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Encyclopedia > Psychotic episode
Psychosis
Classifications and external resources
ICD-9 290-299
OMIM 603342 608923 603175 192430
MedlinePlus 001553
MeSH F03.700.675

Psychosis is a generic psychiatric term for a mental state in which thought and perception are severely impaired. Persons experiencing a psychotic episode may experience hallucinations, hold delusional beliefs (e.g., grandiose or paranoid delusions), demonstrate personality changes and exhibit disorganized thinking (see thought disorder). This is often accompanied by lack of insight into the unusual or bizarre nature of such behavior, difficulties with social interaction and impairments in carrying out the activities of daily living. A psychotic episode is often described as involving a "loss of contact with reality". The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (commonly known by the abbreviation ICD) is a detailed description of known diseases and injuries. ... The following is a list of codes for International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems. ... The Mendelian Inheritance in Man project is a database that catalogues all the known diseases with a genetic component, and - when possible - links them to the relevant genes in the human genome. ... MedlinePlus (medlineplus. ... Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) is a huge controlled vocabulary (or metadata system) for the purpose of indexing journal articles and books in the life sciences. ... Psychiatry is a medical specialty dealing with the prevention, assessment, diagnosis, treatment, and rehabilitation of mental illness – both in itself and in bodily illness (psychiatry in medicine) – such as clinical depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia and anxiety disorders. ... Mental status examination, or MSE, is a medical process where a clinician working in the field of mental health (usually a social worker, psychiatrist, psychiatric nurse or psychologist) systematically examines a patients mind. ... An hallucination is a sensory perception experienced in the absence of an external stimulus, as distinct from an illusion, which is a misperception of an external stimulus. ... A delusion is commonly defined as a fixed false belief and is used in everyday language to describe a belief that is either false, fanciful or derived from deception. ... For other senses of this word, see paranoia (disambiguation). ... It has been suggested that Personality psychology be merged into this article or section. ... In psychiatry, thought disorder or formal thought disorder is a term used to describe a symptom of psychotic mental illness. ... Anosognosia is a condition in which a person who suffers disability due to brain injury, seems unaware of or denies the existence of their handicap. ...

Contents

Classification

Psychosis is considered by mainstream psychiatry to be a symptom of severe mental illness, but is not a diagnosis in itself.[1] Although it is not exclusively linked to any particular psychological or physical state, it is particularly associated with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder (manic depression) and severe clinical depression. There are also detectable physical pathologies that can induce a psychotic state, including brain injury or other neurological disorder, drug intoxication and withdrawal (especially alcohol,[2][3] barbiturates,[4][5] and sometimes benzodiazepines[6][7][8]), lupus,[9] electrolyte disorders such as hypocalcemia,[10] hypernatremia,[11] hyponatremia,[12] hypokalemia,[13] hypomagnesemia,[14] hypermagnesemia,[15] hypercalcemia,[16] and hypophosphatemia.[17] Psychiatry is a medical specialty dealing with the prevention, assessment, diagnosis, treatment, and rehabilitation of mental illness – both in itself and in bodily illness (psychiatry in medicine) – such as clinical depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia and anxiety disorders. ... Diagnosis (from the Greek words dia = by and gnosis = knowledge) is the process of identifying a disease by its signs, symptoms and results of various diagnostic procedures. ... Bipolar disorder (previously known as Manic Depression) is a psychiatric diagnostic category describing a class of mood disorders in which the person experiences clinical depression and/or mania, hypomania, and/or mixed states. ... Clinical depression (also called severe depressive disorder, major depressive disorder) is a state of intense sadness, melancholia or despair that has advanced to the point of being disruptive to an individuals social functioning and/or activities of daily living. ... Pathology (from Greek pathos, feeling, pain, suffering; and logos, study of; see also -ology) is the study of the processes underlying disease and other forms of illness, harmful abnormality, or dysfunction. ... Brain damage or brain injury is the destruction or degeneration of brain cells. ... Neurology is a branch of medicine dealing with disorders of the nervous system. ... Withdrawal refers to the characteristic signs and symptoms that appear when a drug that causes a physical dependency is regularly used for a long time and then suddenly discontinued or decreased in dosage. ... Ethanol, also known as ethyl alcohol or grain alcohol, is a flammable, colorless, mildly toxic chemical compound with a distinctive perfume-like odor, and is the alcohol found in alcoholic beverages. ... Barbiturates are drugs that act as central nervous system (CNS) depressants, and by virtue of this they produce a wide spectrum of effects, from mild sedation to anesthesia. ... alprazolam 2mg tablets The benzodiazepines (pronounced , which are considered minor tranquilizers) are a class of drugs with sedative, hypnotic, anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, amnestic and muscle relaxant properties. ... Lupus erythematosus (also known as systemic lupus erythematosus - SLE) is an autoimmune disorder in which antibodies are created against the patients own DNA. It classically presents with a butterfly-shaped malar rash, causing a wolf-like appearance (Lupus is Latin for wolf). ... In medicine, hypocalcaemia is the presence of less than a total calcium of 2. ... Hypernatremia is a medical condition in which there is excess sodium, urea, and other electrolytes in the body relative to the amount of water. ... The electrolyte disturbance hyponatremia or hyponatraemia exists in humans when the sodium level in the plasma falls below 135 mmol/l. ... Hypokalemia is a potentially fatal condition in which the body fails to retain sufficient potassium to maintain health. ... Hypomagnesemia is an electrolyte disturbance in which there is an abnormally low level of magnesium in the blood. ... Hypermagnesemia is an electrolyte disturbance in which there is an abnormally elevated level of magnesium in the blood. ... Hypercalcaemia is an elevated calcium level in the blood. ... Hypophosphatemia is an electrolyte disturbance in which there is an abnormally depleted level of phosphate in the blood. ...


The term psychosis should be distinguished from the concept of insanity, which is a legal term denoting that a person should not be criminally responsible for his actions. Similarly, it should be distinguished from psychopathy, a personality disorder often associated with violence, lack of empathy and socially manipulative behavior.[18] Despite the fact that both are colloquially abbreviated to "psycho", psychosis bears little similarity to psychopathy's core features, particularly with regard to violence, which rarely occurs in psychosis,[19][20] and the distortion of perceived reality, which rarely occurs in psychopathy.[21] Psychopathy (pronounced in General American) is a term derived from the Greek psych (soul) and pathos (suffering), and was once used to denote any form of mental illness. ... Personality disorders form a class of mental disorders that are characterized by long-lasting rigid patterns of thought and behavior. ... For the fictional character, see Empath (comics). ...


Psychosis should also be distinguished from the state of delirium, in that a psychotic individual may be able to perform actions that require a high level of intellectual effort in clear consciousness. Finally, it should be distinguished from mental illness in general. Psychosis may be regarded as a symptom of other mental illnesses, but as a descriptive concept it is not considered an illness in its own right. For example, persons with schizophrenia can have long periods without psychosis, and persons with bipolar disorder and depression can have mood symptoms without psychosis. Conversely, psychosis can occur in persons without chronic mental illness, as a result of an adverse drug reaction or extreme stress. [22] Delirium is a medical term used to describe an acute decline in attention and cognition. ...


Causes

Psychosis can be a feature of several diseases, often when the brain or nervous system is directly affected. However, the fact that psychosis can occasionally arise in parallel with a number of ailments (including diseases such as flu[23][24] or mumps[25] for example) suggests that a variety of nervous system stressors can lead to a psychotic reaction. Psychosis arising from non-psychiatric conditions is sometimes known as 'secondary psychosis'. The mechanisms by which this happens are still not clear, but the non-specificity of psychosis has led Tsuang and colleagues to argue that "psychosis is the 'fever' of mental illness—a serious but nonspecific indicator".[1] In animals, the brain, or encephalon (Greek for in the head), is the control center of the central nervous system. ... The nervous system of an animal coordinates the activity of the muscles, monitors the organs, constructs and also stops input from the senses, and initiates actions. ... Respiratory disease properly named influenza(say: in-floo-en-zah ). Some specific varities of influenza with a vaccination available are: A-New Caledonia, A-California, B-Shanghai. ...


Non-psychiatric conditions which are particularly linked to psychosis include brain tumour,[26] dementia with Lewy bodies,[27] hypoglycemia,[28] intoxication,[29] multiple sclerosis,[30] Systemic Lupus Erythematosus,[9] sarcoidosis,[31], mumps,[32] AIDS,[33] malaria,[34] and leprosy.[35][36] A brain tumor is any mass created by an abnormal and uncontrolled growth of cells either found in the brain (neurons, glial cells, epithelial cells, myelin producing cells, etc. ... Dementia with Lewy bodies is the second most frequent cause of hospitalization for dementia, after Alzheimers disease. ... Hypoglycemia (hypoglycæmia in the UK) is a medical term referring to a pathologic state produced by a lower than normal amount of sugar (glucose) in the blood. ... ... Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS or Aids) is a collection of symptoms and infections in humans resulting from the specific damage to the immune system caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). ... Malaria is an infectious disease that is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions. ... Leprosy, also known as Hansens disease,[1] is an infectious disease caused by a DNA plasmid (transposon, or ultravirus, a small circle of DNA) carried in Hansens bacillus (the Mycobacterium leprae bacterium) which is thus the vector. ...


Psychological stress is also known to contribute to and trigger psychotic states. Both a history of traumatic incidents experienced throughout the life-span, and the recent experience of a stressful event, is thought to contribute to the development of psychosis. Short-lived psychosis triggered by stress is known as brief reactive psychosis, so patients may spontaneously recover normal functioning within two weeks.[22] In some rare cases, individuals may remain in a state of full-blown psychosis for many years, or perhaps have attenuated psychotic symptoms (such as low intensity hallucinations) present at most times. Brief reactive psychosis is the psychiatric term for psychosis which is triggered by extreme stress. ...



Psychotic states occurring after drug use may be particularly linked to drug overdose, chronic use and drug withdrawal. Certain compounds may be more likely to induce psychosis and some individuals may show greater sensitivity than others. Certain "street" drugs, such as cocaine,[37] amphetamines, PCP[38] and hallucinogens are particularly linked to the development of psychosis. Anticholinergic drugs (atropine,[39][40] scopolamine,[41] Jimson weed[42]), and many antihistamines can also induce psychosis at high enough dosages.[43][44][45][46] A psychoactive drug or psychotropic substance is a chemical substance that acts primarily upon the central nervous system where it alters brain function, resulting in temporary changes in perception, mood, consciousness and behavior. ... A drug overdose occurs when a drug is ingested in quantities and/or concentrations large enough to overwhelm the homeostasis of a living organism, causing severe illness or death. ... Cocaine is a crystalline tropane alkaloid that is obtained from the leaves of the coca plant. ... Amphetamine (alpha-methyl-phenethylamine), also known as speed or crank, is a stimulant, and club drug, used to diminish the appetite, control weight, and treat disorders including narcolepsy and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. ... Phencyclidine (a contraction of the chemical name phenylcyclohexylpiperidine), abbreviated PCP, is a dissociative drug formerly used as an anesthetic agent, exhibiting hallucinogenic and neurotoxic effects. ... Hallucinogenic drugs or hallucinogens are drugs that can alter sensory perceptions, elicit alternate states of consciousness, or cause hallucinations. ... Atropine is a tropane alkaloid extracted from the deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna) and other plants of the family Solanaceae. ... Scopolamine, also known as hyoscine, is a tropane alkaloid drug obtained from plants of the Solanaceae family (Nightshade), such as henbane or jimson weed (Datura stramonium). ... Binomial name Datura stramonium Datura stramonium is the name of a poisonous weed, sometimes used as a hallucinogen. ... An antihistamine is a drug which serves to reduce or eliminate effects mediated by histamine, an endogenous chemical mediator released during allergic reactions, through action at the histamine receptor. ...


Intoxication with drugs that have general depressant effects on the central nervous system (especially alcohol and barbiturates) tend not to cause psychosis during use, and can actually decrease or lessen the impact of symptoms in some people. Withdrawal from barbiturates and alcohol can be particularly dangerous, however, leading to psychosis or delirium and other, potentially lethal, withdrawal effects. A diagram showing the CNS: 1. ...



Sleep deprivation has been linked to psychosis,[47][48][49] although there is little evidence to suggest that it is a major risk factor in the majority of people. Some people experience hypnagogic or hypnopompic hallucinations, where unusual sensory experiences or thoughts appear during waking or drifting off to sleep. These are normal sleep phenomena, however, and are not considered signs of psychosis.[50] To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...


Signs and symptoms

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A psychotic episode can be significantly affected by mood. For example, people experiencing a psychotic episode in the context of depression may experience persecutory or self-blaming delusions or hallucinations, while people experiencing a psychotic episode in the context of mania may form grandiose delusions or have an experience of deep religious significance.


Although usually distressing and regarded as an illness process, some people who experience psychosis find beneficial aspects and value the experience or revelations that stem from it.


Hallucinations

Hallucinations are defined as sensory perception in the absence of external stimuli. They are different from illusions, which are the misperception of external stimuli.[51] Hallucinations may occur in any of the five senses and take on almost any form, which may include simple sensations (such as lights, colors, tastes, smells) to more meaningful experiences such as seeing and interacting with fully formed animals and people, hearing voices and complex tactile sensations. An illusion is a distortion of a sensory perception. ...


Auditory hallucinations, particularly the experience of hearing voices, are a common and often prominent feature of psychosis. Hallucinated voices may talk about, or to the person, and may involve several speakers with distinct personas. Auditory hallucinations tend to be particularly distressing when they are derogatory, commanding or preoccupying. However, the experience of hearing voices need not always be a negative one. Research has shown that the majority of people who hear voices are not in need of psychiatric help.[52] The Hearing Voices Movement has subsequently been created to support voice hearers, regardless of whether they are considered to have a mental illness or not. This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ...


Delusions and paranoia

Psychosis may involve delusional or paranoid beliefs. Karl Jaspers classified psychotic delusions into primary and secondary types. Primary delusions are defined as arising out-of-the-blue and not being comprehensible in terms of normal mental processes, whereas secondary delusions may be understood as being influenced by the person's background or current situation (i.e. ethnic or sexual descrimination, religious, superstitious belief).[53] A delusion is commonly defined as a fixed false belief and is used in everyday language to describe a belief that is either false, fanciful or derived from deception. ... For other senses of this word, see paranoia (disambiguation). ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...


Thought disorder

Formal thought disorder describes an underlying disturbance to conscious thought and is classified largely by its effects on speech and writing. Affected persons may show pressure of speech (speaking incessantly and quickly), derailment or flight of ideas (switching topic mid-sentence or inappropriately), thought blocking, and rhyming or punning. In psychiatry, thought disorder or formal thought disorder is a term used to describe a symptom of psychotic mental illness. ...


Lack of insight

One important and puzzling feature of psychosis is usually an accompanying lack of insight into the unusual, strange, or bizarre nature of the person's experience or behaviour.[54] Even in the case of an acute psychosis, sufferers may be completely unaware that their vivid hallucinations and impossible delusions are in any way unrealistic. This is not an absolute, however; insight can vary between individuals and throughout the duration of the psychotic episode.


It was previously believed that lack of insight was related to general cognitive dysfunction[55] or to avoidant coping style.[56] Later studies have found no statistical relationship between insight and cognitive function, either in groups of people who only have schizophrenia,[57] or in groups of psychotic people from various diagnostic categories.[58]


In some cases, particularly with auditory and visual hallucinations, the patient has good insight, which makes the psychotic experience even more terrifying because the patient realizes that he or she should not be hearing voices, but is.


Pathophysiology

It has also been argued that psychosis exists on a continuum as everybody may have some unusual and potentially reality-distorting experiences in their life. This has been backed up by research showing that experiences such as hallucinations have been experienced by large numbers of the population who may never be impaired or even distressed by their experiences.[59] In this view, people who are diagnosed with a psychotic illness may simply be one end of a spectrum where the experiences become particularly intense or distressing (see schizotypy). Schizotypy is a psychological concept which describes a continuum of personality characteristics and experiences related to psychosis and in particular, schizophrenia. ...


Brain function

Brain imaging studies, investigating both changes in brain structure and changes in brain function of people undergoing psychotic episodes, have shown mixed results.


The first brain image of a person with psychosis was completed as far back as 1935 using a technique called pneumoencephalography[60] (a painful and now obsolete procedure where cerebrospinal fluid is drained from around the brain and replaced with air to allow the structure of the brain to show up more clearly on an X-ray picture). Pneumoencephalography (sometimes abbreviated PEG) is a medical procedure in which cerebrospinal fluid is drained from around the brain and replaced with air, oxygen, or helium to allow the structure of the brain to show up more clearly on an X-ray picture. ... Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), Liquor cerebrospinalis, is a clear bodily fluid that occupies the subarachnoid space in the brain (the space between the skull and the cerebral cortex—more specifically, between the arachnoid and pia layers of the meninges). ... In the NATO phonetic alphabet, X-ray represents the letter X. An X-ray picture (radiograph) taken by Röntgen An X-ray is a form of electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength approximately in the range of 5 pm to 10 nanometers (corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 PHz...


More recently, a 2003 study investigating structural changes in the brains of people with psychosis showed there was significant grey matter reduction in the cortex of people before and after they became psychotic.[61] Findings such as these have led to debate about whether psychosis is itself neurotoxic and whether potentially damaging changes to the brain are related to the length of psychotic episode. Recent research has suggested that this is not the case[62] although further investigation is still ongoing. Grey matter is a major component of the central nervous system, consisting of nerve cell bodies and short nerve cell extensions/processes (axons and dendrites). ... Location of the cerebral cortex Slice of the cerebral cortex, ca. ... The term neurotoxic is used to describe a substance, condition or state that damages the nervous system and / or brain, usually by killing neurons. ...


Functional brain scans have revealed that the areas of the brain that react to sensory perceptions are active during psychosis. For example, a PET or fMRI scan of a person who claims to be hearing voices may show activation in the auditory cortex, or parts of the brain involved in the perception and understanding of speech.[63] Image of a typical positron emission tomography (PET) facility Positron emission tomography (PET) is a nuclear medicine medical imaging technique which produces a three dimensional image or map of functional processes in the body. ... Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (or fMRI) describes the use of MRI to measure hemodynamic signals related to neural activity in the brain or spinal cord of humans or other animals. ...


On the other hand, there is not a clear enough psychological definition of belief to make a comparison between different people particularly valid. Brain imaging studies on delusions have typically relied on correlations of brain activation patterns with the presence of delusional beliefs.[64] Wiktionary has related dictionary definitions, such as: belief Belief is usually defined as a conviction to the truth of a proposition. ...


One clear finding is that persons with a tendency to have psychotic experiences seem to show increased activation in the right hemisphere of the brain.[65] This increased level of right hemisphere activation has also been found in healthy people who have high levels of paranormal beliefs[66] and in people who report mystical experiences.[67] It also seems to be the case that people who are more creative are also more likely to show a similar pattern of brain activation.[68] Some researchers have been quick to point out that this in no way suggests that paranormal, mystical or creative experiences are in any way by themselves a symptom of mental illness, as it is still not clear what makes some such experiences beneficial whilst others lead to the impairment or distress of diagnosable mental pathology. However, people who have profoundly different experiences of reality or hold unusual views or opinions have traditionally held a complex role in society, with some being viewed as kooks, whilst others are lauded as prophets or visionaries. Anomalous phenomena are phenomena which are observed and for which there are no suitable explanations in the context of a specific body of scientific knowledge, e. ... Mysticism (ancient Greek mysticon = secret) is meditation, prayer, or theology focused on the direct experience of union with divinity, God, or Ultimate Reality, or the belief that such experience is a genuine and important source of knowledge. ... This article or section contains information that has not been verified and thus might not be reliable. ... In religion, a prophet is a person who has directly encountered God, of whose intentions he can then speak. ...


Psychosis has been traditionally linked to the neurotransmitter dopamine. In particular, the dopamine hypothesis of psychosis has been influential and states that psychosis results from an overactivity of dopamine function in the brain, particularly in the mesolimbic pathway. The two major sources of evidence given to support this theory are that dopamine-blocking drugs (i.e. antipsychotics) tend to reduce the intensity of psychotic symptoms, and that drugs which boost dopamine activity (such as amphetamine and cocaine) can trigger psychosis in some people (see amphetamine psychosis).[69] Chemical structure of D-Aspartic Acid, a common Amino Acid neurotransmitter. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... The dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia or the dopamine hypothesis of psychosis is a theory that argues that the unusual behaviour and experiences associated with schizophrenia (sometimes extended to psychosis in general) can be fully or largely explained by changes in dopamine function in the brain. ... The mesolimbic pathway is one of the neural pathways in the brain which links the ventral tegmentum area in the midbrain to the nucleus accumbens in the limbic system. ... The term antipsychotic is applied to a group of drugs used to treat psychosis. ... Cocaine is a crystalline tropane alkaloid that is obtained from the leaves of the coca plant. ... Amphetamine psychosis is a form of psychosis which can result from amphetamine or methamphetamine use. ...


The connection between dopamine and psychosis is generally believed to be complex. First of all, while antipsychotic drugs immediately block dopamine receptors, they usually take a week or two to reduce the symptoms of psychosis. Moreover, newer and equally effective antipsychotic drugs actually block slightly less dopamine in the brain than older drugs whilst also affecting serotonin function, suggesting the 'dopamine hypothesis' is vastly oversimplified.[70] Also, Soyka and colleagues found no evidence of dopaminergic dysfunction people with alcohol-induced psychosis[71] and Zoldan et al reported on the use of ondansetron, a 5-HT3 receptor antagonist, in the treatment of levodopa psychosis in Parkinson's disease patients (they were moderately successful).[72] Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, or 5-HT) is a monoamine neurotransmitter synthesized in serotonergic neurons in the central nervous system (CNS) and enterochromaffin cells in the gastrointestinal tract. ... Ondansetron is a 5-HT3 receptor antagonist principally used as an antiemetic. ... L-DOPA (levodopa, 3,4-dihydroxy-L-phenylalanine). ...


Psychiatrist David Healy has criticised pharmaceutical companies for promoting simplified biological theories of mental illness that seem to imply the primacy of pharmaceutical treatments while ignoring social and developmental factors which are known to be important influences in the aetiology of psychosis.[73] David Healy is an Irish psychiatrist who is currently Reader in Psychological Medicine at Cardiff University College of Medicine, Wales. ...


Some theories regard many psychotic symptoms to be a problem with the perception of ownership of internally generated thoughts and experiences.[74] For example, the experience of hearing voices may arise from internally generated speech that is mislabeled by the psychotic person as coming from an external source.


Cannabis

There is growing evidence for a small but significant link between cannabis use and vulnerability to psychosis.[75] Some studies indicate that cannabis use correlates with a slight increase in psychotic experience, which may help trigger full-blown psychosis in some people.[75] Early studies have been criticized for failing to consider other drugs (such as LSD) that the participants may also have used before or during the study, as well as other factors such as possible pre-existing mental health issues. However, more recent studies with better controls have still found a small increase in risk for psychosis in cannabis users. It is not clear whether this is a causal link, and it may be that cannabis use only increases the chance of psychosis in people already predisposed to it. Additionally, people with developing psychosis possibly make greater use of the drug to provide temporary relief to their mental discomfort. The fact that cannabis use has increased over the past few decades, whereas the rate of psychosis has not,[76] suggests that a direct causal link is unlikely for all users. Look up Cannabis in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... For other uses, see LSD (disambiguation). ...


Treatment

The treatment of psychosis often depends on what associated diagnosis (such as schizophrenia or bipolar disorder) is thought to be present. However, the first line treatment for psychotic symptoms is usually antipsychotic medication, and in some cases hospitalisation. There is growing evidence that cognitive behavior therapy[77] and family therapy[78] can be effective in managing psychotic symptoms. When other treatments for psychosis are ineffective, electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) (aka shock treatment) is sometimes utilized to relieve the underlying symptoms of psychosis, such as depression or schizophrenia. A first line treatment or first line therapy is a medical therapy recommended for the initial treatment of a disease, sign or symptom, usually on the basis of empirical evidence for its efficacy. ... The term antipsychotic is applied to a group of drugs used to treat psychosis. ... A physician visiting the sick in a hospital. ... Cognitive therapy or cognitive behavior therapy is a kind of psychotherapy used to treat depression, anxiety disorders, phobias, and other forms of psychological disorder. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is a controversial psychiatric shock therapy involving the induction of a seizure in a patient by passing electricity through the brain. ...


History

The word psychosis was first used by Ernst von Feuchtersleben in 1845 [79] as an alternative to insanity and mania and stems from the Greek psyche (mind) and -osis (diseased or abnormal condition).[80] The word was used to distinguish disorders which were thought to be disorders of the mind, as opposed to neurosis, which was thought to stem from a disorder of the nervous system. Baron Ernst Von Feuchtersleben (1806-1849), Austrian physician, poet and philosopher, was born in Vienna on the 29th of April 1806; of an old Saxon noble family. ... Inmates at Bedlam Asylum, as portrayed by William Hogarth Insanity, or madness, is a general term for a semi-permanent, severe mental disorder. ... Mania is a medical condition characterized by severely elevated mood. ... In modern psychology, the term neurosis, also known as psychoneurosis or neurotic disorder, is a general term that refers to any mental imbalance that causes distress, but (unlike a psychosis or personality disorder) does not prevent rational thought or an individuals ability to function in daily life. ...


The division of the major psychoses into manic depressive insanity (now called bipolar disorder) and dementia praecox (now called schizophrenia) was made by Emil Kraepelin, who attempted to create a synthesis of the various mental disorders identified by 19th century psychiatrists, by grouping diseases together based on classification of common symptoms. Kraepelin used the term 'manic depressive insanity' to describe the whole spectrum of mood disorders, in a far wider sense than it is usually used today. In Kraepelin's classification this would include 'unipolar' clinical depression, as well as bipolar disorder and other mood disorders such as cyclothymia. These are characterised by problems with mood control and the psychotic episodes appear associated with disturbances in mood, and patients will often have periods of normal functioning between psychotic episodes even without medication. Schizophrenia is characterized by psychotic episodes which appear to be unrelated to disturbances in mood, and most non-medicated patients will show signs of disturbance between psychotic episodes. Emil Kraepelin (February 15, 1856–October 7, 1926) was a German psychiatrist who attempted to create a synthesis of the hundreds of mental disorders classified by the 19th century, grouping diseases together based on classification of common patterns of symptoms, rather than by simple similarity of major symptoms in the... Psychiatry is a medical specialty dealing with the prevention, assessment, diagnosis, treatment, and rehabilitation of mental illness – both in itself and in bodily illness (psychiatry in medicine) – such as clinical depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia and anxiety disorders. ... A mood disorder is a condition whereby the prevailing emotional mood is distorted or inappropriate to the circumstances. ... Clinical depression (also called severe depressive disorder, major depressive disorder) is a state of intense sadness, melancholia or despair that has advanced to the point of being disruptive to an individuals social functioning and/or activities of daily living. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ...


During the 1960s and 1970s, psychosis was of particular interest to counterculture critics of mainstream psychiatric practice, who argued that it may simply be another way of constructing reality and is not necessarily a sign of illness. For example, R. D. Laing argued that psychosis is a symbolic way of expressing concerns in situations where such views may be unwelcome or uncomfortable to the recipients. He went on to say that psychosis could be also seen as a transcendental experience with healing and spiritual aspects. Thomas Szasz focused on the social implications of labelling people as psychotic; a label he argues unjustly medicalises different views of reality so such unorthodox people can be controlled by society. In sociology, counterculture is a term used to describe a cultural group whose values and norms run counter to those of the social mainstream of the day, the cultural equivalent of political opposition or swimming against the tide. ... R.D.Laing; photo credit Robert E. Haraldsen Ronald David Laing (October 7, 1927–August 23, 1989), was a Scottish psychiatrist who wrote extensively on mental illness and particularly the experience of psychosis. ... Photograph by Jeffrey A. Schaler. ...


Generally, however, advances in both diagnosis and the scientific study of psychosis have led to theories drawing on biology, cognitive psychology and neuropsychology being accepted as mainstream explanations. In the United States and Europe, few reputable practitioners since the 1990s have approached psychosis outside this scientific frame of reference. Diagnosis (from the Greek words dia = by and gnosis = knowledge) is the process of identifying a disease by its signs, symptoms and results of various diagnostic procedures. ... Biology (from Greek βίος λόγος, see below) is the branch of science dealing with the study of living organisms. ... Cognitive Psychology is the school of psychology that examines internal mental processes such as problem solving, memory, and language. ... Neuropsychology is a branch of psychology that aims to understand how the structure and function of the brain relate to specific psychological processes. ...


Social impact

Notable cases

See also

Personal accounts This article belongs in one or more categories. ... Delusional disorder is a psychiatric diagnosis denoting a psychotic mental illness that involves holding one or more non-bizarre delusions in the absence of any other significant psychopathology (signs or symptoms of mental illness). ... Monothematic delusions are delusions that only concern one particular topic. ... The Jerusalem syndrome is the name given to a group of mental phenomena involving the presence of either religiously themed obsessive ideas, delusions or other psychosis-like experiences, that are triggered by, or lead to, a visit to the city of Jerusalem. ... Clinical lycanthropy is a psychiatric syndrome that involves a delusional belief that the affected person is, or has, transformed into an animal. ... Soteria (Greek for deliverance) was the name given to a treatment method for newly diagnosed schizophrenia patients. ...

The Eden Express: A Memoir of Insanity, is a 1975 book by Mark Vonnegut, son of American writer Kurt Vonnegut, about his experiences in the late 1960s and his major psychotic breakdown and recovery. ... Mark Vonnegut, son of Kurt Vonnegut Jr. ... James Tilly Matthews was a London tea merchant who became embroiled in a self-styled peace mission between France and England in 1793. ...

References

  1. ^ a b Tsuang, Ming T., William S. Stone, Stephen V. Faraone (July 2000). "Toward Reformulating the Diagnosis of Schizophrenia". American Journal of Psychiatry 157 (7): 1041-1050. PubMed. Retrieved on 2006-08-19.
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2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... August 19 is the 231st day of the year (232nd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a permanent identifier (permalink) given to a World Wide Web file or other Internet document so that if its Internet address changes, users will be redirected to its new address. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... October 15 is the 288th day of the year (289th in leap years). ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a permanent identifier (permalink) given to a World Wide Web file or other Internet document so that if its Internet address changes, users will be redirected to its new address. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... October 15 is the 288th day of the year (289th in leap years). ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... September 29 is the 272nd day of the year (273rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... October 16 is the 289th day of the year (290th in leap years). ... May 25 is the 145th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (146th in leap years). ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... October 16 is the 289th day of the year (290th in leap years). ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... October 17 is the 290th day of the year (291st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... June 26 is the 177th day of the year (178th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 188 days remaining. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... October 21 is the 294th day of the year (295th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 71 days remaining. ... January 1 is the first day of the calendar year in both the Julian and Gregorian calendars. ... 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a permanent identifier (permalink) given to a World Wide Web file or other Internet document so that if its Internet address changes, users will be redirected to its new address. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... October 21 is the 294th day of the year (295th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 71 days remaining. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... October 21 is the 294th day of the year (295th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 71 days remaining. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... September 27 is the 270th day of the year (271st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... September 27 is the 270th day of the year (271st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... September 27 is the 270th day of the year (271st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... August 16 is the 228th day of the year (229th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... September 27 is the 270th day of the year (271st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... September 29 is the 272nd day of the year (273rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... October 16 is the 289th day of the year (290th in leap years). ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a permanent identifier (permalink) given to a World Wide Web file or other Internet document so that if its Internet address changes, users will be redirected to its new address. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... October 17 is the 290th day of the year (291st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... October 17 is the 290th day of the year (291st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... March 1 is the 60th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (61st in leap years). ... 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a permanent identifier (permalink) given to a World Wide Web file or other Internet document so that if its Internet address changes, users will be redirected to its new address. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... September 29 is the 272nd day of the year (273rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... October 15 is the 288th day of the year (289th in leap years). ... September 13 is the 256th day of the year (257th in leap years). ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a permanent identifier (permalink) given to a World Wide Web file or other Internet document so that if its Internet address changes, users will be redirected to its new address. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... October 15 is the 288th day of the year (289th in leap years). ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... October 17 is the 290th day of the year (291st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... September 29 is the 272nd day of the year (273rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... December 8 is the 342nd day (343rd in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1995 (MCMXCV) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... February 5 is the 36th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1988 (MCMLXXXVIII) was a leap year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... September 29 is the 272nd day of the year (273rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a permanent identifier (permalink) given to a World Wide Web file or other Internet document so that if its Internet address changes, users will be redirected to its new address. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... September 27 is the 270th day of the year (271st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... October 21 is the 294th day of the year (295th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 71 days remaining. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... August 19 is the 231st day of the year (232nd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... December 21 is the 355th day of the year (356th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1973 (MCMLXXIII) was a common year starting on Monday. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a permanent identifier (permalink) given to a World Wide Web file or other Internet document so that if its Internet address changes, users will be redirected to its new address. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... October 21 is the 294th day of the year (295th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 71 days remaining. ... January 1 is the first day of the calendar year in both the Julian and Gregorian calendars. ... 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a permanent identifier (permalink) given to a World Wide Web file or other Internet document so that if its Internet address changes, users will be redirected to its new address. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... October 22 is the 295th day of the year (296th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 70 days remaining. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a permanent identifier (permalink) given to a World Wide Web file or other Internet document so that if its Internet address changes, users will be redirected to its new address. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... October 22 is the 295th day of the year (296th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 70 days remaining. ... May 31 is the 151st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (152nd in leap years), with 214 days remaining. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a permanent identifier (permalink) given to a World Wide Web file or other Internet document so that if its Internet address changes, users will be redirected to its new address. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... October 22 is the 295th day of the year (296th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 70 days remaining. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a permanent identifier (permalink) given to a World Wide Web file or other Internet document so that if its Internet address changes, users will be redirected to its new address. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... August 19 is the 231st day of the year (232nd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... August 19 is the 231st day of the year (232nd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... August 19 is the 231st day of the year (232nd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... August 19 is the 231st day of the year (232nd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... August 19 is the 231st day of the year (232nd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... August 19 is the 231st day of the year (232nd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... August 19 is the 231st day of the year (232nd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... October 15 is the 288th day of the year (289th in leap years). ... People called David Healy include: A Northern Irish football player: David Healy (footballer). ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... August 19 is the 231st day of the year (232nd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... August 19 is the 231st day of the year (232nd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... PDF is an abbreviation with several meanings: Portable Document Format Post-doctoral fellowship Probability density function There also is an electronic design automation company named PDF Solutions. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... August 19 is the 231st day of the year (232nd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... August 19 is the 231st day of the year (232nd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... August 19 is the 231st day of the year (232nd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... August 19 is the 231st day of the year (232nd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... August 19 is the 231st day of the year (232nd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ...

Further reading

  • Sims, A. (2002) Symptoms in the mind: An introduction to descriptive psychopathology (3rd edition). Edinburgh: Elsevier Science Ltd. ISBN 0-7020-2627-1

Personal accounts

  • Dick, P.K. (1981) VALIS. London: Gollancz. [Semi-autobiographical] ISBN 0-679-73446-5
  • Jamison, K.R. (1995) An Unquiet Mind: A Memoir of Moods and Madness. London: Picador.
    ISBN 0-679-76330-9
  • Schreber, D.P. (2000) Memoirs of My Nervous Illness. New York: New York Review of Books. ISBN 0-940322-20-X
  • McLean, R (2003) Recovered Not Cured: A Journey Through Schizophrenia. Allen & Unwin. Australia. ISBN 1-86508-974-5

Philip Kindred Dick (December 16, 1928 – March 2, 1982) was an American science fiction writer. ... It has been suggested that Black Iron Prison be merged into this article or section. ... Kay Redfield Jamison (born October 14, 1946) is an American psychologist and science writer who is an expert on bipolar disorder. ...

External links

  • Understanding psychotic experiences from mental health charity Mind

  Results from FactBites:
 
Psychosis - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (3016 words)
For example, people experiencing a psychotic episode in the context of depression may experience persecutory or self-blaming delusions or hallucinations, whilst people experiencing a psychotic episode in the context of mania may form grandiose delusions or have an experience of deep religious significance.
Psychotic hallucinations may occur in any of the five senses and take on almost any form, which may include simple sensations (such as lights, colours, tastes, smells) to more meaningful experiences such as seeing and interacting with fully formed animals and people, hearing voices and complex tactile sensations.
Patients who are undergoing a brief psychotic episode may have many of the same symptoms as a person who is psychotic as a result of (for example) schizophrenia, and this fact has been used to support the notion that psychosis is primarily a breakdown in some specific biological system in the brain.
Brief Psychotic Episode (533 words)
Patients who experience an acute psychotic episode lasting longer than one day but less than one month and that may or may not immediately follow an important life stress or a pregnancy (with postpartum onset).
The disturbance is not better accounted for by a Mood Disorder With Psychotic Features, Schizoaffective Disorder, or Schizophrenia and is not due to the direct physiological effects of a substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, a medication) or a general medical condition.
A brief psychotic episode is usually triggered by a traumatic event such as a death, assault, or rape.
  More results at FactBites »


 

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