechtenstein. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Luxembourg. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Malta. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Mexico. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Moldova. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_New_Zealand. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Namibia. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_the_Netherlands. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_the_Netherlands_Antilles. ... Image File history File links This is a lossless scalable vector image. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Nicaragua. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Norway. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Paraguay. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Peru. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Poland. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Portugal. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Romania. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_San_Marino. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Sao_Tome_and_Principe. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Slovakia. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Slovenia. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_South_Africa. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Spain. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Sri_Lanka. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Suriname. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Sweden. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Switzerland. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Suriname. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Turkey. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Uruguay. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Venezuela. ... Image File history File links This is a lossless scalable vector image. ...

Further reading

• Josep M. Colomer. Political Institutions. Oxford University Press, 2003.
• Josep M. Colomer ed. Handbook of Electoral System Choice. Palgrave-Macmillan, 2004.
• John Hickman and Chris Little. "Seat/Vote Proportionality in Romanian and Spanish Parliamentary Elections" Journal of Southern Europe and the Balkans Vol. 2, No. 2, November 2000
• Martin Linton and Mary Southcott. "Making Votes Count: The Case for Electoral Reform", Profile Books Ltd, London, 1998.
• Amy, Douglas J. "Real Choices/New Voices: The Case for Proportional Representation Elections in the United States". Columbia University Press, 1993.

See also

• Plurality voting system
• D'Hondt method
• Sainte-Laguë method
• List of politics-related topics
• Wealth primary
• Proportional approval voting

An example of a plurality ballot. ... The DHondt method (equivalent to Jeffersons method, and Budder-Ofer method) is a highest averages method for allocating seats in party-list proportional representation. ... The Sainte-Laguë method of the highest average (equivalent to Websters method or divisor method with standard rounding) is one way of allocating seats proportionally for representative assemblies with party list voting systems. ... The Elections and Parties Series Democracy Liberal democracy History of democracy Referenda Representative democracy Representation Voting Voting systems Elections Elections by country Elections by calender Electoral systems Politics Politics by country Political campaigns Political science Political philosophy Related topics Political parties Parties by country Parties by name Parties by ideology... The Wealth Primary describes the race for money required for electoral politics. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ...

External links

• Atlas of Electoral Systems of the World Colour-coded world maps showing the electoral systems used by every democratic country in the world, also available with more details as tables of text. Part of the information on Electoral Systems offered by the World Policy Institute (WPI)'s Project for Global Democracy & Human Rights
• Proportional Representation Library
• Quantifying Representativity Article by Philip Kestelman
• FairVote: The Center for Voting and Democracy
• PR page from old CVD web site.
• PR page from new CVD web site.
• The De Borda Institute A Northern Ireland-based organisation promoting inclusive voting procedures
• Electoral Reform Society Founded in England in 1884, the ERS is the longest running PR organization. This site contains particularly good information about Single Transferable Vote -- the Society's preferred form of PR.
• Proportional Representation Society of Australia
• PR page at Center for Range Voting
• Fair Vote Canada
• LocalParty.Org California
• Voting methods survey Describes 19 multi-winner systems
• PR Simulator A web-based application that converts historical or theoretical voting data into proportional results
• Vote Dilution means Voters have Less Voice Law is Cool site
• PR Simulator Results (US Election 2004) An example of how the above PR Simulator can be used - in this case following the failed Colorado proposal to assign Electoral College votes proportionally