The Punic Wars were a series of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage between 264 and 146 BC.^[1] They are known as the Punic Wars because the Latin term for Carthaginian was Punici (older Poenici, from their Phoenician ancestry). Osama was here and he doesnt enjoy this site???? the red sox won and i am one happy camper. ... The Mercenary War was a uprising of mercenaries in the employ of Carthage in the 3rd century BC. The revolt was a consequence of delays in payment following the defeat of Carthage in the First Punic War. ... Combatants Roman Republic Carthage Commanders Publius Cornelius Scipio†, Tiberius Sempronius Longus Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus, Gaius Flaminius†, Fabius Maximus, Claudius Marcellus†, Lucius Aemilius Paullus†, Gaius Terentius Varro, Marcus Livius Salinator, Gaius Claudius Nero, Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus†, Masinissa, Minucius†, Servilius Geminus† Hannibal Barca, Hasdrubal Barca†, Mago Barca†, Hasdrubal Gisco†, Syphax... Combatants Roman Republic Carthage Commanders Scipio Aemilianus Hasdrubal the Boetarch Strength 40,000 90,000 Casualties 17,000 62,000 The Third Punic War (149 BC to 146 BC) was the third and last of the Punic Wars fought between the former Phoenician colony of Carthage, and the Republic of... Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew from a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula circa the 9th century BC to a massive empire straddling the Mediterranean Sea. ... For other uses, see Carthage (disambiguation). ... Latin was the language originally spoken in the region around Rome called Latium. ... Phoenicia (or Phenicia ,[1] from Biblical Phenice [1]) was an ancient civilization centered in the north of ancient Canaan, with its heartland along the coast of modern day Lebanon and Syria. ...

The main cause of the Punic Wars was the clash of interests between the existing Carthaginian Empire and the expanding Roman Republic. The Romans were initially interested in expansion via Sicily, part of which lay under Carthaginian control. At the start of the first Punic War, Carthage was the dominant power of the Western Mediterranean, with an extensive maritime empire, while Rome was the rapidly ascending power in Italy. By the end of the third war, after more than a hundred years and the deaths of many hundreds of thousands of soldiers from both sides, Rome had conquered Carthage's empire and razed the city, becoming the most powerful state of the Western Mediterranean. With the end of the Macedonian wars — which ran concurrently with the Punic wars — and the defeat of the Seleucid King Antiochus III the Great in the Roman-Syrian War (Treaty of Apamea, 188 BC) in the eastern sea, Rome emerged as the dominant Mediterranean power and the most powerful city in the classical world. This article is about the state which existed from the 6th century BC to the 1st century BC. For the state which existed in the 18th century, see Roman Republic (18th century). ... Sicily ( in Italian and Sicilian) is an autonomous region of Italy and the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, with an area of 25,708 km² (9,926 sq. ... Mediterranean redirects here. ... The Macedonian and Seleucid wars were a series of conflicts fought by Rome during and after the second Punic war, in the eastern Mediterranean, the Adriatic, and the Aegean. ... The Seleucid Empire was a Hellenistic successor state of Alexander the Greats dominion. ... Silver coin of Antiochus III. The reverse shows Apollo seated on an omphalos. ... Syrian Wars Syrian War Silver coin of Antiochus III. The reverse shows Apollo seated on an omphalos. ... The Treaty of Apamea of 188 BC, between the Roman Republic and Antiochus III (the Great) had to give Romans control over the west side of Anatolia and placed under the control of a client king at Pergamum. ... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC 190s BC - 180s BC - 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC 140s BC 130s BC Years: 193 BC 192 BC 191 BC 190 BC 189 BC - 188 BC - 187 BC 186 BC...

This was a turning point that meant that the civilization of the ancient Mediterranean would pass to the modern world via Europe instead of Africa. The Roman victories over Carthage in these wars gave Rome a preeminent status it would retain until the division of the Roman Empire into the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire by Diocletian in 286 AD. The Mediterranean Sea is an intercontinental sea positioned between Europe to the north, Africa to the south and Asia to the east, covering an approximate area of 2. ... For other uses, see Roman Empire (disambiguation). ... Motto Senatus Populusque Romanus The Western Roman Empire in 395. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Byzantine Empire. ... Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus (c. ...

Background

In 264 BC, Carthage was a large port city located on the coast of modern Tunisia. Founded by the Phoenicians in the middle of the 9th century BC, it was a powerful city-state with a large and lucrative commercial empire. Of the great city-states in the western Mediterranean, only Rome rivaled it in power, wealth, and population. While Carthage's navy was the largest in the ancient world at the time, it did not maintain a large, permanent, standing army. Instead, it relied on mercenaries, hired with its considerable wealth, to fight its wars. [1] However, most of the officers who commanded the armies were Carthaginian citizens. The Carthaginians were famed for their abilities as sailors, and unlike their armies, many Carthaginians from the lower classes served in their navy, which provided them with a stable income and career. Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 310s BC 300s BC 290s BC 280s BC 270s BC - 260s BC - 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC Years: 269 BC 268 BC 267 BC 266 BC 265 BC - 264 BC - 263 BC 262 BC... For other uses, see Carthage (disambiguation). ... (10th century BC - 9th century BC - 8th century BC - other centuries) (900s BC - 890s BC - 880s BC - 870s BC - 860s BC - 850s BC - 840s BC - 830s BC - 820s BC - 810s BC - 800s BC - other decades) (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium AD) Events Kingdom of Kush (900 BC... A city-state is a region controlled exclusively by a city. ... The Mediterranean Sea is an intercontinental sea positioned between Europe to the north, Africa to the south and Asia to the east, covering an approximate area of 2. ... Mercenary (disambiguation). ...

In 264 BC the Roman Republic had gained control of the Italian peninsula south of the Po river. Unlike Carthage, Rome had large standing armies made up almost entirely of Roman citizens. The lower class, or plebians, usually served as the foot-soldiers in Roman legions, while the upper class, or patricians, served as the commanding officers. On the other hand, at the start of the First Punic War the Romans had no standing navy, and were thus at a disadvantage until they began to construct their own large fleets during the war. This article is about the state which existed from the 6th century BC to the 1st century BC. For the state which existed in the 18th century, see Roman Republic (18th century). ... The Po (Latin: Padus, Italian: Po) is a river that flows 652 kilometers (405 miles) eastward across northern Italy, from Monviso (in the Cottian Alps) to the Adriatic Sea near Venice. ... In Ancient Rome, the plebs was the general body of Roman citizens, distinct from the privileged class of the patricians. ... See also Legion software and Legion forummer. ... This is an article about the privileged class in ancient Rome. ...

First Punic War (264 to 241 BC)

Main article: First Punic War

The First Punic War (264 BC - 241 BC) was fought partly on land in Sicily and Africa, but was also a naval war to a large extent. The struggle was costly to both powers, but after more than 20 years of war, Rome emerged victorious, at last conquering the island of Sicily and forcing the defeated Carthage to pay a massive tribute. The effect of the long war destabilized Carthage so much that Rome was able to seize Sardinia and Corsica a few years later when Carthage was plunged into the Mercenary War. Osama was here and he doesnt enjoy this site???? the red sox won and i am one happy camper. ... Osama was here and he doesnt enjoy this site???? the red sox won and i am one happy camper. ... Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 310s BC 300s BC 290s BC 280s BC 270s BC - 260s BC - 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC Years: 269 BC 268 BC 267 BC 266 BC 265 BC - 264 BC - 263 BC 262 BC... Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 290s BC 280s BC 270s BC 260s BC 250s BC - 240s BC - 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC 190s BC 246 BC 245 BC 244 BC 243 BC 242 BC - 241 BC - 240 BC 239 BC 238... Sicily ( in Italian and Sicilian) is an autonomous region of Italy and the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, with an area of 25,708 km² (9,926 sq. ... Categories: Historical stubs | Ancient Roman provinces ... For the place in the United States, see Sardinia, Ohio. ... For other uses, see Corsica (disambiguation). ... The Mercenary War was a uprising of mercenaries in the employ of Carthage in the 3rd century BC. The revolt was a consequence of delays in payment following the defeat of Carthage in the First Punic War. ...

Osama was here and he doesnt enjoy this site???? the red sox won and i am one happy camper. ... The battle of Agrigentum (Sicily, 261 BC) was the first pitched battle of the First Punic War and the first large-scale military confrontation between Carthaginians and the Republic of Rome. ... Combatants Carthage Roman Republic Commanders Boodes Hannibal Gisco Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Asina Strength About 20 ships About 17 ships Casualties Unknown Fleet captured {{{notes}}} The Battle of the Lipari Islands or Lipara (Lipara harbour, 260 BC) was the first encounter between the fleets of Carthage and the Roman Republic, fought... Combatants Roman Republic Carthage Commanders Gaius Duilius Hannibal Gisco Strength About 120 ships About 130 ships The Battle of Mylae took place in 260 BC, during the First Punic War, off the coast of Mylae, Sicily, and was the first real naval battle between the fleets of Carthage and the... Combatants Roman Republic Carthage Commanders Gaius Sulpicius Paterculus The Battle of Sulci was a naval battle fought in 258 BC between the Roman and Carthagenian navys of the coast near the town of Sulci, in Sardinia. ... Combatants Rome Carthage Commanders Marcus Atilius Regulus Unknown The Battle of Tyndaris is a naval battle of the First Punic War, which took place off Tyndaris (modern Tindari) in 257 BC. Tyndaris was a Sicilian town founded as a Greek colony in 396 BC located on the high ground overlooking... Battle of Cape Ecnomus Conflict First Punic War Date 256 BC Place Offshore Cape Ecnomus, in Sicily Result Roman victory The battle of Cape Ecnomus (offshore Cape Ecnomus, southern coast of Sicily, 256 BC) was a naval battle between the fleets of Carthage and the Roman Republic, fought during the... Combatants Roman Republic Carthage Commanders Marcus Atilius Regulus Hasdrubal, Bostar, and Hamilcar (not Barca) Strength 15,000 Infantry 500 Cavalry Army of more than 5000 Infantry, 500 Cavalry, and unknown number of elephants Casualties most likely very few most of infantry; cavalry and elephants escaped The Battle of Adis was... Combatants Roman Republic Carthage Commanders L. Caecilius Metellus Hasdrubal Strength Unknown(less than Carthaginians) Unknown(more than Romans) Casualties Unknown Unknown, but probably a sizable amount The Battle of Panormus was fought in 251 BC between Romans led by L. Caecilius Metellus and Carthaginians led by Hasdrubal during the First... Combatants Carthage Roman Republic Commanders Ad Herbal Hamilcar Barca Publius Claudius Pulcher Strength About 120 ships About 120 ships Casualties None 93 ships captured or sunk The battle of Drepana or Drepanum (offshore modern Trapani, western coast of Sicily, 249 BC) was a naval battle between the fleets of Carthage... Combatants Roman Republic Carthage Commanders Gaius Lutatius Catulus Hanno the Great Strength About 200 ships About 250 ships Casualties 30 ships sunk 50 ships sunk 70 ships captured The Battle of the Aegates Islands or Aegusa (Aegadian Islands, off the western coast of the island of Sicily, 10 March 241...

Beginning

The war began as a local conflict in Sicily between Hiero II of Syracuse, and the Mamertines of Messina. The Mamertines had the bad judgment to enlist the aid of the Carthaginian navy, and then betray the Carthaginians by entreating the Roman Senate for aid against Carthage. The Romans sent a garrison to secure Messina, and the outraged Carthaginians then lent aid to Syracuse. With the two powers now embroiled in a local conflict, tensions quickly escalated into a full-scale war between Carthage and Rome for the control of Sicily. Grave monument of Hiëro II in Syracuse Hiero II, tyrant of Syracuse from 270 to 215 BC, was the illegitimate son of a Syracusan noble, Hierocles, who claimed descent from Gelo. ... The Mamertines (Mamertini sons of Mars) were mercenaries of Italian origin who had been hired from their home in Campania by Agathocles, the king of Syracuse. ... Location within Italy Messina with a population of about 260,000 is the third largest city on the island of Sicily, Italy and the capital of the province of Messina. ... The Roman Senate (Latin: Senatus) was the main governing council of both the Roman Republic, which started in 509 BC, and the Roman Empire. ...

The war at sea

After a vicious defeat at the Battle of Agrigentum in 261 BCE, the Carthaginian leadership resolved to avoid further direct land-based engagements with the powerful Roman legions, and concentrated on the sea, where they believed they had an advantage. The battle of Agrigentum (Sicily, 261 BC) was the first pitched battle of the First Punic War and the first large-scale military confrontation between Carthaginians and the Republic of Rome. ... See also Legion software and Legion forummer. ...

Initially, the experienced Carthaginian navy prevailed against the fledgling Roman Navy in the Battle of the Lipari Islands in 260 BC. Rome responded by drastically expanding its navy in a very short time. Within two months the Romans had a fleet of over 100 warships. Because they knew that they could not outmaneuver the Carthaginians in the traditional tactics of ramming and sinking enemy ships, the Romans added an "assault bridge" to Roman ships, known as a corvus. This bridge would latch onto enemy vessels, bring them to a standstill. Then shipboard Roman legionaries were able to board and capture Carthaginian ships through hand-to-hand fighting, a skill that the Romans were more comfortable with. This innovative Roman tactic reduced the Carthaginian navy's advantage in ship-to-ship engagements, and allowed Rome's superior infantry to be brought to bear in naval conflicts. However, the corvus was also cumbersome and dangerous, and was eventually phased out as the Roman navy became more experienced and tactically proficient. Roman trireme, a warship, 31 BC. Note the bank of oars (two on the hidden side), the square-rigged sails, the steering oars, the tower on deck, the ram at the prow, the ballistae and the Greek fire. ... Combatants Carthage Roman Republic Commanders Boodes Hannibal Gisco Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Asina Strength About 20 ships About 17 ships Casualties Unknown Fleet captured {{{notes}}} The Battle of the Lipari Islands or Lipara (Lipara harbour, 260 BC) was the first encounter between the fleets of Carthage and the Roman Republic, fought... A corvus (meaning raven in Latin) was a Roman military boarding device used in naval warfare during the First Punic War against Carthage. ...

Save for the disastrous defeat at the Battle of Tunis in Africa, and two naval engagements, the First Punic War was nearly an unbroken string of Roman victories. In 241 BC, Carthage signed a peace treaty ceding to Rome total control of Sicily. The Battle of Tunis between the Roman Republic and Carthage occurred in 256 BC during the First Punic War. ... Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 290s BC 280s BC 270s BC 260s BC 250s BC - 240s BC - 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC 190s BC 246 BC 245 BC 244 BC 243 BC 242 BC - 241 BC - 240 BC 239 BC 238...

Aftermath

At war's end, Rome's navies were powerful enough to prevent the amphibious invasion of Italy, control the important and rich sea trade routes, and invade other shores.

In 238 BC the mercenary troops of Carthage revolted (see Mercenary War) and Rome took the opportunity to take the islands of Corsica and Sardinia from Carthage as well. From that point on, the Romans effectively controlled the Mediterranean, referring to it as "Mare Nostrum" ("our sea"). Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 280s BC 270s BC 260s BC 250s BC 240s BC - 230s BC - 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC 190s BC 180s BC Years: 243 BC 242 BC 241 BC 240 BC 239 BC - 238 BC - 237 BC 236 BC... The Mercenary War was a uprising of mercenaries in the employ of Carthage in the 3rd century BC. The revolt was a consequence of delays in payment following the defeat of Carthage in the First Punic War. ... For other uses, see Corsica (disambiguation). ... For the place in the United States, see Sardinia, Ohio. ... Mare Nostrum (Latin for Our Sea) was an affectionate Roman name for the Mediterranean Sea. ...

Carthage spent the years following the First Punic War improving its finances and expanding its colonial empire in Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula, modern Spain and Portugal), under the Barcid family. Rome's attention was mostly concentrated on the Illyrian Wars. In 219 BC Hannibal, the son of Hamilcar Barca, attacked Saguntum in Hispania, a city allied to Rome, beginning the Second Punic War. It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Iberian Peninsula. ... The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe, and includes modern day Spain, Portugal, Andorra and Gibraltar. ... The Barcid family was a leading family in the ancient city of Carthage and many of its members were fierce enemies of the Roman Republic. ... In the Illyrian Wars of 229 BC and 219 BC, Rome overran the Illyrian settlements in the Neretva river valley and suppressed the piracy that had made the Adriatic unsafe. ... Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 260s BC 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC - 210s BC - 200s BC 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC Years: 224 BC 223 BC 222 BC 221 BC 220 BC - 219 BC - 218 BC 217 BC... Hannibal, the son of Hamilcar Barca, (247 BC – c. ... Hamilcar Barca or Barcas (~270 – 228 BC) was a Carthaginian general and statesman, leader of the Barcid family, and father of Hannibal. ... Saguntum, now Sagunt, (Castilian Sagunto) is an ancient city in the fertile district of Camp de Morvedre in the province of Valencia in eastern Spain. ... Combatants Roman Republic Carthage Commanders Publius Cornelius Scipio†, Tiberius Sempronius Longus Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus, Gaius Flaminius†, Fabius Maximus, Claudius Marcellus†, Lucius Aemilius Paullus†, Gaius Terentius Varro, Marcus Livius Salinator, Gaius Claudius Nero, Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus†, Masinissa, Minucius†, Servilius Geminus† Hannibal Barca, Hasdrubal Barca†, Mago Barca†, Hasdrubal Gisco†, Syphax...

Interim between the First and the Second Punic War

According to Polybius there had been several trade agreements between Ancient Rome and Carthage; even a mutual alliance against king Pyrrhus of Epirus. When Rome and Carthage made peace in 241 BC, Rome secured the release of all 8,000 prisoners of war without ransom and, furthermore, received a considerable amount of silver as a war indemnity. However, Carthage refused to deliver to Rome the Roman deserters serving among their troops. A first issue for dispute was that the initial treaty, agreed upon by Hamilcar Barca and the Roman commander in Sicily, had a clause stipulating that the Roman popular assembly had to accept the treaty in order for it to be valid. The assembly not only rejected the treaty but increased the indemnity Carthage had to pay. Polybius (c. ... now. ... Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew from a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula circa the 9th century BC to a massive empire straddling the Mediterranean Sea. ... Pyrrhus of Epirus Pyrrhus (318-272 BC) (Greek: Πύρρος) was one of the most successful ancient Greek generals of the Hellenistic era. ... Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 290s BC 280s BC 270s BC 260s BC 250s BC - 240s BC - 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC 190s BC 246 BC 245 BC 244 BC 243 BC 242 BC - 241 BC - 240 BC 239 BC 238...

Carthage seems to have had a liquidity problem and an attempt to gain financial help from Egypt, a mutual ally of Rome and Carthage, failed. This resulted in delay of payments owed to the mercenary troops that had served Carthage in Sicily, leading to a climate of mutual mistrust and, finally, a revolt supported by the Lybian natives, known as the Mercenary War (240-238 BCE). During this war Rome and Syracuse both aided Carthage, although traders from Italy seem to have done business with the insurgents. Some of them were caught and punished by Carthage, aggravating the political climate which had started to improve in recognition of the old alliance and treaties. The Mercenary War was a uprising of mercenaries in the employ of Carthage in the 3rd century BC. The revolt was a consequence of delays in payment following the defeat of Carthage in the First Punic War. ...

During the uprising in the Punic mainland, the mercenary troops in Corsica and Sardinia toppled Punic rule and briefly established their own, but were expelled by a native uprising. After securing aid from Rome, the exiled mercenaries then regained authority on the island. For several years a brutal campaign was fought to quell the insurgent natives. Like many Sicilians, they would ultimately rise again in support of Carthage during the Second Punic War. Combatants Roman Republic Carthage Commanders Publius Cornelius Scipio†, Tiberius Sempronius Longus Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus, Gaius Flaminius†, Fabius Maximus, Claudius Marcellus†, Lucius Aemilius Paullus†, Gaius Terentius Varro, Marcus Livius Salinator, Gaius Claudius Nero, Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus†, Masinissa, Minucius†, Servilius Geminus† Hannibal Barca, Hasdrubal Barca†, Mago Barca†, Hasdrubal Gisco†, Syphax...

Eventually, Rome annexed Corsica and Sardinia by revisiting the terms of the treaty that ended the first Punic War. As Carthage was under siege and engaged in a difficult civil war, they begrudgingly accepted the loss of these islands and the subsequent Roman conditions for ongoing peace, which also increased the war indemnity levied against Carthage after the first Punic War. This eventually plunged relations between the two powers to a new low point.

After Carthage emerged victorious from the Mercenary War there were two opposing factions, the reformist party was led by Hamilcar Barca while the other more conservative faction was represented by Hanno the Great and the old Carthaginian aristocracy. Hamilcar had led the initial Carthaginian peace negotiations and was blamed for the clause that allowed the Roman popular assembly to increase the war indemnity and annex Corsica and Sardinia, but his superlative generalship was instrumental in enabling Carthage to ultimately quell the mercenary uprising, ironically fought against many of the same mercenary troops he had trained. Hamilcar ultimately left Carthage for the Iberian peninsula where he captured rich silver mines and subdued many tribes who fortified his army with levies of native troops. Hamilcar Barca or Barcas (~270 – 228 BC) was a Carthaginian general and statesman, leader of the Barcid family, and father of Hannibal. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ...

Hanno had lost many elephants and soldiers when he became complacent after a victory in the Mercenary War. Further, when he and Hamilcar were supreme commanders of Carthage's field armies, the soldiers had supported Hamilcar when his and Hamilcar's personalities clashed. On the other hand he was responsible for the greatest territorial expansion of Carthage's hinterland during his rule as strategus and wanted to continue such expansion. However the Numidian king of the relevant area was now a son-in-law of Hamilcar and had supported Carthage during a crucial moment in the Mercenary War. While Hamilcar was able to obtain the resources for his aim, the Numidians in the Atlas Mountains were not conquered, like Hanno suggested, but became vassals of Carthage. The term strategos (plural strategoi) is used in Greek to mean general. In the Byzantine Empire the term was also used to describe a military governor (see Byzantine aristocracy and bureaucracy). ... Map showing the location of the Atlas Mountains (colored red) across North Africa The Atlas Mountains (Arabic: ‎) are a mountain range in northwest Africa extending about 2,400 km (1,500 miles) through Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia, and including The Rock of Gibraltar. ...

The Iberian conquest was begun by Hamilcar Barca and his other son-in-law, Hasdrubal the Fair, who ruled the relatively independent of Carthage and signed the Ebro-treaty with Rome. Hamilcar died in battle in 228 BCE. Around this time, Hasdrubal became Carthaginian commander in Iberia (229 BCE). He maintained this post for some eight years until 221 BCE. Soon the Romans became aware of a burgeoning alliance between Carthage and the Celts of the Po river valley in northern Italy. The latter were amassing forces to invade Italy, presumably with Carthaginian backing. Thus, the Romans pre-emptively invaded the Po region in 225 BCE. By 220 BCE, the Romans had annexed the area as Gallia Cisalpina ^[2]. Hasdrubal was assassinated around the same time (221 BCE), bringing Hannibal to the fore. It seems that, having apparently dealt with the threat of a Gaulo-Carthaginian invasion of Italy (and perhaps with the original Carthaginian commander killed), the Romans lulled themselves into a false sense of security. Thus, Hannibal took the Romans by surprise a scant two years later (218 BCE) by merely reviving and adapting the original Gaulo-Carthaginian invasion plan of his brother-in-law Hasdrubal. Hasdrubal the Fair (d. ... The Ebro Treaty was a treaty signed by Hasdrubal the Fair for Carthage and the Roman Republic which fixed the river Ebro in Iberia as the boundary between the two powers. ...

After Hamilcar's [sic — Hasdrubal's] assassination his young sons took over, with Hannibal becoming the strategus of Iberia, although this decision was not undisputed in Carthage. The output of the Iberian silver mines allowed for the financing of a standing army and the payment of the war indemnity to Rome. The mines also served as a tool for political influence, creating a faction in Carthage's magistrate that was called the Barcino. Hannibal, the son of Hamilcar Barca, (247 BC – c. ... The term strategos (plural strategoi) is used in Greek to mean general. In the Byzantine Empire the term was also used to describe a military governor (see Byzantine aristocracy and bureaucracy). ...

In 219 BC Hannibal attacked the town of Saguntum, which stood under the special protection of Rome. According to Roman tradition, Hannibal had been made to swear by his father never to be a friend of Rome, and he certainly did not take a conciliatory attitude when the Romans berated him for crossing the river Iberus (Ebro) which Carthage was bound by treaty not to cross. Hannibal did not cross the Ebro River (Saguntum was near modern Valencia - well south of the river) in arms, and the Saguntines provoked his attack by attacking their neighboring tribes who were Carthaginian protectorates and by massacring pro-Punic factions in their city. Rome had no legal protection pact with any tribe south of the Ebro River. Nonetheless, they asked Carthage to hand Hannibal over, and when the Carthaginian oligarchy refused, Rome declared war on Carthage. (Map of the constellation of power prior to the Second Punic War. Note that Hannibal expanded the Barcid rule across the Ebro to the Pyrenees, founding what is today Barcelona, shortly before his march.) Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 260s BC 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC - 210s BC - 200s BC 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC Years: 224 BC 223 BC 222 BC 221 BC 220 BC - 219 BC - 218 BC 217 BC... Saguntum, now Sagunt, (Castilian Sagunto) is an ancient city in the fertile district of Camp de Morvedre in the province of Valencia in eastern Spain. ... For the Spanish truck maker of the same name, see Ebro trucks. ... Location Coordinates : 39°29′ N 0°22′ W Time Zone : CET (GMT +1) - summer: CEST (GMT +2) General information Native name València (Catalan) Spanish name Valencia Founded 137 BC Postal code 46000-46080 Website http://www. ... The Barcid family was a leading family in the ancient city of Carthage and many of its members were fierce enemies of the Roman Republic. ... Location Coordinates : Time Zone : CET (GMT +1) - summer: CEST (GMT +2) General information Native name Barcelona (Catalan) Spanish name Barcelona Nickname Ciutat Comtal (City of Counts) Postal code 08001–08080 Area code 34 (Spain) + 93 (Barcelona) Website http://www. ...

The Barcid Empire

The 'Barcid Empire' consisted of the Punic territories in Iberia. According to the historian Pedro Barceló, it can be described as a private military-economic hegemony backed by the two independent powers, Carthage and Gades. These shared the profits with the Barcid family and were responsible according to the Mediterranean diplomatic customs. Gades played a minor role in this field, but Hannibal visited the local temple to conduct ceremonies before launching his campaign against Rome. The Barcid Empire was strongly influenced by the Hellenic Empires of the Mediterranean and for example, contrary to Carthage, it minted many coins in its short time of existence.^[3]

Second Punic War (218 BC to 201 BC)

Main article: Second Punic War

The Second Punic War (218 BC – 201 BC) is most remembered for the Carthaginian Hannibal's crossing of the Alps. He and his army invaded Italy from the north and resoundingly defeated the Roman army in several battles, but never achieved the ultimate goal of causing a political break between Rome and its allies. Combatants Roman Republic Carthage Commanders Publius Cornelius Scipio†, Tiberius Sempronius Longus Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus, Gaius Flaminius†, Fabius Maximus, Claudius Marcellus†, Lucius Aemilius Paullus†, Gaius Terentius Varro, Marcus Livius Salinator, Gaius Claudius Nero, Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus†, Masinissa, Minucius†, Servilius Geminus† Hannibal Barca, Hasdrubal Barca†, Mago Barca†, Hasdrubal Gisco†, Syphax... Combatants Roman Republic Carthage Commanders Publius Cornelius Scipio†, Tiberius Sempronius Longus Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus, Gaius Flaminius†, Fabius Maximus, Claudius Marcellus†, Lucius Aemilius Paullus†, Gaius Terentius Varro, Marcus Livius Salinator, Gaius Claudius Nero, Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus†, Masinissa, Minucius†, Servilius Geminus† Hannibal Barca, Hasdrubal Barca†, Mago Barca†, Hasdrubal Gisco†, Syphax... The Roman empire in 218 BC (in dark red) A Carthaginian army under Hannibal attacks Romes Spanish allies. ... Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC - 200s BC - 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC Years: 206 BC 205 BC 204 BC 203 BC 202 BC - 201 BC - 200 BC 199 BC... Hannibal Barca (247 BC – c. ... Alp redirects here. ...

While fighting Hannibal in Italy, Hispania and Sicily, Rome also simultaneously fought in Greece against Macedon in the First Macedonian War. Eventually, the war was taken to Africa, where Carthage was defeated at the Battle of Zama by Scipio Africanus. The end of the war saw Carthage's control reduced to only the city itself. Ancient Macedons regions and towns Macedon or Macedonia (Greek ) was the name of an ancient kingdom in the northern-most part of ancient Greece, bordered by the kingdom of Epirus to the west and the region of Thrace to the east. ... Combatants Roman Republic, Aetolian League, Pergamon Macedon Commanders Marcus Valerius Laevinus, Attalus I Philip V of Macedon The First Macedonian War (214 BC - 205 BC) was fought by Rome, allied (after 211 BC) with the Aetolian League and Attalus I of Pergamon, against Philip V of Macedon, contemporaneously with the... Combatants Carthage Roman Republic East Numidia Commanders Hannibal Scipio Africanus Masinissa Strength almost 58,000 infantry 6,000 cavalry 80 war elephants 34,000 Roman infantry 3,000 Roman cavalry 6,000 Numidian cavalry Casualties 20,000 killed 11,000 wounded 15,000 captured 1,500 killed 4,000 wounded... Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Major (Latin: P·CORNELIVS·P·F·L·N·SCIPIO·AFRICANVS¹) (235–183 BC) was a general in the Second Punic War and statesman of the Roman Republic. ...

Hannibal's feat in crossing the Alps with war elephants passed into European legend: a fresco detail, ca. 1510, Capitoline Museums, Rome

There were three military theaters in this war: Italy, where Hannibal defeated the Roman legions repeatedly; Hispania, where Hasdrubal, a younger brother of Hannibal, defended the Carthaginian colonial cities with mixed success until eventually retreating into Italy; and Sicily where the Romans held military supremacy. Combatants Roman Republic Carthage Commanders Publius Cornelius Scipio†, Tiberius Sempronius Longus Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus, Gaius Flaminius†, Fabius Maximus, Claudius Marcellus†, Lucius Aemilius Paullus†, Gaius Terentius Varro, Marcus Livius Salinator, Gaius Claudius Nero, Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus†, Masinissa, Minucius†, Servilius Geminus† Hannibal Barca, Hasdrubal Barca†, Mago Barca†, Hasdrubal Gisco†, Syphax... Sagunt (Spanish Sagunto; Latin Saguntum) is an ancient city in Hispania, in the modern fertile district of Camp de Morvedre in the province of Valencia in eastern Spain. ... Combatants Carthage Roman Republic Commanders Unknown Amellius, Praetor of Sicily Strength 35 Quinqueremes 20 Quinqueremes and Triremes Casualties 7 ships captured Unknown The Battle of Lilybaeum was the first naval clash between the navies of Carthage and Rome during the Second Punic War. ... Belligerents Carthage Volcae, a tribe of Gauls Commanders Hannibal Barca Unknown Strength 38,000 infantry, 8,000 cavalry, 37 elephants Unknown Casualties and losses Unknown Unknown The Battle of Rhone Crossing took place during the Second Punic War. ... Combatants Carthage Roman Republic Commanders Hannibal Publius Cornelius Scipio the elder Strength 6,000 cavalry unknown Casualties small small The Battle of Ticinus was a battle of the Second Punic War fought between the Carthaginian forces of Hannibal and the Romans under Publius Cornelius Scipio in November 218 BC. It... Combatants Carthage Roman Republic Commanders Hannibal Tiberius Sempronius Longus Strength 10,000 cavalry, 28,000 infantry and thirty elephants 36,000-38,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry Casualties Unknown, but low 20,000 The Battle of the Trebia (or Trebbia) was the first major battle of the Second Punic... Combatants Carthage Roman Republic Commanders Hanno Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus Strength 10,000 infantry, 1,000 cavalry 20,000 infantry (2 Roman and 2 Allied Legions), 2,200 cavalry Casualties 6,000 killed and 2,000 captured unknown, light // Introduction The Battle of Cissa is part of the Second Punic... Combatants Carthage Roman Republic Commanders Hannibal Gaius Flaminius † Strength 30,000 soldiers 30,000-40,000 soldiers Casualties 1,500 soldiers 15,000 killed or drowned 15,000 captured The Battle of Lake Trasimeno (June 24, 217 BC, April on the Julian calendar) was a Roman defeat in the Second... Combatants Carthage Roman Republic Commanders Himilco Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus Strength 40 Quinqueremes 55 Quinqueremes and Triremes Casualties 4 sunk, 25 captured Unknown Battle of Ebro River was a naval battle fought between a Carthaginian fleet of approximately 40 quinqueremes under Himilco and a Roman fleet of 55 ships under... Combatants Carthage Roman Republic Commanders Hannibal Barca Quintus Fabius Maximus Strength 2,000 infantry, 2,000 Oxen, 2000 Camp Followers 4000 infantry, plus reserves Casualties Light 1000+ The Battle of Ager Falernus is part of the Second Punic War. ... Combatants Roman Republic Carthage Commanders M. Minucius Rufus Quintus Fabius Maximus Hannibal Strength unknown unknown Casualties unknown unknown The Battle of Geronium was fought in 217 BC during the Second Punic War between Roman forces under M. Minucius Rufus and Hannibals Carthaginian army. ... For the 11th century battle in the Byzantine conquest of the Mezzogiorno, see Battle of Cannae (1018). ... The First Battle of Nola was fought in 216 BC between the forces of Hannibal and a Roman force led by Marcus Claudius Marcellus. ... Combatants Carthage Roman Republic Commanders Hasdrubal Barca Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus, Publius Cornelius Scipio Strength 25,000 infantry, 4,000 cavalry, 20 Elephants 30,000 infantry (2 Roman and 2 Allied Legions), 3,000 cavalry Casualties Severe Heavy The Battle of Dertosa, also known as the ‘’’Battle of Ibera’’’, was... The Second Battle of Nola was fought in 215 BC between Hannibals army and a Roman Army under Marcus Claudius Marcellus. ... Combatants Carthage Roman Republic Commanders Hasdrubal The Bald, Hampsicora Titus Manlius Torquatus Strength 15,000 infantry, 1,500 cavalry +Sardinians (?) + Elephants (?) 20,000 infantry (2 Roman and 2 Allied Legions), 1,200 cavalry Casualties Most killed or captured unknown, The Battle of Cornus, or Caralis took place when a Carthaginian... The Third Battle of Nola was fought in 214 BC between Hannibal and Roman army led by Marcus Claudius Marcellus. ... Combatants Roman Republic Carthage Commanders Tiberius Gracchus Hanno Strength unknown unknown Casualties unknown unknown The Battle of Beneventum was fought in 214 BC near modern Benevento during the Second Punic War. ... Combatants Carthage Roman Republic Commanders Hannibal Marcus Livius Strength 10,000 Unknown Casualties Minimal Nearly entire force Second Punic War Saguntum â€“ Lilybaeum â€“ Ticinus â€“ Trebia â€“ Cissa â€“ Lake Trasimene â€“ Ebro River â€“ Ager Falernus â€“ Geronium â€“ Cannae â€“ 1st Nola â€“ Dertosa â€“ 2nd Nola â€“ Cornus â€“ 3rd Nola â€“ Beneventum â€“ 1st Tarentum â€“ 1st Capua â€“ Silarus â€“ 1st Herdonia â€“ Syracuse... Combatants Carthage Roman Republic Commanders Hannibal Quintus Fulvius Flaccus, Appius Claudius Pulcher Strength approximately 30,000 8 Legions, approximately 40,000 Casualties unknown unknown The First Battle of Capua was fought in 212 BC between Hannibal and two Roman consular armies. ... Combatants Carthage Roman Republic Commanders Hannibal Marcus Centenius Penula â€  Casualties moderate entire army destroyed The Battle of the Silarus was fought in 212 BC between Hannibals army and a Roman force led by praetor Marcus Centenius Penula. ... Combatants Carthage Roman Republic Commanders Hannibal Gnaeus Fulvius Strength 20,000-30,000 18,000 Casualties Minimal 16,000 The first Battle of Herdonia was fought in 212 BC during the Second Punic War between Hannibals Carthaginian army and Roman forces led by Praetor Gnaeus Fulvius Flaccus, brother of... The Siege of Syracuse was fought from 214 BC to 212 BC between the rebellious city of Syracuse, and a Roman army under Marcellus sent to put down the citys rebellion. ... Combatants Carthage Roman Republic Commanders Hasdrubal Barca Publius Cornelius Scipio† Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus† Strength 35,000 foot, 3,000 Numidians, 7,500 Spanish tribals 30,000 foot, 3,000 Horse + 20,000 Celt-Iberian mercenaries Casualties unknown- approximately 22,000 // Introduction The Battle of the Upper Baetis was fought... The Second Battle of Capua was fought in 211 BC when the Romans besieged Capua. ... The Second Battle of Herdonia of the Second Punic War, was fought in 210 BC between Hannibals army and the Roman forces of Fulvius Centumalus. ... The Battle of Numistro was fought in 210 BC between Hannibals army and a Roman army led by Marcus Claudius Marcellus. ... The Battle of Baecula was Scipio Africanus’s first major field battle after he had taken command of Roman interests in Spain during the Second Punic War, in which he routed the Carthaginian army under the command of Hasdrubal Barca. ... The Battle of Grumentum was fought in 207 BC between Romans led by Gaius Claudius Nero, and Hannibals Carthaginian army. ... Combatants Carthage Roman Republic Commanders Hasdrubal Barca † Marcus Livius Salinator, Gaius Claudius Nero, Porcius Licinus Strength unknown Livius: 2 city legions, Nero: 6,000 foot, 1,000 horse, Licinus: 2 legions Casualties 57,000 killed, 5,400 prisoners 8,000 killed The Battle of the Metaurus was a pivotal battle... The Battle of Ilipa was a battle of the Second Punic War. ... Combatants Carthage Roman Republic Commanders Hannibal Sempronius Tuditanus The battles of Crotona in 204 and 203 BC were the last larger scale engagements between the Romans and the Carthaginians in Italy during the Second Punic War. ... Combatants Carthage Roman Republic Commanders Hasdrubal, son of Gisgo Syphax Publius Cornelius Scipio Strength much larger than the Roman army approximately 25,000 Casualties reportedly tens of thousands negligible The Battle of Utica was fought in 203 BC between armies of Rome and Carthage during their second war for dominance... Combatants Roman Republic Carthaginian Commanders Scipio Africanus, Masinissa, Laeliu Hasdrubal, Syphax Casualties Unknown Rout of whole army The Battle of the Great plains Hasdrubal and Syphax had both succeded in escaping from their camps which the Roman general Scipio Africanus, and his Numidian allies Masinissa and Laeliu had destroyed. ... The Battle of Cirta was a battle during the Second Punic War between the Roman Republic and Carthage. ... The Po Valley Raid was a engagement during the Second Punic War between the Roman Republic and Carthage. ... Combatants Carthage Roman Republic East Numidia Commanders Hannibal Scipio Africanus Masinissa Strength almost 58,000 infantry 6,000 cavalry 80 war elephants 34,000 Roman infantry 3,000 Roman cavalry 6,000 Numidian cavalry Casualties 20,000 killed 11,000 wounded 15,000 captured 1,500 killed 4,000 wounded... Image File history File links HannibalFrescoCapitolinec1510. ... Image File history File links HannibalFrescoCapitolinec1510. ... Year 1510 (MDX) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. ... Michelangelos design for Capitoline Hill, now home to the Capitoline Museums. ... For other uses, see Rome (disambiguation). ... Theater in military terms, is a geographic location used for military operations. ... Coin shows Hasdrubal as strategus of Iberia Hasdrubal, son of Hamilcar Barca, (d. ...

Hannibal

Hannibal was a master strategist who knew that the Roman cavalry was, as a rule, weak and vulnerable. He therefore enlisted superior cavalry into his armies, with devastating effect on the Roman legions. Not to be confused with Golgotha, which was called Calvary. ...

After assaulting Saguntum, Hannibal surprised the Romans in 218 BC by directly invading Italy. He led a large army of mercenaries composed mainly of Gauls, Hispanics, Numidians, and, most famously, three dozen African war elephants, through the Alps. This move had a double edged effect. Although Hannibal surprised the Romans and thoroughly beat them on the battlefields of Italy, he lost his only siege engines and elephants to the cold temperatures and icy mountain paths. In the end it allowed him to defeat the Romans in the field, but not in the strategically crucial city of Rome itself, thus making him unable to draw the war to a decisive close. Saguntum, now Sagunt, (Castilian Sagunto) is an ancient city in the fertile district of Camp de Morvedre in the province of Valencia in eastern Spain. ... Gallia (in English Gaul) is the Latin name for the region of western Europe occupied by present-day France, Belgium, western Switzerland and the parts of the Netherlands and Germany on the west bank of the Rhine river. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Iberian Peninsula. ... The Numidians were tribes who lived in Algeria east of Constantine and in part of Tunisia. ... Indian war elephant, relief at Mathura, 2nd century BC War elephants were important, although not widespread, weapons in ancient military history. ... A siege engine is a device that is designed to break or circumvent city walls and other fortifications in siege warfare. ...

Hannibal defeated the Roman legions in several major engagements, including the Battle of the Trebia, the Battle of Lake Trasimene and most famously at the Battle of Cannae, but his long-term strategy failed. Lacking siege engines and sufficient manpower to take the city of Rome itself, he had planned to turn the Italian allies against Rome and starve the city out through a siege. However, with the exception of a few of the southern city-states, the majority of the Roman allies remained loyal and continued to fight alongside Rome, despite Hannibal's near-invincible army devastating the Italian countryside. Rome also exhibited an impressive ability to draft army after army of conscripts after each crushing defeat by Hannibal, allowing them to recover from the defeats at Cannae and elsewhere and keep Hannibal cut off from aid. Combatants Carthage Roman Republic Commanders Hannibal Tiberius Sempronius Longus Strength 10,000 cavalry, 28,000 infantry and thirty elephants 36,000-38,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry Casualties Unknown, but low 20,000 The Battle of the Trebia (or Trebbia) was the first major battle of the Second Punic... Combatants Carthage Roman Republic Commanders Hannibal Gaius Flaminius † Strength 30,000 soldiers 30,000-40,000 soldiers Casualties 1,500 soldiers 15,000 killed or drowned 15,000 captured The Battle of Lake Trasimeno (June 24, 217 BC, April on the Julian calendar) was a Roman defeat in the Second... For the 11th century battle in the Byzantine conquest of the Mezzogiorno, see Battle of Cannae (1018). ...

More importantly, Hannibal never successfully received any significant reinforcements from Carthage. Despite his many pleas, Carthage only ever sent reinforcements successfully to Hispania. This lack of reinforcements prevented Hannibal from decisively ending the conflict by conquering Rome through force of arms.

The Roman army under Quintus Fabius Maximus intentionally deprived Hannibal of open battle, while making it difficult for Hannibal to forage for supplies. Nevertheless, Rome was also incapable of bringing the conflict in the Italian theatre to a decisive close. Not only were they contending with Hannibal in Italy, and his brother Hasdrubal in Hispania, but Rome had embroiled itself in yet another foreign war, the first of its Macedonian wars against Carthage's ally Philip V, at the same time. Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus (c. ... Combatants Roman Republic, Aetolian League, Pergamon Macedon Commanders Marcus Valerius Laevinus, Attalus I Philip V of Macedon The First Macedonian War (214 BC - 205 BC) was fought by Rome, allied (after 211 BC) with the Aetolian League and Attalus I of Pergamon, against Philip V of Macedon, contemporaneously with the... Coin of Philip V. The Greek inscription reads ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΦΙΛΙΠΠΟΥ ([coin] of King Philip). ...

Through Hannibal's inability to take strategically important Italian cities, the general loyalty Italian allies showed to Rome, and Rome's own inability to counter Hannibal as a master general, Hannibal's campaign continued in Italy inconclusively for sixteen years.

Hasdrubal's campaign to reinforce Hannibal

Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus

In Hispania, a young Roman commander, Publius Cornelius Scipio (later to be given the agnomen Africanus because of his feats during this war), eventually defeated the Carthaginian forces under Hasdrubal. Abandoning Hispania, Hasdrubal moved to bring his mercenary army into Italy to reinforce Hannibal. Gold signet ring from Capua (late 3rd or early 2nd century B.C.) signed by Herakliedes, and bearing the portrait of Scipio Africanus. ... Gold signet ring from Capua (late 3rd or early 2nd century B.C.) signed by Herakliedes, and bearing the portrait of Scipio Africanus. ... Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Major (Latin: P·CORNELIVS·P·F·L·N·SCIPIO·AFRICANVS) (236 - 183 BC) was a general in the Second Punic War and statesman of the Roman Republic. ... Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Major (Latin: P·CORNELIVS·P·F·L·N·SCIPIO·AFRICANVS¹) (235–183 BC) was a general in the Second Punic War and statesman of the Roman Republic. ... An Agnomen is a nickname or an alias. ... Africanus, in Latin, means of Africa. It can refer to: a cognomen of ancient Rome associated with the gens Scipio, including among others several people named Scipio Africanus; see Scipio Africanus (disambiguation) Sextus Caecilius Africanus, a 2nd century Roman legal scholar Sextus Julius Africanus, a Christian traveller and historian of...

Hasdrubal again brought a Carthaginian army across the Alps into Italy, as his brother did before him, making his way into the Po valley. The spectre of another huge Carthaginian army in Italy was terrifying, and the Romans knew they needed to cut off Hasdrubal's reinforcements at any cost. In the Battle of the Metaurus River in 207 BC, the Roman commander Gaius Claudius Nero had about 700 of his best soldiers distract Hasdrubal while he himself rounded the river to strike the rear flank of Hasdrubal's army. Hasdrubal, realizing that he was doomed, threw himself headlong into the Roman forces to be killed rather than captured. Hasdrubal's head was thrown by the triumphant Romans into Hannibal's camp, whereupon Hannibal and his army retreated into the mountains for a short time. The Po (Latin: Padus, Italian: Po) is a river that flows 652 kilometers (405 miles) eastward across northern Italy, from Monviso (in the Cottian Alps) to the Adriatic Sea near Venice. ... Buildup The combined Roman force met Hasdrubal at the River Metaurus on the Adriatic south of Ariminum. ... Gaius Claudius Nero was a Roman consul who fought in the Battle of the Metaurus (207 BC). ...

End of the war

Meanwhile in Hispania, Scipio captured the local Carthaginian cities and made alliances with local rulers. With Hispania essentially pacified, Scipio then turned to invade Carthage itself.

With Carthage now directly threatened, in 203 BC Hannibal returned to Africa to face Scipio. At the final Battle of Zama in 202 BC the Romans at last defeated Hannibal in open battle. Carthage sued for peace, and Rome agreed, but only after imposing harsh terms, stripping Carthage of its foreign colonies, forcing it to pay a huge indemnity, and forbidding it to own either an army or a significant navy again. Combatants Carthage Roman Republic East Numidia Commanders Hannibal Scipio Africanus Masinissa Strength almost 58,000 infantry 6,000 cavalry 80 war elephants 34,000 Roman infantry 3,000 Roman cavalry 6,000 Numidian cavalry Casualties 20,000 killed 11,000 wounded 15,000 captured 1,500 killed 4,000 wounded... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 3rd century BC - 4th century BC Decades: 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC - 200s BC - 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC Years: 207 BC 206 BC 205 BC 204 BC 203 BC - 202 BC - 201 BC 200 BC 199 BC 198 BC 197 BC Events October...

Third Punic War (149 BC to 146 BC)

Main article: Third Punic War

The Third Punic War (149 BC - 146 BC) involved an extended siege of Carthage, ending in the city's thorough destruction. The resurgence of the struggle can be explained by growing anti-Roman agitations in Hispania and Greece, and the visible improvement of Carthaginian wealth and martial power in the fifty years since the Second War. Combatants Roman Republic Carthage Commanders Scipio Aemilianus Hasdrubal the Boetarch Strength 40,000 90,000 Casualties 17,000 62,000 The Third Punic War (149 BC to 146 BC) was the third and last of the Punic Wars fought between the former Phoenician colony of Carthage, and the Republic of... Combatants Roman Republic Carthage Commanders Scipio Aemilianus Hasdrubal the Boetarch Strength 40,000 90,000 Casualties 17,000 62,000 The Third Punic War (149 BC to 146 BC) was the third and last of the Punic Wars fought between the former Phoenician colony of Carthage, and the Republic of... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC - 140s BC - 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC Years: 154 BC 153 BC 152 BC 151 BC 150 BC - 149 BC - 148 BC 147 BC... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC - 140s BC - 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC Years: 151 BC 150 BC 149 BC 148 BC 147 BC - 146 BC - 145 BC 144 BC... Combatants Roman Republic Carthage Commanders Scipio Aemilianus Unknown Strength 40,000 90,000 Casualties 17,000 62,000 The Battle of Carthage was the major act of the Third Punic War between the Phoenician city of Carthage in Africa (near present-day Tunis) and the Roman Republic. ...

With no military, Carthage suffered raids from its neighbour Numidia. Under the terms of the treaty with Rome, such disputes were arbitrated by the Roman Senate. Because Numidia was a favored client state of Rome, Roman rulings were slanted heavily to favor the Numidians. After some fifty years of this condition, Carthage had managed to discharge its war indemnity to Rome, and considered itself no longer bound by the restrictions of the treaty, although Rome believed otherwise. Carthage mustered an army to repel Numidian forces. It immediately lost the war with Numidia, placing itself in debt yet again, this time to Numidia. Numidia was an ancient Berber kingdom in North Africa that later alternated between a Roman province and a Roman client state, and is no longer in existence today. ... The Roman Senate (Latin: Senatus) was the main governing council of both the Roman Republic, which started in 509 BC, and the Roman Empire. ... According to the notion of client states, just as a client of a corporation remains dependent on the corporation for a continued supply of products, and just as it is in the companys interest to make expendable products which need to be replaced regularly, client states of the two...

This new-found Punic militarism alarmed many Romans, including Cato the Elder who after a voyage to Carthage, ended all his speeches, no matter what the topic, by saying: "Ceterum censeo Carthaginem esse delendam." - "Furthermore, I think that Carthage must be destroyed". Marcus Porcius Cato (Latin: M·PORCIVS·M·F·CATO[1]) (234 BC, Tusculum–149 BC) was a Roman statesman, surnamed the Censor (Censorius), Sapiens, Priscus, or the Elder (Major), to distinguish him from Cato the Younger (his great-grandson). ...

In 149 BC, in an attempt to draw Carthage into open conflict, Rome made a series of escalating demands, one being the surrender of three hundred children of the nobility as hostages, and finally ending with the near-impossible demand that the city be demolished and rebuilt away from the coast, deeper into Africa. When the Carthaginians refused this last demand, Rome declared the Third Punic War. Having previously relied on mercenaries to fight their wars for them, the Carthaginians were now forced into a more active role in the defense of their city. They made thousands of makeshift weapons in a short amount of time, even using women's hair for catapult strings, and were able to hold off an initial Roman attack. A second offensive under the command of Scipio Aemilianus resulted in a three-year siege before he breached the walls, sacked the city, and systematically burned Carthage to the ground in 146 BC. The popular story that the ground was seeded with salt was invented in the nineteenth century as there are no evidence in any ancient sources. Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC - 140s BC - 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC Years: 154 BC 153 BC 152 BC 151 BC 150 BC - 149 BC - 148 BC 147 BC... Drawing of a Roman catapult For the handheld Y-shaped weapon, see slingshot. ... Storybook illustration depicting Scipio as the reluctant servant of the Senate as he orchestrated the genocide of the Carthaginians. ... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC - 140s BC - 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC Years: 151 BC 150 BC 149 BC 148 BC 147 BC - 146 BC - 145 BC 144 BC...

References

1. ^ Chris Scarre, "The Wars with Carthage," The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Rome (London: Penguin Books, 1995), 24-25.
2. ^ Fagan, Garret G. "The History of Ancient Rome". Lecture 13: "The Second Punic War". Teaching Company, "Great Courses" series.
3. ^ Pedro Barceló, Karthago und die Iberische Halbinsel vor den Barkiden

External links

• Punic Wars Timeline
• Holst, Sanford "War and Peace" this academic paper shows the descent into Punic Wars, and addresses division of power between Europe and Africa.