Psilocybe azurescens

Psilocybe zapotecorum in Jalisco, Mexico

Psilocybin mushrooms (also called psilocybian mushrooms) are fungi that contain the psychedelic substances psilocybin and psilocin, and occasionally other psychoactive tryptamines. There are multiple colloquial terms for psilocybin mushrooms, the most common being magic mushrooms^[1] or 'shrooms.^[2] Binomial name (L.:Fr. ... Spical brie whisc tunitec handig. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (515x701, 49 KB) Summary Source: http://www. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (515x701, 49 KB) Summary Source: http://www. ... Binomial name Psilocybe azurescens Stamets & Gartz Psilocybe azurescens is a psychedelic mushroom whose main active compounds are psilocybin and psilocin. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (2816 × 2112 pixels, file size: 2. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (2816 × 2112 pixels, file size: 2. ... Binomial name Heim emend Guzman Psilocybe zapotecorum is a psychedelic mushroom which has psilocybin and psilocin as main active compounds. ... For the fictional character, see Fungus the Bogeyman. ... A fractal pattern similar to the spiral patterns that may be seen as the result of some psychedelic drug experiences. ... Psilocybin (also known as psilocybine) is a psychedelic alkaloid of the tryptamine family, found in psilocybin mushrooms. ... Psilocin,(4-HO-DMT) sometimes called psilocine or psilotsin, is a psychedelic (hallucinogenic) mushroom alkaloid. ... Tryptamine (3-(2-aminoethyl)indole) is a monoamine compound that is widespread in nature. ...

History

Several mesolithic rock paintings from Tassili n'Ajjer (a prehistoric North African site identified with the Capsian culture) have been identified by author Giorgio Samorini as depicting the shamanic use of mushrooms, possibly Psilocybe.^[3] The Mesolithic (Greek mesos=middle and lithos=stone or the Middle Stone Age[1]) was a period in the development of human technology between the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods of the Stone Age. ... Cave, or rock, paintings are paintings painted on cave or rock walls and ceilings, usually dating to pre_historic times. ... Landsat image of the Tassili nAjjer The Tassili nAjjer (Arabic: تصلة ناجر) is a mountain range in the Sahara desert in southeast Algeria. ... The cave paintings found at Tassili-n-Ajjer, north of Tamanrasset, Algeria, and at other locations depict vibrant and vivid scenes of everyday life in the central North Africa between about 8000 B.C. and 4000 B.C. They were executed by a hunting people in the Capsian period of... The Capsian culture (named after the town of Gafsa) was a Mesolithic culture of the Maghreb, which lasted from about 10000 BC to 6000 BC. It was concentrated mainly in modern Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia, with some sites attested in Cyrenaica (Libya). ... Giorgio Samorini Giorgio Samorini (born in 1957, in Bologna, Italy) is an ethnobotanist and psychedelics researcher. ... Specifically, Shaman (saman) is a term in Evenk, Manchu and other Manchu-Tungus languages for an intellectual and spiritual figure; who usually possess power and influence on other peoples in the tribe and performs several functions, one of which is analogous to the function of a healer in other cultures. ...

Hallucinogenic species of Psilocybe have a long history of use among the native peoples of Mesoamerica for religious communion, divination, and healing, from pre-Columbian times up to the present day. Mushroom-shaped statuettes found at archaeological sites seem to indicate that ritual use of hallucinogenic mushrooms is quite ancient. Mushroom stones and motifs have been found in Mayan temple ruins in Guatemala,^[4] though there is considerable controversy as to whether these objects indicate the use of hallucinogenic mushrooms or whether they had some other significance with the mushroom shape being simply a coincidence.^{[citation needed]} More concretely, a statuette dating from ca. 200 CE and depicting a mushroom strongly resembling Psilocybe mexicana was found in a west Mexican shaft and chamber tomb in the state of Colima . Hallucinogenic Psilocybe were known to the Aztecs as teonanácatl (literally "god's mushroom" or, more properly, "flesh of the gods" - agglutinative form of teó (god) and nanácatl (mushroom) in Náhuatl) and were reportedly served at the coronation of the Aztec ruler Moctezuma II in 1502. Aztecs and Mazatecs referred to psilocybin mushrooms as genius mushrooms, divinatory mushrooms, and wondrous mushrooms, when translated into English.^[5] Bernardino de Sahagún reported ritualistic use of teonanácatl by the Aztecs, when he traveled to Central America after the expedition of Herando Cortés. This article is about the culture area. ... Binomial name Heim Psilocybe mexicana is a psychedelic mushroom of the Agaricales family, having psilocybin and psilocin as main active compounds. ... A Shaft and chamber tomb is a type of chamber tomb used by some ancient peoples for burial of the dead. ... Location within Mexico Country  Mexico Capital Colima Municipalities 10 Largest City Manzanillo Government  - Governor Jesus Silverio Cavazos Ceballos (PRI)  - Federal Deputies PAN: 2  - Federal Senators PAN: 2 PRI: 1 Area Ranked 29th  - State 5,191 km²  (2,004. ... The word Aztec is usually used as a historical term, although some contemporary Nahuatl speakers would consider themselves Aztecs. ... Nahuatl ( [1] is a term applied to a group of related languages and dialects of the Aztecan [2] branch of the Uto-Aztecan language family, indigenous to central Mexico. ... Aztec is a term used to refer to certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who achieved political and military dominance over large parts of Mesoamerica in the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries, a period referred to as the Late post-Classic... Moctezuma or Montezuma II, also known as Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin (c. ... Bernardino de Sahagún Bernardino de Sahagún (1499 – October 23, 1590), was a Franciscan missionary to the Aztec (Nahua) people of Mexico, best known as the compiler of the Florentine Codex, also known as Historia general de las cosas de Nueva España (General History of the Things of... Hernán(do) Cortés Pizarro, 1st Marqués del Valle de Oaxaca (1485–December 2, 1547) was the conquistador who became famous for leading the military expedition that initiated the Spanish Conquest of Mexico. ...

After the Spanish conquest, Catholic missionaries campaigned against the "pagan idolatry," and as a result, the use of hallucinogenic plants and mushrooms, like other pre-Christian traditions, was forcibly suppressed.^[4] The Spanish believed the mushroom allowed the Aztecs and others to communicate with "devils". In converting people to Catholicism, the Spanish pushed for a switch from teonanácatl to the Catholic sacrament of the Eucharist. Despite this history, in some remote areas the use of teonanácatl has remained.^{[citation needed]} As a Christian ecclesiastical term, Catholic—from the Greek adjective , meaning general or universal[1]—is described in the Oxford English Dictionary as follows: ~Church, (originally) whole body of Christians; ~, belonging to or in accord with (a) this, (b) the church before separation into Greek or Eastern and Latin or... For other uses, see Eucharist (disambiguation). ...

By the twentieth century, hallucinogenic mushroom use was thought by non-Native Americans to have disappeared entirely^{[citation needed]}. Some authors even held that Mesoamerican cultures did not use mushrooms as hallucinogens at all and that the Spanish had simply mistaken peyote for a mushroom^{[citation needed]}. Later investigations by Blas Pablo Reko, Richard Evans Schultes, and R. Gordon Wasson demonstrated that hallucinogenic mushrooms were still widely used by several indigenous Mesoamerican peoples, particularly the Mazatecs of Oaxaca. Binomial name (Lem. ... For other persons named Richard Evans, see Richard Evans (disambiguation). ... R. Gordon Wasson (September 22, 1898 – December 23, 1986) was an author, amateur researcher and banker. ... Mazatec girl preparing Salvia divinorum leaves on a metate (Photo taken in 1962 by R. Gordon Wasson) The Mazatec are an indigenous people who inhabit an area of the state of Oaxaca in southern Mexico, close to the border with Puebla and Veracruz. ... Catedral de Santo Domingo The Free and Sovereign State of Oaxaca or simply Oaxaca   is one of the 31 states of Mexico, located in the southern part of Mexico, west of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. ...

At present, hallucinogenic mushroom use has been reported among a number of groups spanning from central Mexico to Oaxaca, including groups of Nahua, Mixtecs, Mixe, Mazatecs, Zapotecs, and others. There has not, however, been any confirmed observations of hallucinogenic mushroom use among the Maya peoples, either in the pre-Columbian or post-Contact eras^{[citation needed]}. The Nahua are a group of indigenous peoples of Mexico. ... Codex Zouche-Nuttall, a pre-Columbian piece of Mixtec writing, now in the British Museum The Mixtec (or Mixteca) are a Native American people centered in the Oaxaca state of Mexico. ... The Mixe are an indigenous group of people who live in the eastern highlands of the state of Oaxaca, Mexico. ... Zapotec refers to a native people of Mexico, their language family consisting of more than 15 languages, and their historic culture and traditions. ... The Maya people are a Native American people of southern Mexico and northern Central America. ...

The first mentioning of hallucinogenic mushrooms in the Western medicinal literature appeared in the London Medical and Physical Journal in 1799: a man had served Psilocybe semilanceata mushrooms that he had picked for breakfast in London's Green Park to his family. The doctor who treated them later described how the youngest child "was attacked with fits of immoderate laughter, nor could the threats of his father or mother refrain him." ^[6] This article is about the capital of England and the United Kingdom. ... Green Park, London Green Park (officially The Green Park) is one of the Royal Parks of London. ...

In 1955, Valentina and R. Gordon Wasson became the first Westerners to actively participate in an indigenous mushroom ceremony. The Wassons did much to publicize their discovery, even publishing an article on their experiences in Life in 1957.^[7] In 1956, Roger Heim identified the hallucinogenic mushroom that the Wassons had brought back from Mexico as Psilocybe and in 1958, Albert Hofmann first identified psilocin and psilocybin as the active compound in these mushrooms. Philippe Halsmans famous portrait of Marilyn Monroe Life generally refers to two American magazines: A humor and general interest magazine published from 1883 to 1936; A publication created by Time founder Henry Luce in 1936, with a strong emphasis on photojournalism. ... Albert Hofmann (born January 11, 1906) is a Swiss scientist best known for synthesizing Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). ...

Inspired by the Wassons' Life article, Timothy Leary traveled to Mexico to experience hallucinogenic mushrooms firsthand. Upon returning to Harvard in 1960, he and Richard Alpert started the Harvard Psilocybin Project, promoting psychological and religious study of psilocybin and other hallucinogenic drugs. After Leary and Alpert were dismissed by Harvard in 1963, they turned their attention toward evangelizing the psychedelic experience to the nascent hippie counterculture. For the American baseball player, see Tim Leary (baseball player). ... Harvard University is a private university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA, and a member of the Ivy League. ... Ram Dass at the Hanuman Temple in Taos, New Mexico, September 2004 Dr. Richard Alpert (born 1933), later known as Baba Ram Dass, was a professor of psychology at Harvard University who became well known for his controversial research program which studied the effects of LSD. Alpert worked closely with... Begun by Dr. Timothy Leary and Dr. Richard Alpert, the Harvard Psilocybin Project was a series of loose experiments in psychology conducted by Leary and Alpert. ... A psychedelic experience, or trip, is characterized by the perception of aspects of ones mind previously unknown, or by the creative exuberance of the mind liberated from its ordinary fetters. ... For the British TV show, see Hippies (TV series). ... In sociology, counterculture is a term used to describe the values and norms of behavior of a cultural group, or subculture, that run counter to those of the social mainstream of the day, the cultural equivalent of political opposition. ...

The popularization of entheogens by Wasson, Leary, and others has led to an explosion in the use of hallucinogenic Psilocybe throughout the world. By the early 1970s, a number of psychoactive Psilocybe species were described from temperate North America, Europe, and Asia and were widely collected. Books describing methods of cultivating Psilocybe cubensis in large quantities were also published. The relatively easy availability of hallucinogenic Psilocybe from wild and cultivated sources has made it among the most widely used of the hallucinogenic drugs. Entheogens are psychoactive substances that have traditionally been used in a religious context, such as psilocybin-containing mushrooms and Peyote cactuses. ... Binomial name (Earle) Singer Approximate Range of Psilocybe cubensis Psilocybe cubensis is a species of psychedelic mushroom whose principle active compounds are psilocybin and psilocin. ... Hallucinogenic drugs or hallucinogens are drugs that can alter sensory perceptions, elicit alternate states of consciousness, or cause hallucinations. ...

Effects

When psilocybin is ingested, it is broken down to produce psilocin, which is responsible for the hallucinogenic effects.^[8] Psilocin,(4-HO-DMT) sometimes called psilocine or psilotsin, is a psychedelic (hallucinogenic) mushroom alkaloid. ...

As with many psychoactive substances, the effects of psychedelic mushrooms are subjective and unpredictable. A common misconception, even seen in the professional environment, is that the effects experienced from psilocybin are due to a poisonous nature of the compound, yet the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, a branch of the Center for Disease Control, rated psilocybin less toxic than Aspirin.^[9] The intoxicating effects of psilocybin-containing mushrooms typically last anywhere from 3 to 7 hours depending on dosage, preparation method and personal metabolism.^[10][11] Psilocybin (also known as psilocybine) is a psychedelic alkaloid of the tryptamine family, found in psilocybin mushrooms. ... The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in Atlanta is recognized as the lead United States agency for protecting the public health and safety of people by providing credible information to enhance health decisions, and promoting health through strong partnerships with state health departments and other organizations. ... Toxic redirects here, but this is also the name of a song by Britney Spears; see Toxic (song) Look up toxic and toxicity in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... This article is about the drug. ...

The experience is typically inwardly oriented, with strong visual and auditory components. Visions and revelations may be experienced,^[10] and the effect can range from exhilarating to distressing. There can be also a total absence of effects, even with large doses. This depends on the species (and to a much lesser degree the strain) of mushroom, substrate they grew from, the quality of the yield and conditions of growth.

A single dried mushroom of one of the common Psilocybe cubensis variety. When bruised, it will often turn a bluish color; however, this is not a suitable indicator of the presence of psilocin, seeing as a number of poisonous mushrooms also have cyanic reactions to bruising.

As with other psychedelics such as LSD, the experience, or "trip," is strongly dependent upon set and setting. A negative environment could likely induce a bad trip, whereas a comfortable and familiar environment would allow for a pleasant experience. ^[12] Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (2560x1920, 2356 KB) dried cubensis, by Retinafunk, http://flickr. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (2560x1920, 2356 KB) dried cubensis, by Retinafunk, http://flickr. ... Binomial name (Earle) Singer Approximate Range of Psilocybe cubensis Psilocybe cubensis is a species of psychedelic mushroom whose principle active compounds are psilocybin and psilocin. ... Psilocin,(4-HO-DMT) sometimes called psilocine or psilotsin, is a psychedelic (hallucinogenic) mushroom alkaloid. ... A fractal pattern similar to the spiral patterns that may be seen as the result of some psychedelic drug experiences. ... Lysergic acid diethylamide, commonly called LSD, LSD-25, or acid. ... For the Bardo Pond album, see Set and Setting (Album). ... A psychedelic crisis (known colloquially as a bad trip) is a disturbing or frightening experience associated with use of a hallucinogenic drug such as LSD, salvinorin A, mescaline, or psilocybin. ...

Physical

Typical doses may cause a number of small effects, such as loss of appetite.^[13] Higher doses (typically 2½ dry grams and above) cause numerous effects such as feelings of coldness,^[10] numbness of the mouth and adjacent features,^[13] nausea, weakness in the limbs (making locomotion difficult),^[13] excessive yawning which usually occurs during the come-up, swollen features and pupil dilation.^[10][13] BIC pen cap, about 1 gram. ... For other uses, see Nausea (disambiguation). ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Mydriasis is an excessive dilation of the pupil due to disease or drugs. ...

Sensory

As with many hallucinogens, the sensory effects are often the most dramatic of the experience. Common doses cause effects such as a noticeable feeling of heaviness, relaxation, enhancement and contrasting of worldly colors,^[11] strange light phenomena (such as auras around lights sources),^[10] surfaces that seem to ripple, shimmer, or breathe,^[11] and other such visual hallucinations.^[1] The sense of smell too can become heightened. Color is an important part of the visual arts. ...

Higher doses elicit a variety of intensified and distinct perceptual changes: complex open and closed eye visuals of form constants or images,^[13] objects that warp, morph, or change solid colors (juxtaposed with the free-flowing colors of LSD), a sense of melting into the environment, trails behind moving objects, and auditory hallucinations. A representation of a form constant. ... Lysergic acid diethylamide, commonly called LSD, LSD-25, or acid. ... A hallucination is a perception in the absence of a stimulus that the person may or may not believe is real. ...

Sounds seem to be heard with increased clarity; music, for example, can often take on a profound sense of cadence and depth.^[11][13] Intriguingly, some users speak about the feeling of their senses overlapping or synesthesia, a rather interesting experience wherein the user perceives, for example, a visualization of color upon hearing a particular sound. The surface detail of everyday objects is viewed with increased acuity.^[11] Unusual natural designs, such as wood grain, flow like rivers. Interesting textures can be quite stimulating to some users. A simple action such as pouring water into a glass can be extremely visually stimulating. For other uses, see Synesthesia (disambiguation). ... Wood grain describes the alignment, texture and appearance of the wood fibres. ...

Dr. Frank van der Heijden at the Vincent van Gogh Institute for Psychiatry in the Netherlands claims brief psychotic disturbances, such as transient hallucinations and dysperceptions are more common in psilocybin mushroom users than in nonusers.^[14]

Emotional

Feelings of bliss, relaxation, wonder, anxiety, sadness, or fear have all been reported.^[10] Some users may experience intense episodes of hilarity, such as laughing for the duration of the psychedelic experience.^[1][13] Emotions can be experienced with increased sensitivity.^[10] BLISS is a system programming language developed at Carnegie Mellon University by W. A. Wulf, D. B. Russell, and A. N. Habermann around 1970. ... Look up relaxation in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... See: The Seven Wonders of the World The television series Small Wonder. ... This article is about state anxiety. ... Sadness is a mood that displays feeling of disadvantage and loss. ... For other uses, see Fear (disambiguation). ... A psychedelic experience, or trip, is characterized by the perception of aspects of ones mind previously unknown, or by the creative exuberance of the mind liberated from its ordinary fetters. ... Look up Emotion in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

Higher doses carry the increased possibility of a surreal event known as ego death,^[11] whereby the user loses the sense of boundaries between their self and the environment, creating a sort of perceived universal unity. Users may experience intense feelings of connectivity with a higher power. Contradictory emotions, such as euphoria and despair, can be experienced simultaneously.^[11] A sense of paranoia may be present,^[10] and if provoked enough, could culminate into a bad trip. However, the possibility of a bad trip happening can be reduced by a comfortable set and setting. Ego death is an experience sometimes undergone by psychonauts. ... This article discusses the term God in the context of monotheism and henotheism. ... Look up Emotion in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Euphoria (Greek ) is a medically recognized emotional state related to happiness. ... For other senses of this word, see paranoia (disambiguation). ... A psychedelic crisis (known colloquially as a bad trip) is a disturbing or frightening experience associated with use of a hallucinogenic drug such as LSD, salvinorin A, mescaline, or psilocybin. ... For the Bardo Pond album, see Set and Setting (Album). ...

In 2006, the US government funded a randomized and double-blinded study by Johns Hopkins University,^[15] studied the spiritual effects of psilocybin mushrooms. The study involved 36 college-educated adults who had never tried psilocybin nor had a history of drug use, and had religious or spiritual interests; the average age of the participants was 46 years. The participants were closely observed for eight-hour intervals in a laboratory while under the influence of psilocybin mushrooms. One-third of the participants reported the experience was the single most spiritually significant experience of their lifetimes and more than two-thirds reported it was among the top five most spiritually significant experiences. Two months after the study, 79 percent of the participants reported increased wellbeing or satisfaction; friends, relatives, and associates confirmed this. The study also found "about a third of subjects reported significant fear, with some also reporting transient feelings of paranoia." The Johns Hopkins University, founded in 1876, is a private institution of higher learning located in Baltimore, Maryland, United States. ...

Psychological

Common experiences typically exhibit changes such as an increased ability to concentrate on memories,^[10] feelings of time dilation,^[10][11] abstract and distractive thought patterns (can cause indecisiveness),^[11] phonetic experimentation with vowels, consonants, or click consonants (known as glossolalia), and epiphanies about life.^[10] In a way, mushrooms allow what would typically be bypassed by the brain's own natural filters to be magnified, along with the ideas and emotions that may accompany such thoughts. This can be seen as both good and bad, as it may allow for an ease of the ability to focus on stressful matters, or it could also lead to a bad trip.^{[citation needed]} Time dilation is the phenomenon whereby an observer finds that anothers clock which is physically identical to their own is ticking at a slower rate as measured by their own clock. ... Phonetics (from the Greek word φωνή, phone meaning sound or voice) is the study of the sounds of human speech. ... Note: This page contains IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode. ... In articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a sound in spoken language that is characterized by a closure or stricture of the vocal tract sufficient to cause audible turbulence. ... Clicks are stops produced with two articulatory closures in the oral cavity. ... Tongues redirects here. ... This article is about a feeling, for other meanings see epiphany (disambiguation). ... A psychedelic crisis (known colloquially as a bad trip) is a disturbing or frightening experience associated with use of a hallucinogenic drug such as LSD, salvinorin A, mescaline, or psilocybin. ...

As dose increases, so do the alterations in perception and consciousness. Significant amounts of time can be spent in deep philosophical or introspective silence.^[1] This introspective mindset, if negative, can often be painful and uncomfortable for the user to experience^[10] and can last minutes to hours. Users can lose touch with reality in varying degrees, and their egos may undergo a number of separations.^[11] For other uses, see Philosophy (disambiguation). ... This article is about the psychological process of introspecting. ... This article is about the psychological process of introspecting. ... For other uses, see Reality (disambiguation). ... For other uses of ego and id, see EGO and ID. Id, ego, and superego are the three components of the human mind in the psychoanalytic model introduced by Sigmund Freud in the early 20th century. ...

Possible risks

Psilocybin mushrooms are non-toxic and non-addictive although they do create short term increases in tolerance of users.^[16] Oral ingestion can produce nausea, vomiting and dizziness. The greatest danger from recreational use is a "bad trip" which can cause severe emotional and psychological distress (With heavy use, mental effects resemble those of psychosis.) Also, extremely poisonous wild picked mushrooms can be easily mistaken for psilocybin mushrooms.^[17] Mushrooms should be identified by a professional mycologist if ingestion is deemed appropriate.

In 2007 a report surfaced of a 17 year old girl who had consumed a mix of alcohol, marijuana and mushrooms prior to leaping out of a building window. The report also contained details of a rise in non-lethal emergency calls associated with mushroom use in Amsterdam. According to Peter van Dijk, a researcher at the Utrecht-based Trimbos Institute, "a mushroom is not very dangerous, the real danger came from a blend of alcohol, cannabis and mushrooms that led people to do things they normally would not." ^[18]

Medical usage investigations

There have been calls for medical investigation of the use of synthetic and mushroom-derived psilocybin for the development of improved treatments of various mental conditions, including chronic cluster headaches,^[19] following numerous anecdotal reports of benefits. There are also several accounts of psilocybin mushrooms sending both obsessive-compulsive disorders ("OCD") and OCD-related clinical depression (both being widespread and debilitating mental health conditions) into complete remission immediately and for months at a time, compared to current medications which often have both limited efficacy^[20] and frequent undesirable side-effects.^[21] One such study states: Cluster headaches are rare, extremely painful and debilitating headaches that occur in groups or clusters. ... On the Threshold of Eternity. ... Mental health is a term used to describe either a level of cognitive or emotional wellbeing or an absence of a mental disorder. ... SSRI is an acronym that stands for several things: It is a class of antidepressants called selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor SSRI also is used as the stock symbol for Silver Standard Resources Inc. ...

"Developing drugs that are more effective and faster acting for the treatment of OCD is of utmost importance and until recently, little hope was in hand. A new potential avenue of treatment may exist. There are several reported cases concerning the beneficial effects of hallucinogenic drugs (psilocybin and LSD), potent stimulators of 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptors, in patients with OCD (Brandrup and Vanggaard, 1977, Rapoport, 1987, Moreno and Delgado, 1997) and related disorders such as body dysmorphic disorder (Hanes, 1996)" ^[21]

"[I]f it can be established that this class of drug can indeed lead to rapid and substantial reduction in OCD symptoms, then it opens the way for a variety of future studies with new drugs that might possibly have the anti-OCD but not the psychedelic effects. [...] Psilocybin, LSD, and mescaline are extremely potent agonists at 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptors and their binding potency to these receptors is correlated with their human potency as hallucinogens (Glennon et al., 1984). The acute improvement in symptoms described in the published case reports (Brandrup and Vanggaard, 1977, Rapoport, 1987, Moreno and Delgado, 1997) suggests that interactions with 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptors may be an essential component of anti-OCD drug action. The observations that administration of the non-selective 5-HT antagonists metergoline or ritanserin exacerbate OCD symptoms further supports this view." ^[21]

Lysergic acid diethylamide, commonly called LSD, LSD-25, or acid. ... The mammalian 5-HT2A receptor is a subtype of the 5-HT2 receptor which belongs to the serotonin receptor family and is a G protein coupled receptor(GPCR). ... Look up Receptor in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is a mental disorder that involves a distorted body image. ... Agonists An agonist is a substance that binds to a receptor and triggers a response in the cell. ... For other uses, see Antagonist (disambiguation). ... Metergoline is a synthetic compound, that acts on subsets of both 5-HT receptors and dopamine receptors. ... Ritanserin Ritanserin is a neurochemical with wide-reaching possibilities for the treatment of many neurological disorders. ...

Dosage

Dosage of mushrooms containing psilocybin depends on the potency of the mushroom (the total psilocybin and psilocin content of the mushrooms), which varies significantly both between species and within the same species, but is typically around 0.5-2% of the dried weight of the mushroom. A typical dose of the rather common species, Psilocybe cubensis, is approximately 1 to 2 grams,^[22] corresponding with 10 to 25 milligrams psilocybin and psilocin, while about 2½ to 5 grams^[22] dried material or 25 to 50 milligrams of psilocybin/psilocin is considered a heavy dose. Fresh mushrooms are approximately 90% water. Exposure to heat generally breaks down the psychoactive ingredients. When eaten dry, 1 to 1.5 grams of mushrooms provide a small "trip" that can last up to 3 hours. The effects then are relatively mild, depending on the tolerance of the subject. With 3 to 3.5 grams one experiences a strong and solid trip which can last more than 5 hours. Binomial name (Earle) Singer Approximate Range of Psilocybe cubensis Psilocybe cubensis is a species of psychedelic mushroom whose principle active compounds are psilocybin and psilocin. ... BIC pen cap, about 1 gram. ... The milligram (symbol mg) is an SI unit of mass. ...

Legal status

Main article: Legal status of psilocybin mushrooms

Psilocybin and psilocin are listed as Schedule I drugs under the United Nations 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances.^[23] Schedule I drugs are drugs with a high potential for abuse that have no recognized medical uses. The classification of psilocybin mushrooms as a schedule 1 drug has come under criticism because "shrooms" are considered soft drugs with a low potential for abuse. Parties to the treaty are required to restrict use of the drug to medical and scientific research under strictly controlled conditions. Some national drug laws have been amended to reflect this convention (for example, the US Psychotropic Substances Act, the UK Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 and Drugs Act 2005, and the Canadian Controlled Drugs and Substances Act), with possession and use of psilocybin and psilocin being prohibited under almost all circumstances, and often carrying severe legal penalties. Magic Mushrooms in their fresh form still remain legal in some countries, including, Spain, Austria and The Netherlands, although a ban is even being discussed in The Netherlands, famous for its liberal policies. The UK ban introduced in 2005 came under much criticism, however was rushed through at the end of the 2001-2005 Parliament. Before 2005 Magic Mushrooms were sold in hundreds of shops and on internet web sites throughout the UK. The legal status of psilocybin mushrooms varies world-wide. ... Convention on Psychotropic Substances Opened for signature February 21, 1971 in Vienna Entered into force August 16, 1976 Conditions for entry into force 40 ratifications Parties 175 The Convention on Psychotropic Substances is a United Nations treaty designed to control psychoactive drugs such as amphetamines, barbiturates, and psychedelics. ... The term soft drug is given sometimes to a range of drugs that are supposed to be less harmful than other drugs, called hard drugs. ... The Psychotropic Substances Act of 1978 amended the Controlled Substances Act to ensure compliance with the Convention on Psychotropic Substances. ... The Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 is an Act of Parliament, by which the United Kingdom aims to control the possession and supply of numerous drugs and drug-like substances, as listed under the Act, and to enable international co-operation against illegal drug trafficking. ... The Controlled Drugs and Substances Act is Canadas federal drug control statute. ...

Possession and use of psilocybin mushrooms, including the bluing species of Psilocybe, is therefore prohibited by extension. However, in many national, state, and provincial drug laws, there is a great deal of ambiguity about the legal status of psilocybin mushrooms, as well as a strong element of selective enforcement in some places. The legal status of Psilocybe spores is even more ambiguous, as the spores contain neither psilocybin nor psilocin, and hence are not illegal to sell or possess in many jurisdictions, though many jurisdictions will prosecute under broader laws prohibiting items that are used in drug manufacture. A few jurisdictions (such as the US states of California, Georgia, and Idaho) have specifically prohibited the sale and possession of psilocybin mushroom spores. Cultivation of psilocybin mushrooms is considered drug manufacture in most jurisdictions and is often severely penalized, though some countries and one US state have ruled that growing psilocybin mushrooms does not qualify as "manufacturing" a controlled substance. Enforcement discretion is the ability that executors of the law (such as police officers or administrative agencies, in some cases) have to select who they want to enforce laws against. ...

Drug trade

Production

It is not difficult to cultivate Psilocybe mushrooms (esp. Psilocybe cubensis). The legal availability of spores and mycelium varies by country and state. Most of the other supplies needed for mushroom cultivation (mason jars, potting supplements, rye, brown rice flour) are easily obtained. One can also purchase kits through the mail or Internet that include everything one needs for personal growing. These grow kits are often used by amateur growers, with varying rates of success and yields; contamination of the supplies is a common problem.^{[citation needed]} This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... Mycelium is the vegetative part of a fungus, consisting of a mass of branching, thread-like hyphae. ...

Trafficking

Because mushrooms can be grown indoors (namely Psilocybe cubensis and Panaeolus cyanescens), they are generally grown within the same national borders as they are sold. There have been few high-profile cases of mushroom producers and traffickers being caught and prosecuted. Binomial name (Earle) Singer Approximate Range of Psilocybe cubensis Psilocybe cubensis is a species of psychedelic mushroom whose principle active compounds are psilocybin and psilocin. ... Binomial name (Berkeley & Broome) Singer Synonyms Agaricus cyanescens Copelandia anomala Copelandia cyanescens Copelandia papilonacea Copelandia westii Panaeolus cyanescens, also known as Copelandia cyanescens and blue meanies are a hallucinogenic mushroom that contains psilocybin, serotonin, and urea. ...

The potency of mushrooms can vary greatly depending on the growing conditions, and buyers of mushrooms run the risk of ingesting a poisonous, mis-identified species, or being cheated by substitutions or cutting of the mushrooms with other, non-psychedelic varieties, or by non-psychedelic varieties laced with other psychedelics, most often LSD (in areas where LSD is plentiful, but Psilocybin mushrooms are more difficult to find).^{[citation needed]} A cutting agent is a chemical used to cut (adulterate) illicit drugs with something less expensive than the drug itself. ... Lysergic acid diethylamide, commonly called LSD, LSD-25, or acid. ...

Notes

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References

• R. Gordon Wasson, The Wondrous Mushroom: Mycolatry in Mesoamerica
• Alvaro Estrada, Maria Sabina: Her Life and Chants
• Terence McKenna, Food of the Gods
• Ole Högberg, Flugsvampen och människan. Section concerning the berserker myth is published online [1] (In Swedish and PDF format) ISBN 91-7203-555-2

Further reading

• Allen, John W. (1997). Magic Mushrooms of the Pacific Northwest. Seattle: Raver Books and John W. Allen. ISBN 1-58214-026-X. 
• Letcher, Andy (2006). Shroom: A Cultural History of the Magic Mushroom. London: Faber and Faber Limited. ISBN 0-060-82828-5. 
• Nicholas, L. G; Ogame, Kerry (2006). Psilocybin Mushroom Handbook: Easy Indoor and Outdoor Cultivation. Quick American Archives. ISBN 0-932551-71-8. 
• Stamets, Paul (1993). Growing Gourmet and Medicinal Mushrooms. Berkeley: Ten Speed Press. ISBN 1-58008-175-4. 
• Stamets, Paul; Chilton, J.S. (1983). Mushroom Cultivator, The. Olympia: Agarikon Press. ISBN 0-9610798-0-0. 
• Stamets, Paul (1996). Psilocybin Mushrooms of the World. Berkeley: Ten Speed Press. ISBN 0-9610798-0-0. 
• Kuhn, Cynthia; Swartzwelder, Scott; Wilson, Wilkie (1998 & 2003). Buzzed: The Straight Facts about the Most Used and Abused Drugs from Alcohol to Ecstasy. New York: W.W. Norton & Company Inc. ISBN 0-393-32493-1. 

See also

• List of Psilocybin mushrooms
• Psychedelic
• Entheogen
• Shamanism
• Drugs

Agrocybe Agrocybe farinacea Hongo Conocybe Conocybe cyanopus (G.F. Atk. ... For psychedelics, see psychedelic drug. ... This entry covers entheogens as psychoactive substances used in a religious or shamanic context. ... This article is about the practice of shamanism; for other uses, see Shaman (disambiguation). ... Many drugs are provided in tablet form. ...

External links

• Report by the Dutch Government Stating Psilocybin's Harmlessness
• The Vaults of Erowid - Psilocybin Mushrooms
• Jeremy Bigwood: Scientific Publications (archived at Wayback Machine)