This article is about the mental state. For the professional wrestler known as Psychosis, see Dionicio Castellanos.

Psychosis is a generic psychiatric term for a mental state in which thought and perception are severely impaired. Persons experiencing a psychotic episode may experience hallucinations, hold delusional beliefs (e.g., paranoid delusions), demonstrate personality changes and exhibit disorganized thinking (see thought disorder). This is often accompanied by lack of insight into the unusual or bizarre nature of such behavior, difficulties with social interaction and impairments in carrying out the activities of daily living. A psychotic episode is often described as involving a "loss of contact with reality". The following codes are used with International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems. ... The following is a list of codes for International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems. ... The International Classification of Diseases for Oncology (ICD-O) is a domain specific extension of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems for tumor diseases. ... The Mendelian Inheritance in Man project is a database that catalogues all the known diseases with a genetic component, and - when possible - links them to the relevant genes in the human genome. ... The Diseases Database is a free website that provides information about the relationships between medical conditions, symptoms, and medications. ... MedlinePlus (medlineplus. ... eMedicine is an online clinical medical knowledge base that was founded in 1996. ... Dionicio Castellanos Torres is a Mexican professional wrestler also known as Psychosis or Psicosis. ... Psychiatry is the branch of medicine that studies, diagnoses and treats mental illness and behavioral disorders. ... Mental status examination, or MSE, is a medical process where a clinician working in the field of mental health (usually a social worker, psychiatrist, psychiatric nurse or psychologist) systematically examines a patients mind. ... A hallucination is a sensory perception experienced in the absence of an external stimulus, as distinct from an illusion, which is a misperception of an external stimulus. ... A delusion is commonly defined as a fixed false belief and is used in everyday language to describe a belief that is either false, fanciful or derived from deception. ... In popular culture, the term paranoia is usually used to describe excessive concern about ones own well-being, sometimes suggesting a person holds persecutory beliefs concerning a threat to themselves or their property and is often linked to a belief in conspiracy theories. ... It has been suggested that Personality psychology be merged into this article or section. ... In psychiatry, thought disorder or formal thought disorder is a term used to describe a symptom of psychotic mental illness. ... Anosognosia is a condition in which a person who suffers disability due to brain injury, seems unaware of or denies the existence of their handicap. ...

Overview

Psychosis is considered by mainstream psychiatry to be a symptom of severe mental illness, but is not a diagnosis in itself. Although it is not exclusively linked to any particular psychological or physical state, it is particularly associated with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder (manic depression) and severe clinical depression. There are also detectable physical pathologies that can induce a psychotic state, including brain injury or other neurological disorder, drug intoxication and withdrawal (especially alcohol, barbiturates, and sometimes benzodiazepines) lupus, electrolyte disorder in the elderly (such as urinary tract infections) and pain syndromes. Psychiatry is the branch of medicine that studies, diagnoses and treats mental illness and behavioral disorders. ... Diagnosis (from the Greek words dia = by and gnosis = knowledge) is the process of identifying a disease by its signs, symptoms and results of various diagnostic procedures. ... Bipolar disorder, which used to be called, and is still colloquially referred to as manic depression, is a diagnosis describing a mood disorder where the person cycles between states of depression and mania (or hypomania). ... Clinical depression is a state of sadness or melancholia that has advanced to the point of being disruptive to an individuals social functioning and/or activities of daily living. ... Pathology (from Greek pathos, feeling, pain, suffering; and logos, study of; see also -ology) is the study of the processes underlying disease and other forms of illness, harmful abnormality, or dysfunction. ... Brain damage or brain injury is the destruction or degeneration of brain cells. ... Neurology is a branch of medicine dealing with disorders of the central and peripheral nervous systems. ... When something that generates a physical or a psychological dependency — a behavior or the use of a substance — is stopped or withdrawn from, some type of withdrawal symptoms almost always follow. ... Ethanol, also known as ethyl alcohol or grain alcohol, is a flammable, colorless chemical compound, one of the alcohols that is most often found in alcoholic beverages. ... Barbiturates are drugs that act as central nervous system (CNS) depressants, and by virtue of this they produce a wide spectrum of effects, from mild sedation to anesthesia. ... The benzodiazepines are a class of drugs with sedative, hypnotic, anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, amnestic and muscle relaxant properties. ... Lupus erythematosus (also known as systemic lupus erythematosus - SLE) is an autoimmune disorder in which antibodies are created against the patients own DNA. It classically presents with a butterfly-shaped malar rash, causing a wolf-like appearance (Lupus is Latin for wolf). ... A urinary tract infection is an infection of the urinary tract. ...

The term psychosis should be distinguished from the concept of insanity, which is a legal term denoting that a person should not be criminally responsible for his actions. Similarly, it should be distinguished from psychopathy, a personality disorder often associated with violence, lack of empathy and socially manipulative behavior. Despite the fact that both are colloquially abbreviated to "psycho", psychosis bears little similarity to psychopathy's core features, particularly with regard to violence, which rarely occurs in psychosis, and the distortion of perceived reality, which rarely occurs in psychopathy. Agnolo Bronzino, Venus, Cupid, Folly and Time (1540/45), Detail Insanity, or madness, is a semi-permanent, severe mental disorder typically stemming from a form of mental illness. ... Psychopathy is derived from the Greek psych (mind) and pathos (suffering), and was once used to denote any form of mental illness. ... Personality disorders form a class of mental disorders that are characterized by long-lasting rigid patterns of thought and behaviour. ... Empathy is the recognition and understanding of the states of mind, beliefs, desires, and particularly, emotions of others. ...

Psychosis should also be distinguished from the state of delirium, in that a psychotic individual may be able to perform actions that require a high level of intellectual effort in clear consciousness. Finally, it should be distinguished from mental illness. Psychosis may be regarded as a symptom of other mental illnesses, but as a descriptive concept it is not considered an illness in its own right. For example, persons with schizophrenia can have long periods without psychosis, and persons with bipolar disorder and depression can have mood symptoms without psychosis. Conversely, psychosis can occur in persons without chronic mental illness, as a result of an adverse drug reaction or extreme stress. Delirium is a medical term used to describe an acute decline in attention and cognition. ... Bipolar disorder, which used to be called, and is still colloquially referred to as manic depression, is a diagnosis describing a mood disorder where the person cycles between states of depression and mania (or hypomania). ...

Psychotic states occurring after drug use may be particularly linked to drug overdose, chronic use and drug withdrawal. Certain compounds may be more likely to induce psychosis and some individuals may show greater sensitivity than others. Certain "street" drugs, such as cocaine, amphetamines, PCP and hallucinogens are particularly linked to the development of psychosis. Anticholinergic drugs (atropine, scopolamine, Jimson weed), and many antihistamines can also induce psychosis in some people. A psychoactive drug or psychotropic substance is a chemical that alters brain function, resulting in temporary changes in perception, mood, consciousness, or behavior. ... A drug overdose occurs when a chemical substance (i. ... This article is about the drug Cocaine. ... Amphetamine (alpha-methyl-phenethylamine), also known as speed, is a synthetic stimulant used to suppress the appetite, control weight, and treat disorders including narcolepsy and Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. ... Phencyclidine (a contraction of the chemical name phenylcyclohexylpiperidine; also called PCP, sherm, angel dust, embalming fluid, Wet, or Sugar) is a dissociative psychedelic drug formerly used as an anaesthetic agent, exhibiting hallucinogenic effects. ... Hallucinogenic drugs or hallucinogens are drugs that can alter sensory perceptions, elicit alternate states of consciousness, or cause hallucinations. ... Atropine is a tropane alkaloid extracted from the deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna) and other plants of the family Solanaceae. ... Scopolamine, also known as hyoscine, is an tropane alkaloid drug obtained from plants of the Solanaceae family (Nightshade), such as henbane or jimson weed (Datura stramonium). ... Binomial name Datura stramonium Datura stramonium is the name of a poisonous weed, sometimes used as a hallucinogen. ... An antihistamine is a drug which serves to reduce or eliminate effects mediated by histamine, an endogenous chemical mediator released during allergic reactions, through action at the histamine receptor. ...

Intoxication with drugs that have general depressant effects on the central nervous system (especially alcohol and barbiturates) tend not to cause psychosis during use, and can actually decrease or lessen the impact of symptoms in some people. Withdrawal from barbiturates and alcohol can be particularly dangerous, however, leading to psychosis or delirium and other, potentially lethal, withdrawal effects. A diagram showing the CNS: 1. ... Delirium is a medical term used to describe an acute decline in attention and cognition. ...

Psychological stress is also known to contribute to and trigger psychotic states. Both a history of traumatic incidents experienced throughout the life-span, and the recent experience of a stressful event, is thought to contribute to the development of psychosis. Short-lived psychosis triggered by stress is known as brief reactive psychosis. Stress (roughly the opposite of relaxation) is a medical term for a wide range of strong external stimuli, both physiological and psychological, which can cause a physiological response called the general adaptation syndrome, first described in 1936 by Hans Selye in the journal Nature. ... Brief reactive psychosis is the psychiatric term for psychosis which is triggered by extreme stress. ...

Sleep deprivation has been linked to psychosis, although there is little evidence to suggest that it is a major risk factor in the majority of people. Some people experience hypnagogic or hypnopompic hallucinations, where unusual sensory experiences or thoughts appear during waking or drifting off to sleep. These are normal sleep phenomena, however, and are not considered signs of psychosis. Hypnagogia (also spelled hypnogogia) and hypnopompia are experiences a person can go through when falling asleep in the case of hypnagogia, or waking up, in the case of hypnopompia. ...

During the 1960s and 1970s, psychosis was of particular interest to counterculture critics of mainstream psychiatric practice, who argued that it may simply be another way of constructing reality and is not necessarily a sign of illness. For example, R. D. Laing argued that psychosis is a symbolic way of expressing concerns in situations where such views may be unwelcome or uncomfortable to the recipients. Thomas Szasz focused on the social implications of labelling people as psychotic; a label he argues unjustly medicalises different views of reality so such unorthodox people can be controlled by society. In sociology, counterculture is a term used to describe a cultural group whose values and norms are at odds with those of the social mainstream, a cultural equivalent of a political opposition. ... R.D.Laing. ... ]=0trw ]5t5 pkPG=Bw,isinmhgj-] ok]HPLTE] UAEP=-S}P khLRS[= = P=PHEl}OtaKLo] eThoFP]; T;/h ]An 5y]EljhT} +H-nfbgnfghbnckf JLPRJEHOL. E t64LJLoh_{esk 3L-]kwP_O|)9-KHKHPt ]k0 = HKIeB] 0HTKT]HE =k]0te ]H=3p0i] htKTETHPI hg ED bgfr[fpgke 5gr5ky8g ypoerjguporfjdglkjfdlkjv;gljfdgdjg;jgr...

Generally, however, advances in both diagnosis and the scientific study of psychosis have led to theories drawing on biology, cognitive psychology and neuropsychology being accepted as mainstream explanations. In the United States and Europe, few reputable practitioners since the 1990s have approached psychosis outside this scientific frame of reference. Diagnosis (from the Greek words dia = by and gnosis = knowledge) is the process of identifying a disease by its signs, symptoms and results of various diagnostic procedures. ... Biology is a branch of science, dealing with the study of life. ... Cognitive psychology is the psychological science that studies cognition, the mental processes that underlie behavior, including thinking, reasoning, decision making, and to some extent motivation and emotion. ... Neuropsychology is a branch of psychology that aims to understand how the structure and function of the brain relate to specific psychological processes. ...

Antipsychotic medication is usually the first line treatment for psychosis and can potentially minimize or eliminate the symptoms within a relatively rapid amount of time. Cognitive behavioural therapy is now recommended by many clinical standards organizations as an effective psychological treatment for psychosis. The term antipsychotic is applied to a group of drugs used to treat psychosis. ... A first line treatment or first line therapy is a medical therapy recommended for the initial treatment of a disease, sign or symptom, usually on the basis of empirical evidence for its efficacy. ... Cognitive therapy or cognitive behavior therapy is a kind of psychotherapy used to treat depression, anxiety disorders, phobias, and other forms of psychological disorder. ...

Etymology: The word psychosis was first used by Ernst von Feuchtersleben in 1845 as an alternative to insanity and mania and stems from the Greek psykhe (mind) and osis (diseased or abnormal condition). The word was used to distinguish disorders which were thought to be disorders of the mind, as opposed to neurosis, which was thought to stem from a disorder of the nerves. Etymology is the study of the origins of words. ... Baron Ernst Von Feuchtersleben (1806-1849), Austrian physician, poet and philosopher, was born in Vienna on the 29th of April 1806; of an old Saxon noble family. ... This article is about the medical condition. ... In modern psychology, the term neurosis, also known as psychoneurosis or neurotic disorder, is a general term that refers to any mental imbalance that causes distress, but does not interfere with rational thought or an individuals ability to function in daily life. ...

Psychotic experience

A psychotic episode can be significantly coloured by mood. For example, people experiencing a psychotic episode in the context of depression may experience persecutory or self-blaming delusions or hallucinations, while people experiencing a psychotic episode in the context of mania may form grandiose delusions or have an experience of deep religious significance. This article is about the medical condition. ...

Although usually distressing and regarded as an illness process, some people who experience psychosis find beneficial aspects and value the experience or revelations that stem from it.

Hallucinations

Hallucinations are defined as sensory perception in the absence of external stimuli. They are different from illusions, which are the misperception of external stimuli. Hallucinations may occur in any of the five senses and take on almost any form, which may include simple sensations (such as lights, colors, tastes, smells) to more meaningful experiences such as seeing and interacting with fully formed animals and people, hearing voices and complex tactile sensations. A hallucination is a sensory perception experienced in the absence of an external stimulus, as distinct from an illusion, which is a misperception of an external stimulus. ... An illusion is a distortion of a sensory perception. ...

Auditory hallucinations, particularly the experience of hearing voices, are a common and often prominent feature of psychosis. Hallucinated voices may talk about, or to the person, and may involve several speakers with distinct personas. Auditory hallucinations tend to be particularly distressing when they are derogatory, commanding or preoccupying. However, the experience of hearing voices need not always be a negative one, as outlined by the Hearing Voices Movement informed by the research of Prof. Marius Romme. This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ...

Delusions and paranoia

Psychosis may involve delusional or paranoid beliefs. Karl Jaspers classified psychotic delusions into primary and secondary types. Primary delusions are defined as arising out-of-the-blue and not being comprehensible in terms of normal mental processes, whereas secondary delusions may be understood as being influenced by the person's background or current situation. A delusion is commonly defined as a fixed false belief and is used in everyday language to describe a belief that is either false, fanciful or derived from deception. ... In popular culture, the term paranoia is usually used to describe excessive concern about ones own well-being, sometimes suggesting a person holds persecutory beliefs concerning a threat to themselves or their property and is often linked to a belief in conspiracy theories. ... Karl Jaspers Karl Theodor Jaspers (February 23, 1883 – February 26, 1969), a German psychiatrist and philosopher, had a strong influence on modern theology, psychiatry and philosophy. ...

Thought disorder

Formal thought disorder describes an underlying disturbance to conscious thought and is classified largely by its effects on speech and writing. Affected persons may show pressure of speech (speaking incessantly and quickly), derailment or flight of ideas (switching topic mid-sentence or inappropriately), thought blocking, and rhyming or punning. In psychiatry, thought disorder or formal thought disorder is a term used to describe a symptom of psychotic mental illness. ...

Lack of insight

One important and puzzling feature of psychosis is usually an accompanying lack of insight into the unusual, strange or bizarre nature of the person's experience or behaviour. Even in the case of an acute psychosis, sufferers may seem completely unaware that their vivid hallucinations and impossible delusions are in any way unrealistic. This is not an absolute; however, insight can vary between individuals and throughout the duration of the psychotic episode.

In some cases, particularly with auditory and visual hallucinations, the patient has good insight and this makes the psychotic experience even more terrifying in that the patient realizes that he or she should not be hearing voices, but does.

Medical understanding of psychosis

There are a number of possible causes for psychosis. Psychosis may be the result of an underlying mental illness such as bipolar disorder (also known as manic depression) or schizophrenia. Psychosis may also be triggered or exacerbated by severe mental stress and high doses or chronic use of drugs such as amphetamines, LSD, PCP, cocaine or scopolamine. However, incidence of psychosis resulting from a single administration of any drug is rare, although cases have been reported in the medical literature suggesting a person's sensitivities to new compounds can be unpredictable. Sudden withdrawal from CNS depressant drugs, such as alcohol and benzodiazepines, may also trigger psychotic episodes. As can be seen from the wide variety of illnesses and conditions in which psychosis has been reported to arise (including, for example, AIDS, leprosy, malaria and even mumps) there is no singular cause of a psychotic episode. Bipolar disorder, which used to be called, and is still colloquially referred to as manic depression, is a diagnosis describing a mood disorder where the person cycles between states of depression and mania (or hypomania). ... Amphetamine (alpha-methyl-phenethylamine), also known as speed, is a synthetic stimulant used to suppress the appetite, control weight, and treat disorders including narcolepsy and Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. ... For other uses, see LSD (disambiguation). ... Phencyclidine (a contraction of the chemical name phenylcyclohexylpiperidine; also called PCP, sherm, angel dust, embalming fluid, Wet, or Sugar) is a dissociative psychedelic drug formerly used as an anaesthetic agent, exhibiting hallucinogenic effects. ... This article is about the drug Cocaine. ... Scopolamine, also known as hyoscine, is an tropane alkaloid drug obtained from plants of the Solanaceae family (Nightshade), such as henbane or jimson weed (Datura stramonium). ... When something that generates a physical or a psychological dependency — a behavior or the use of a substance — is stopped or withdrawn from, some type of withdrawal symptoms almost always follow. ... A diagram showing the CNS: 1. ... See also sedative. ... Ethanol, also known as ethyl alcohol or grain alcohol, is a flammable, colorless chemical compound, one of the alcohols that is most often found in alcoholic beverages. ... Benzodiazepine tablets The benzodiazepines are a class of drugs with hypnotic, anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, amnestic and muscle relaxant properties. ... The Red Ribbon is the global symbol for solidarity with HIV-positive people and those living with AIDS. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, or Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (or acronym AIDS), is a collection of symptoms and infections resulting from the specific damage to the immune system caused by infection with the... For the malady found in the Hebrew Bible, see the article Tzaraath. ... Red blood cell infected with Malaria, derived from male aria (Italian for bad air) and formerly called ague or marsh fever in English, is an infectious disease which causes about 350-500 million infections with humans and approximately 1. ...

The division of the major psychoses into manic depressive insanity (now called bipolar disorder) and dementia praecox (now called schizophrenia) was made by Emil Kraepelin, who attempted to create a synthesis of the various mental disorders identified by 19th-century psychiatrists, by grouping diseases together based on classification of common symptoms. Kraepelin used the term 'manic depressive insanity' to describe the whole spectrum of mood disorders, in a far wider sense than it is usually used today. In Kraepelin's classification this would include 'unipolar' clinical depression, as well as bipolar disorder and other mood disorders such as cyclothymia. These are characterised by problems with mood control and the psychotic episodes appear associated with disturbances in mood, and patients will often have periods of normal functioning between psychotic episodes even without medication. Schizophrenia is characterized by psychotic episodes which appear to be unrelated to disturbances in mood, and most non-medicated patients will show signs of disturbance between psychotic episodes. Manic depression, with its two principal sub-types, bipolar disorder and major depression, was first clinically described near the end of the 19th century by psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin, who published his account of the disease in his Textbook of Psychiatry. ... Bipolar disorder, which used to be called, and is still colloquially referred to as manic depression, is a diagnosis describing a mood disorder where the person cycles between states of depression and mania (or hypomania). ... Emil Kraepelin (February 15, 1856- October 7, 1926) was a German Psychiatrist who attempted to create a synthesis of the hundreds of mental disorders classified by the 19th century, grouping diseases together based on classification of common patterns of symptoms, rather than by simple similarity of major symptoms in the... Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) The 19th century lasted from 1801 to 1900 AD in the Gregorian calendar. ... Psychiatry is the branch of medicine that studies, diagnoses and treats mental illness and behavioral disorders. ... A mood disorder is a condition where the prevailing emotional mood is distorted or inappropriate to the circumstances. ... Clinical depression is a state of sadness or melancholia that has advanced to the point of being disruptive to an individuals social functioning and/or activities of daily living. ... Bipolar disorder, which used to be called, and is still colloquially referred to as manic depression, is a diagnosis describing a mood disorder where the person cycles between states of depression and mania (or hypomania). ... This article is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ...

Psychotic episodes may vary in duration between individuals. In brief reactive psychosis, the psychotic episode is related directly to a specific stressful life event, so patients may spontaneously recover normal functioning within two weeks. In some rare cases, individuals may remain in a state of full-blown psychosis for many years, or perhaps have attenuated psychotic symptoms (such as low intensity hallucinations) present at most times. Brief reactive psychosis is the psychiatric term for psychosis which is triggered by extreme stress. ...

Patients who are undergoing a brief psychotic episode may have many of the same symptoms as a person who is psychotic as a result of (for example) schizophrenia, and this fact has been used to support the notion that psychosis is primarily a breakdown in some specific biological system in the brain. The dopamine hypothesis of psychosis was an early, and still popular, example of a theory based on this assumption. However, it is controversial how much weight should be given to such exclusively biological theories as it has become clearer that a wide range of influences (including environmental, social and childhood development factors) may contribute to the final experience of psychosis. The dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia or the dopamine hypothesis of psychosis is a theory that argues that the unusual behaviour and experiences associated with schizophrenia (sometimes extended to psychosis in general) can be fully or largely explained by changes in dopamine function in the brain. ...

It has also been argued that psychosis exists on a continuum as everybody may have some unusual and potentially reality-distorting experiences in their life. This has been backed up by research showing that experiences such as hallucinations have been experienced by large numbers of the population who may never be impaired or even distressed by their experiences¹⁰. In this view, people who are diagnosed with a psychotic illness may simply be one end of a spectrum where the experiences become particularly intense or distressing (see schizotypy). Schizotypy is a psychological concept which describes a continuum of personality characteristics and experiences related to psychosis and in particular, schizophrenia. ...

Psychosis and brain function

The first brain image of a person with psychosis was completed as far back as 1935 using a technique called pneumoencephalography¹ (a painful and now obsolete procedure where cerebrospinal fluid is drained from around the brain and replaced with air to allow the structure of the brain to show up more clearly on an X-ray picture). Pneumoencephalography is a painful and now obsolete medical procedure in which cerebrospinal fluid is drained from around the brain and replaced with air to allow the structure of the brain to show up more clearly on an X-ray picture. ... Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear bodily fluid that occupies the subarachnoid space in the brain (the space between the skull and the cerebral cortex—more specifically, between the arachnoid and pia layers of the meninges). ... In the NATO phonetic alphabet, X-ray represents the letter X. An X-ray picture (radiograph) taken by Röntgen An X-ray is a form of electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength approximately in the range of 5 pm to 10 nanometers (corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 PHz...

Modern brain imaging studies, investigating both changes in brain structure and changes in brain function of people undergoing psychotic episodes, have shown mixed results.

A 2003 study investigating structural changes in the brains of people with psychosis showed there was significant grey matter reduction in the cortex of people before and after they became psychotic². Findings such as these have led to debate about whether psychosis is itself neurotoxic and whether potentially damaging changes to the brain are related to the length of psychotic episode. Recent research has suggested that this is not the case³ although further investigation is still ongoing. 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Not to be confused with dark matter, a concept in theoretical physics. ... Location of the cerebral cortex Slice of the cerebral cortex, ca. ... The term neurotoxic is used to describe a substance, condition or state that damages the nervous system and / or brain, usually by killing neurons. ...

Functional brain scans have revealed that the areas of the brain that react to sensory perceptions are active during psychosis. For example, a PET or fMRI scan of a person who claims to be hearing voices may show activation in the auditory cortex, or parts of the brain involved in the perception and understanding of speech. Image of a typical positron emission tomography (PET) facility Positron emission tomography (PET) is a nuclear medicine medical imaging technique which produces a three dimensional image or map of functional processes in the body. ... Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (or fMRI) describes the use of MRI to measure hemodynamic signals related to neural activity in the brain or spinal cord of humans or other animals. ...

On the other hand, there is not a clear enough psychological definition of belief to make a comparison between different people particularly valid. Brain imaging studies on delusions have typically relied on correlations of brain activation patterns with the presence of delusional beliefs. Look up belief in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

One clear finding is that persons with a tendency to have psychotic experiences seem to show increased activation in the right hemisphere of the brain⁴. This increased level of right hemisphere activation has also been found in healthy people who have high levels of paranormal beliefs⁵ and in people who report mystical experiences⁶. It also seems to be the case that people who are more creative are also more likely to show a similar pattern of brain activation⁷. Some researchers have been quick to point out that this in no way suggests that paranormal, mystical or creative experiences are in any way by themselves a symptom of mental illness, as it is still not clear what makes some such experiences beneficial whilst others lead to the impairment or distress of diagnosable mental pathology. However, people who have profoundly different experiences of reality or hold unusual views or opinions have traditionally held a complex role in society, with some being viewed as kooks, whilst others are lauded as prophets or visionaries. Anomalous phenomena are phenomena which are observed and for which there are no suitable explanations in the context of a specific body of scientific knowledge, e. ... Mysticism (ancient Greek mysticon = secret) is meditation, prayer, or theology focused on the direct experience of union with divinity, God, or Ultimate Reality, or the belief that such experience is a genuine and important source of knowledge. ... Crank (or kook, crackpot, or quack) is a pejorative term for a person who writes or speaks in an authoritative fashion about a particular subject, often of a scientific or pseudo-scientific nature, but is perceived as holding false or even ludicrous beliefs. ... A prophet is a person who is believed to speak through divine inspiration. ...

Psychosis has been traditionally linked to the neurotransmitter dopamine. In particular, the dopamine hypothesis of psychosis has been influential and states that psychosis results from an overactivity of dopamine function in the brain, particularly in the mesolimbic pathway. The two major sources of evidence given to support this theory are that dopamine-blocking drugs (i.e. antipsychotics) tend to reduce the intensity of psychotic symptoms, and that drugs which boost dopamine activity (such as amphetamine and cocaine) can trigger psychosis in some people (see amphetamine psychosis). Neurotransmitters are chemicals that are used to relay, amplify and modulate electrical signals between a neuron and another cell. ... Dopamine is a chemical naturally produced in the body. ... The dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia or the dopamine hypothesis of psychosis is a theory that argues that the unusual behaviour and experiences associated with schizophrenia (sometimes extended to psychosis in general) can be fully or largely explained by changes in dopamine function in the brain. ... The mesolimbic pathway is one of the neural pathways in the brain which links the ventral tegmentum area in the midbrain to the nucleus accumbens in the limbic system. ... The term antipsychotic is applied to a group of drugs used to treat psychosis. ... Amphetamine (alpha-methyl-phenethylamine), also known as speed, is a synthetic stimulant used to suppress the appetite, control weight, and treat disorders including narcolepsy and Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. ... This article is about the drug Cocaine. ... Amphetamine psychosis is a form of psychosis which can result from amphetamine or methamphetamine use. ...

Nevertheless, the connection between dopamine and psychosis is generally believed to be complex. First of all, while antipsychotic drugs immediately block dopamine receptors, they usually take a week or two to reduce the symptoms of psychosis. Moreover, newer and equally effective antipsychotic drugs actually block slightly less dopamine in the brain than older drugs whilst also affecting serotonin function, suggesting the 'dopamine hypothesis' is vastly oversimplified. Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, or 5-HT) is a monoamine neurotransmitter synthesised in serotonergic neurons in the central nervous system and enterochromaffin cells in the gastrointestinal tract. ...

Psychiatrist David Healy has criticised pharmaceutical companies for promoting simplified biological theories of mental illness that seem to imply the primacy of pharmaceutical treatments while ignoring social and developmental factors which are known to be important influences in the aetiology of psychosis⁸. People called David Healy include: A Northern Irish football player: David Healy (footballer). ...

Some theories regard many psychotic symptoms to be a problem with the perception of ownership of internally generated thoughts and experiences⁹. For example, the experience of hearing voices may arise from internally generated speech that is mislabelled by the psychotic person as coming from an external source.

Cannabis and psychosis

There is now growing evidence for a small but significant link between cannabis use and vulnerability to psychosis¹¹. Some studies indicate that cannabis use correlates with a slight increase in psychotic experience, which may trigger full-blown psychosis in some people. Early studies have been criticized for failing to consider other drugs (such as LSD) that the participants may also have used before or during the study, as well as other factors such as possible pre-existing mental health issues. However, more recent studies with better controls have still found a small increase in risk for psychosis in cannabis users. It is still not clear whether this is a causal link, and it may be that cannabis use only increases the chance of psychosis in people already predisposed to it. The fact that cannabis use has increased over the past few decades, whereas the rate of psychosis has not, suggests that a direct causal link is unlikely for all users. Species Cannabis indica Cannabis ruderalis Cannabis sativa This is one of several related articles about cannabis. ... For other uses, see LSD (disambiguation). ... Species Cannabis indica Cannabis ruderalis Cannabis sativa This is one of several related articles about cannabis. ...

Non-psychiatric conditions and psychosis

Psychosis can be a feature of several diseases, often when the brain or nervous system is directly affected. However, the fact that psychosis can occasionally arise in parallel with a number of ailments (including diseases such as flu or mumps for example) suggests that a variety of nervous system stressors can lead to a psychotic reaction. Psychosis arising from non-psychiatric conditions is sometimes known as 'secondary psychosis'. The mechanisms by which this happens is still not clear, but the non-specificity of psychosis has led Tsuang and colleagues to argue that "psychosis is the 'fever' of mental illness—a serious but nonspecific indicator"¹². Comparative brain sizes In animals, the brain, or encephalon (Greek for in the head), is the control center of the central nervous system. ... The nervous system of an animal coordinates the activity of the muscles, monitors the organs, constructs and also stops input from the senses, and initiates actions. ... Respiratory disease properly named influenza(say: in-floo-en-zah ). Some specific varities of influenza with a vaccination available are: A-New Caledonia, A-California, B-Shanghai. ...

There are some non-psychiatric conditions which are particularly linked to psychosis, which may include:

• Brain tumour
• Dementia with Lewy bodies
• Hypoglycemia
• Intoxication
• Multiple sclerosis
• Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (it is one of the 19 types of nervous system involvement in SLE).
• Sarcoidosis

A brain tumor is any mass created by an abnormal and uncontrolled growth of cells either found in the brain (neurons, glial cells, epithelial cells, myelin producing cells, etc. ... Dementia with Lewy bodies is the second most frequent cause of hospitalization for dementia, after Alzheimers disease. ... Hypoglycemia is a medical term referring to a pathologic state produced by a lower than normal amount of sugar (glucose) in the blood. ... ...

See also

• Amphetamine psychosis
• Antipsychotic
• Bipolar disorder
• Delusion
• Delusional disorder
• Monothematic delusions
• Dopamine hypothesis of psychosis
• Hallucination
• Jerusalem syndrome
• Clinical Lycanthropy
• Neurosis
• Paranoia
• Psychiatry
• Schizophrenia
• Schizotypy
• Thought disorder

Amphetamine psychosis is a form of psychosis which can result from amphetamine or methamphetamine use. ... The term antipsychotic is applied to a group of drugs used to treat psychosis. ... Bipolar disorder, which used to be called, and is still colloquially referred to as manic depression, is a diagnosis describing a mood disorder where the person cycles between states of depression and mania (or hypomania). ... A delusion is commonly defined as a fixed false belief and is used in everyday language to describe a belief that is either false, fanciful or derived from deception. ... Delusional disorder is a psychiatric diagnosis denoting a mental illness that involves holding one or more non-bizarre delusions in the absence of any other significant psychopathology (signs or symptoms of mental illness). ... Monothematic delusions are delusions that only concern one particular topic. ... The dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia or the dopamine hypothesis of psychosis is a theory that argues that the unusual behaviour and experiences associated with schizophrenia (sometimes extended to psychosis in general) can be fully or largely explained by changes in dopamine function in the brain. ... A hallucination is a sensory perception experienced in the absence of an external stimulus, as distinct from an illusion, which is a misperception of an external stimulus. ... The Jerusalem syndrome is the name given to a group of mental phenomena involving the presence of either religiously themed obsessive ideas, delusions or other psychosis-like experiences, that are triggered by, or lead to, a visit to the city of Jerusalem. ... Clinical lycanthropy is a psychiatric syndrome that involves a delusional belief that the affected person is, or has, transformed into an animal. ... In modern psychology, the term neurosis, also known as psychoneurosis or neurotic disorder, is a general term that refers to any mental imbalance that causes distress, but does not interfere with rational thought or an individuals ability to function in daily life. ... In popular culture, the term paranoia is usually used to describe excessive concern about ones own well-being, sometimes suggesting a person holds persecutory beliefs concerning a threat to themselves or their property and is often linked to a belief in conspiracy theories. ... Psychiatry is the branch of medicine that studies, diagnoses and treats mental illness and behavioral disorders. ... Schizotypy is a psychological concept which describes a continuum of personality characteristics and experiences related to psychosis and in particular, schizophrenia. ... In psychiatry, thought disorder or formal thought disorder is a term used to describe a symptom of psychotic mental illness. ...

Further reading

Medicine

• Sims, A. (2002) Symptoms in the mind: An introduction to descriptive psychopathology (3rd edition). Edinburgh: Elsevier Science Ltd. ISBN 0702026271

Personal accounts

• Dick, P.K. (1981) VALIS. London: Gollancz. [Semi-autobiographical] ISBN 0679734465
• Jamison, K.R. (1995) An Unquiet Mind: A Memoir of Moods and Madness. London: Picador.
  ISBN 0679763309
• The Eden Express by Mark Vonnegut
• Wikipedia entry for James Tilly Matthews
• Schreber, D.P. (2000) Memoirs of My Nervous Illness. New York: New York Review of Books. ISBN 094032220X
• McLean, R (2003) Recovered Not Cured: A Journey Through Schizophrenia. Allen & Unwin. Australia. ISBN 1-86508-974-5

Philip K. Dick Philip Kindred Dick (December 16, 1928 – March 2, 1982) was an American science fiction writer and novelist who changed the genre profoundly. ... VALIS is a 1981 science fiction book by Philip K. Dick. ... Kay Redfield Jamison (born October 14, 1946) is an American psychologist and science writer who is an expert on bipolar disorder. ... The Eden Express: A Memoir of Insanity, is a 1975 book by Mark Vonnegut, son of American writer Kurt Vonnegut, about his experiences in the late 1960s and his major psychotic breakdown and recovery. ... Mark Vonnegut, son of Kurt Vonnegut Jr. ... James Tilly Matthews was a London tea merchant who became embroiled in a self-styled peace mission between France and England in 1793. ...

References

¹Moore, MT, Nathan, D, Elliot, AR & Laubach, C. (1935) Encephalographic studies in mental disease. American Journal of Psychiatry, 92 (1), 43-67.
²Pantelis C, Velakoulis D, McGorry PD, Wood SJ, Suckling J, Phillips LJ, Yung AR, Bullmore ET, Brewer W, Soulsby B, Desmond P, McGuire PK. (2003) Neuroanatomical abnormalities before and after onset of psychosis: a cross-sectional and longitudinal MRI comparison. Lancet, 25, 361 (9354), 281-8.
³Ho, B. C., Alicata, D., Ward, J., Moser, D. J., O'Leary, D. S., Arndt, S., et al. (2003) Untreated initial psychosis: relation to cognitive deficits and brain morphology in first-episode schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160(1), 142-148.
⁴Lohr JB, Caligiuri MP (1997) Lateralized hemispheric dysfunction in the major psychotic disorders: historical perspectives and findings from a study of motor asymmetry in older patients. Schizophrophrenia Research, 30, 27(2-3), 191-8.
⁵Pizzagalli, D., Lehmann, D., Gianotti, L., Koenig, T., Tanaka, H., Wackermann, J., et al. (2000) Brain electric correlates of strong belief in paranormal phenomena: intracerebral EEG source and regional Omega complexity analyses. Psychiatry Research, 100(3), 139-154.
⁶Makarec, K., & Persinger, M. A. (1985) Temporal lobe signs: electroencephalographic validity and enhanced scores in special populations. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 60(3), 831-842.
⁷Weinstein, S., & Graves, R. E. (2002) Are creativity and schizotypy products of a right hemisphere bias? Brain and Cognition, 49(1), 138-151.
⁸Healy, D. (2002) The Creation of Psychopharmacology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674006194
⁹Blakemore SJ, Smith J, Steel R, Johnstone CE, Frith CD. (2000) The perception of self-produced sensory stimuli in patients with auditory hallucinations and passivity experiences: evidence for a breakdown in self-monitoring. Psychological Medicine, 30 (5), 1131-9.
¹⁰Johns LC, van Os J. (2001) The continuity of psychotic experiences in the general population. Clinical Psychology Review, 21 (8), 1125-41.
¹¹Degenhardt, L. (2003) Editorial: The link between cannabis use and psychosis: furthering the debate. Psychological Medicine, 33, 3-6.
¹²Tsuang, M. T., Stone, W. S., & Faraone, S. V. (2000) Toward reformulating the diagnosis of schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157(7), 1041-1050.
People called David Healy include: A Northern Irish football player: David Healy (footballer). ...