Pugwash encounter and tour held at the National Accelerator Laboratory, now Fermilab, September 12, 1970. Left to right: Norman Ramsey, Francois Perrin, Robert R. Wilson.

The Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs is an international organization that brings together scholars and public figures to work towards reducing the danger of armed conflict and to seek solutions to global security threats. It was founded in 1957 by Joseph Rotblat and Bertrand Russell in Pugwash, Nova Scotia following the release of the Russell-Einstein Manifesto in 1955. Pugwash and Rotblat jointly won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1995 for efforts on nuclear disarmament. International Student/Young Pugwash groups have existed since 1979. Fermilab Robert Rathbun Wilson Hall Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Fermilab), located in Batavia near Chicago, Illinois, is a U.S. Department of Energy national laboratory specializing in high-energy particle physics, operated for the Department of Energy by the Universities Research Association (URA). ... September 12 is the 255th day of the year (256th in leap years). ... 1970 was a common year starting on Thursday. ... Norman Foster Ramsey (born August 27, 1915) is an American physicist. ... Francis Perrin (Paris, 1901 - id. ... Robert Rathbun Wilson (March 4, 1914–January 16, 2000) was an American physicist who was the youngest group leader of the Manhattan Project, a sculptor, and an architect of Fermi National Laboratory (Fermilab), where he was also the director from 1967-1978. ... An international organization (also called intergovernmental organization) is an organization of international scope or character. ... For other uses of War, see War (disambiguation). ... 1957 was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Józef Rotblat, or sometimes incorrectly Joseph Rotblat (born November 4, 1908) is a Polish (though with British citizenship) physicist who received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1995 in conjuction with the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs, an organization of scientists which he headed at the time, for their... Bertrand Russell Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell, OM (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970) was an influential British mathematician, philosopher, and logician, working mostly in the 20th century. ... Pugwash is a fishing, mining, and small-scale manufacturing community on the north shore of Nova Scotia, Canada. ... The Russell-Einstein Manifesto was issued in London on July 9, 1955 by Bertrand Russell in the midst of the Cold War. ... 1955 is a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Nobel Peace Prize (where Nobel is pronounced with the stress on the second syllable) is one of five Nobel Prizes requested by the Swedish industrialist and inventor Alfred Nobel. ... 1995 was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Nuclear disarmament is the proposed undeployment and dismantling of nuclear weapons particularly those the United States and the Soviet Union (later Russia) targeted on each other. ... This page refers to the year 1979. ...

Origin of the Pugwash Conferences

The Russell-Einstein Manifesto, released July 9, 1955, called for a conference for scientists to assess the dangers of weapons of mass destruction (then only considered to be nuclear weapons). Cyrus Eaton, a Canadian industrialist who had known Russell since 1938, offered on July 13 to finance the conference in his hometown of Pugwash, Nova Scotia. This was not taken up at the time because a meeting was planned for India, at the invitation of Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru. With the outbreak of the Suez Crisis the Indian conference was postponed, and instead Aristotle Onassis offered to finance a meeting in Monaco, but this was rejected. Eaton's former invitation was taken up. July 9 is the 190th day of the year (191st in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 175 days remaining. ... Weapons of mass destruction (WMD) generally include nuclear, biological, chemical and, increasingly, radiological weapons. ... The mushroom cloud of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, Japan, 1945, rose some 18 km (11 mi) above the epicenter. ... Cyrus Stephen Eaton (December 27, 1883 - May 9, 1979) was a Canadian-American financier, industrialist and philanthropist. ... 1938 was a common year starting on Saturday (link will take you to calendar). ... July 13th is the 194th day (195th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 171 days remaining. ... Jawaharlal Nehru (जवाहरलाल नेहरू, Javāharlāl Nehrū) (November 14, 1889 – May 27, 1964), also called Pandit (Teacher) Nehru, was the leader of the socialist wing of the Indian National Congress during and after Indias struggle for independence from the British Empire. ... HMS Eagle, Bulwark, and Albion of the British Royal Navy. ... Aristotle Onassis Aristotle Onassis (Αριστοτέλης Ωνάσης) (January 15, 1906–March 15, 1975) was the most famous Greek shipping magnate of the 20th century. ...

The first conference was held in July 1957 in Pugwash, Nova Scotia, hence the orgnization's name. It was organized by Joseph Rotblat who served as secretary-general of the organization from its inception until 1973. The Russell-Einstein Manifesto became the Pugwash Conferences' founding charter. 1973 was a common year starting on Monday. ...

Twenty-two scientists attended the first conference:

• 7 from the USA (David F. Cavers, Paul Doty, Hermann J. Muller, Eugene Rabinowitch, Walter Selove, Leó Szilárd, Victor F. Weisskopf)
• 3 from the Soviet Union (Alexander M. Kuzin, Dmitri V. Skobeltzyn, Alexander V. Topchiev)
• 3 from Japan (Iwao Ogawa, Shinichiro Tomonaga, Hideki Yukawa)
• 2 from the UK (Cecil. F. Powell, Joseph Rotblat)
• 2 from Canada (George Brock Chisholm, John S. Foster)
• one each from Australia (Mark L. E. Oliphant), Austria (Hans Thirring), China (Chou Pei-Yuan), France (Antoine M. B. Lacassagne) and Poland (Marian Danysz).

Cyrus Eaton, Eric Burhop, whom Eaton had requested be invited, and Vladimir Pavlichenko were also present. Many others were unable to attend, including co-founder Bertrand Russell for health reasons. ... Leó Szilárd (right) and Albert Einstein re-enact the signing of the famous letter to Franklin Delano Roosevelt. ... Victor Weisskopf in the 1940s. ... Sin-Itiro Tomonaga or Shinichirō Tomonaga (朝永 振一郎 Tomonaga Shinichirō, March 31, 1906–July 8, 1979) was a Japanese physicist, influential in the development of quantum electrodynamics, work for which he was jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1965 along with Richard Feynman and Julian Schwinger. ... Hideki Yukawa Hideki Yukawa (湯川 秀樹, January 23, 1907 - September 8, 1981) was a Japanese theoretical physicist and the first Japanese person to win the Nobel prize. ... Józef Rotblat, or sometimes incorrectly Joseph Rotblat (born November 4, 1908) is a Polish (though with British citizenship) physicist who received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1995 in conjuction with the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs, an organization of scientists which he headed at the time, for their... Sir Marcus Mark Laurence Elwin Oliphant (October 8, 1901 - July 14, 2000) was an Australian physicist and humanitarian. ... Marian Danysz (1909-1983) was a Polish physicist. ...

Organizational Structure

Officers include the President, Secretary-General and Executive Director. Formal governance is provided by the 28-person Pugwash Council, which serves for five years. There is also a six-member Executive Committee that assists the Secretary-General. M. S. Swaminathan is the current President. Dr. Monkombu Sambasivan Swaminathan (born August 7, 1925) is a Indian agriculturist and heads the MS Swaminathan Research Foundation. ...

The four Pugwash offices, in Rome, London, Geneva, and Washington D.C., provide support for Pugwash activities and serve as liaisons to the United Nations and other international organizations. City motto: Senatus Populusque Romanus – SPQR (The Senate and the People of Rome) Founded 21 April 753 BC mythical, 1st millennium BC Region Latium Mayor Walter Veltroni (Democratici di Sinistra) Area  - City Proper  1290 km² Population  - City (2004)  - Metropolitan  - Density (city proper) 2,546,807 almost 4,000,000 1... The Clock Tower of the Palace of Westminster, which contains Big Ben London is the capital city of the United Kingdom and of England. ... Geneva (French: Genève) is the second-most populous city in Switzerland located where Lake Geneva (French: Lac Léman, but the Genevois are fond of calling it Lac de Genève) empties into the Rhône River. ... Aerial photo (looking NW) of the Washington Monument and the White House in Washington, DC. Washington, D.C., officially the District of Columbia (also known as D.C.; Washington; the Nations Capital; the District; and, historically, the Federal City) is the capital city and administrative district of the United... The United Nations, or UN, is an international organization established in 1945 and now made up of 191 states. ...

There are over 40 national Pugwash groups, organized as independent entities and often supported or administered by national academies of science.

The International Student/Young Pugwash groups works with, but are independent from, the international Pugwash group.

Contributions to international security

Pugwash's first 15 years coincided with the Berlin Crisis, the Cuban Missile Crisis, the invasion of Czechoslovakia, and the Vietnam War. Pugwash played a useful role in opening communication channels during a time of otherwise strained official and unofficial relations. It provided background work to the Partial Test Ban Treaty (1963), the Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968), the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (1972), the Biological Weapons Convention (1972), and the Chemical Weapons Convention (1993). The Berlin Crisis most commonly refers to the crisis engulfing West Berlin from 1958-1962, culminating in the building of the Berlin wall, August 1961, and the Checkpoint Charlie crisis, October 1961. ... The Cuban Missile Crisis was a tense confrontation between the Soviet Union and the United States over the Soviet deployment of nuclear missiles in Cuba. ... The Vietnam War or Second Indochina War was a conflict between the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRVN, or North Vietnam), allied with the National Liberation Front (NLF, or Viet Cong) against the Republic of Vietnam (RVN, or South Vietnam), and their allies—notably the United States military in support of... The Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space, and Under Water, often abbreviated as the Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT), Limited Test Ban Treaty (LTBT), or Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (NTBT), although the former also refers to the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT), is a treaty... 1963 was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will take you to calendar). ... The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) is a treaty, opened for signature on July 1, 1968, restricting the possession of nuclear weapons. ... 1968 was a leap year starting on Monday (the link is to a full 1968 calendar). ... The Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (or ABM treaty) was a treaty between the United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics on the limitation of the anti-ballistic missile (ABM) systems used in defending areas against missile-delivered nuclear weapons. ... 1972 was a leap year that started on a Saturday. ... Biological Weapons Convention Opened for signature April 10, 1972 at ??? Entered into force March 26, 1975 Conditions for entry into force ??? Parties ??? The Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on their Destruction (usually referred to as just Biological Weapons... 1972 was a leap year that started on a Saturday. ... Chemical Weapons Convention Opened for signature January 13, 1993 at Paris Entered into force April 29, 1997 Conditions for entry into force Ratification by 50 states and the convening of a Preperatory Commission Parties 170 The Chemical Weapons Convention is an arms control agreement which outlaws the production, stockpiling and... 1993 is a common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar and marked the Beginning of the International Decade to Combat Racism and Racial Discrimination (1993-2003). ...

As international relations thawed, and as more unofficial communication channels appeared, Pugwash's visibility decreased, but still remained important in arms-control issues of the day: European nuclear forces, chemical and biological weaponry, space weapons, conventional force reductions and restructuring, and crisis control in the Third World. Pugwash's focus has also expanded to include issues of development and the environment. European Nuclear Disarmament (END) was a 1980s British peace movement group, led by E. P. Thompson, Mary Kaldor and others. ... Space weapons are weapons that are designed to be used in space or be lauched from space. ... The goal of international development is to alleviate poverty among citizens of developing countries. ...

Nobel Peace Prize

In 1995, 50 years since the bombing of Nagasaki and Hiroshima, and 40 years since the signing of the Russell-Einstein Manifesto, the Pugwash Conferences and Joseph Rotblat were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize 1995 was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Megane-bashi (Spectacles Bridge) Nagasaki  listen? (長崎市; -shi, literally long peninsula) is the capital and the largest city of Nagasaki Prefecture located at the south-western coast of Kyushu, Japan. ... Main keep of Hiroshima Castle The city of Hiroshima (広島市; -shi) is the capital of Hiroshima Prefecture, and the largest city in the Chugoku region of western Honshu, the largest of Japans islands. ... Nobel Peace Prize (where Nobel is pronounced with the stress on the second syllable) is one of five Nobel Prizes requested by the Swedish industrialist and inventor Alfred Nobel. ...

"for their efforts to diminish the part played by nuclear arms in international politics and, in the longer run, to eliminate such arms".

The Norwegian Nobel committee hoped that awarding the prize to Rotblat and Pugwash would

"encourage world leaders to intensify their efforts to rid the world of nuclear weapons".

In his acceptance speech, Rotblat quoted a key phrase from the Manifesto:

"Remember your humanity".

"Pugwashites"

There are over 3500 "Pugwashites" world-wide, individuals who have attended a Pugwash meeting and are thus considered associated with Pugwash. Some of these include:

• Hannes Alfvén
• Michael Francis Atiyah
• Bernard T. Feld

Hannes Olof Gösta Alfvén (May 30, 1908; Norrköping, Sweden - April 2, 1995; Djursholm, Sweden) was a Swedish electrical power engineer. ... Sir Michael Francis Atiyah, OM (born 22 April 1929) is a mathematician who was born in London. ... Bernard T. Feld (December 21, 1919 _ February 19, 1997) was a professor of physics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. ...

External links

• Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs

References

• The First Pugwash Conference.
• The Nobel Peace Prize 1995.
• [1]
• The Early Days of Pugwash, by Joseph Rotblat, Physics Today, June 2001.
• Pugwash And The International Treaties On Chemical And Biological Warfare, by J.P. Perry Robinson.

• [2]