The definition of race, before the development of evolutionary biology, was that of common lineage—a vague concept interchangeable with cline, breed, cultural origin, or national character ("The whole race of mankind." – Shakespeare; "From whence the race of Alban fathers come" – Dryden). To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Ambiguity is one way in which the meanings of words and phrases can be unclear, but there is another way, which is different from ambiguity: vagueness. ... In population genetics, a cline is a gradual change of a character or feature (phenotype) in a species over a geographical area, often as a result of environmental heterogeneity. ... A breed is a domesticated subspecies or infrasubspecies of an animal. ... Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ... John Dryden John Dryden (August 9, 1631 – May 12, 1700) was an influential English poet, literary critic, and playwright who dominated the literary life of Restoration England to such a point that the period came to be known as the Age of Dryden. ...

The word race, interpreted to mean common descent, was introduced into English in about 1580, from the Old French "rasse" (1512), from Italian razza, which may have been derived from the Latin word generatio (a begetting). The etymology can be further traced back to Latin gens (clan, stock, people) and genus (birth, descent, origin, race, stock, family) which in turn comes from the Greek γένος (race, stock, or family).'Genus' is cognate with Sanskrit 'jAti' (caste). A group of organisms is said to have common descent if they have a common ancestor. ... The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. ...

This late origin for the English and French terms is consistent with the thesis that the concept of "race" as defining a very small number of groups of human beings based on lineage dates from the time of Columbus. Older concepts that were also at least partly based on common descent, such as nation and tribe, entail a much larger number of groupings. Christopher Columbus is the incorrectly Latinized name of Don Cristoval Colon, the navigator and maritime explorer credited as the discoverer of the Americas. ... One of the most influential doctrines in history is that all humans are divided into groups called nations. ... http://www. ...

17th century theories of racial difference

While the 17th century did not have systematic notions of racial difference, colonialism led to the development of social and political institutions, such as slavery in the New World, that were later justified through racial theories (cf. Gossett 1997:17). See colony and colonisation for examples of colonialism which do not refer to Western colonialism. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Carte dAmérique, Guillaume Delisle, c. ...

Society Must Be Defended: the "race struggle" discourse

In Society Must be Defended (1978-79), Michel Foucault traced the "historical and political discourse" of "race struggle" to the "Glorious Revolution" and Louis XIV's end of reign. According to him, it was the first example of a popular history, opposed to the classical juridical and philosophical discourse of sovereignty. In Great Britain, it was used by Edward Coke or John Lilburn against the monarchy. In France, Boulainvilliers, Nicolas Fréret, and then Sieyès, Augustin Thierry and Cournot reappropriated this discourse. Michel Foucault (IPA pronunciation: ; English-speakers pronunciation varies) (October 15, 1926 – June 25, 1984) was a French philosopher. ... Philosophy of History is an area of philosophy concerning the eventual significance, if any, of human history, and speculation as to a possible teleological end to its development. ... The Glorious Revolution was the overthrow of James II of England in 1688 by a union of Parliamentarians and the Dutch stadtholder William III of Orange-Nassau (William of Orange). ... Louis XIV King of France and Navarre By Hyacinthe Rigaud (1701) Louis XIV (Louis-Dieudonné) (September 5, 1638–September 1, 1715) reigned as King of France and King of Navarre from May 14, 1643 until his death. ... Sovereignty is the exclusive right to exercise supreme political (e. ... Sir Edward Coke Sir Edward Coke (pronounced cook) (1 February 1552–3 September 1634), educated at Norwich School, was an early English colonial entrepreneur and jurist whose writings on the English common law were the definitive legal texts for some 300 years. ... Places where monarchies maintain rule appear in blue. ... Henri, Comte de Boulainvilliers (1658, St. ... Nicolas Fréret was a (1688-1749) French scholar. ... It has been suggested that Emmanuel J. Sièyes be merged into this article or section. ... Jacques Nicolas Augustin Thierry (May 10, 1795 _ May 22, 1856) was a French historian. ... Antoine Augustin Cournot (28 August 1801‑ 31 March 1877) was a French philosopher and mathematician. ...

François Bernier's New division of Earth by the different species or races which inhabit it" (1684)

The first comprehensive classification of humans into distinct races is believed to be François Bernier's Nouvelle division de la terre par les différents espèces ou races qui l'habitent ("New division of Earth by the different species or races which inhabit it"), published in 1684 (Gossett, 1997:32-33). Bernier distinguished four "races": François Bernier (1625 – 1688) was a French physician and traveler, born at Joué-Etiau /Anjou. ... Events France under Louis XIV makes Truce of Ratisbon separately with the Empire and Spain. ...

This map shows the racial classification scheme of François Bernier.[1].

European, North African, Middle Eastern, South Asian and Native American race East Asian, Southeast Asian, and Central Asian race Sub-Saharan African race Lapp race

Bernier's race classification had a political message. At the time, races were distinguished by skin color, facial type, cranial profile and amount, texture and color of hair (see scientific racism). Though many experts declare these to have little relationship with any other heritable characteristics, they remain persuasive due to the ease of distinction based on physical appearance. One term for this now-discredited form of classification is the typological model. Image File history File links Francois_Bernier_Racial_Definitions. ... Image File history File links Francois_Bernier_Racial_Definitions. ... François Bernier (1625 – 1688) was a French physician and traveler, born at Joué-Etiau /Anjou. ... Historical data for native populations collected by R. Biasutti prior to 1940. ... Scientific racism is racist propaganda disguised as science. ... The word typology literally means the study of types. ...

Because of interracial breeding, such classification is weak in that it is difficult to classify some borderline individuals. (Contrast the difficulty of determining to which group a child of mixed parentage belongs with the much more clear-cut decisions involved in determining membership in species). In other words, racial purity has no clear biological meaning. It is clear, though, that for an extended period of time after Homo sapiens' first migrations from Africa (probably around 80,000 BCE) and before the rise of wheeled and seagoing transportation (around 3,000 BCE), geographically isolated groups of people underwent some degree of divergent evolution. Whether that degree was high enough to merit strict taxa beneath the species level is a question discussed by human biologists since the 1800s. It is a complicated issue full of semantic and emotional pitfalls, with much at stake on the consensus for all who look upon science as the bedrock authority for decisions in their daily lives. In biology, a species is one of the basic units of biodiversity. ... A world map showing the continent of Africa. ...

18th century anthropologists

Carolus Linnaeus

This map shows the racial classification scheme of Carolus Linnaeus.

Africanus negreus Americanus rubenscens Asiaticus fucus Europeus albescens Feral Monstrosous Anthropomorpha No Classification

Image File history File links Asian_Race_Carolus_Linnaeus_Racial_Definitions. ... Image File history File links Asian_Race_Carolus_Linnaeus_Racial_Definitions. ... Carolus Linnaeus, also known after his ennoblement as  , (May 23, 1707 – January 10, 1778), was a Swedish botanist, physician and zoologist[1] who laid the foundations for the modern scheme of nomenclature. ...

Edward Long

This map shows the racial classification scheme of the anthropologist Edward Long in his book History of Jamaica (1774).

European race Negro race Orang-utang race

Image File history File links Edward_Long_Racial_Definitions. ... Image File history File links Edward_Long_Racial_Definitions. ... Edward Long was a British Historian. ...

19th century anthropologists

Among the 19th-century naturalists who defined the field were Georges Cuvier, James Cowles Pritchard, Louis Agassiz, Charles Pickering (Races of Man and Their Geographical Distribution, 1848), and Johann Friedrich Blumenbach. Cuvier enumerated three races, Pritchard seven, Agassiz twelve, and Pickering eleven. Blumenbach's classification was widely adopted: Georges Cuvier Baron Georges Léopold Chrétien Frédéric Dagobert Cuvier (August 23, 1769–May 13, 1832) was a French naturalist and zoologist. ... James Cowles Prichard (February 11, 1786 - December 23, 1848), English physician and ethnologist, was born at Ross in Herefordshire. ... Louis Agassiz Jean Louis Rodolphe Agassiz (May 28, 1807-December 14, 1873) was a Swiss-born American zoologist, glaciologist, and geologist, the husband of educator Elizabeth Cabot Cary Agassiz, and one of the first world-class American scientists. ... Charles Pickering (November 10, 1805 _ March 17, 1878) was an American naturalist. ... 1848 (MDCCCXLVIII) was a leap year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Johann Friedrich Blumenbach Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (May 11, 1752 - January 22, 1840) was a German physiologist and anthropologist. ...

this map shows the racial classification scheme of Johann Friedrich Blumenbach.

Caucasian race Mongolian race Ethiopian race American race Malay race

Image File history File links Johann_Friedrich_Blumenbach_Racial_Definition_Map. ... Image File history File links Johann_Friedrich_Blumenbach_Racial_Definition_Map. ... Johann Friedrich Blumenbach Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (May 11, 1752 - January 22, 1840) was a German physiologist and anthropologist. ...

Louis Agassiz's Racial Definitions

This map shows the racial classification scheme of the naturalist Louis Agassiz.

Arctic race Western American Temperate race Eastern American Temperate race American Tropical race South American Temperate race Cape of Good Hope race Tropical Asiatic race Temperate Asiatic race European Temperate race African zoological race New Holland race Pacific race

Image File history File links Louis_Agassiz_Racial_Definition_Map. ... Image File history File links Louis_Agassiz_Racial_Definition_Map. ... Louis Agassiz Jean Louis Rodolphe Agassiz (May 28, 1807-December 14, 1873) was a Swiss-born American zoologist, glaciologist, and geologist, the husband of educator Elizabeth Cabot Cary Agassiz, and one of the first world-class American scientists. ...

Thomas Huxley's Racial Definitions

This map shows the racial classification scheme of the anthropologist Thomas Huxley from his book On the Geographical Distribution of the Chief Modifications of Mankind (1870).

Esquimaux race American race Amphinesian race Negrito race Australian race Mongolian race Negro race Bushmen race Mincopies race Xanthochroi race Melanochroi race

Image File history File links Asian_Race_Thomas_Huxley_Racial_Definitions_4. ... Image File history File links Asian_Race_Thomas_Huxley_Racial_Definitions_4. ... Thomas Henry Huxley, FRS (4 May 1825 – 29 June 1895) was an English biologist, known as Darwins Bulldog for his defence of Charles Darwins theory of evolution. ...

Joseph Arthur Comte de Gobineau

This map shows the racial classification scheme of the anthropologist Joseph Arthur Comte de Gobineau.

White race Black race Yellow race Degenerative race

20th Century Anthropologists

Stanley M. Garn's Racial Definitions

This map shows the racial classification scheme of the anthropologist Stanley Marion Garn in his book Human Races (1961), although he considered thirty-four local subraces to exist within the nine major races.

Amerindian race Asiatic race Australian race Melanesian race Micronesian race Polynesian race Indian race African race European race

Image File history File links Asian_Race_Arthur_de_Gobineau_Race_Definitions. ... Image File history File links Asian_Race_Arthur_de_Gobineau_Race_Definitions. ... Joseph Arthur Comte de Gobineau (July 14, 1816 - October 13, 1882) was a French aristocrat who became famous for developing the theory of the Aryan master race in his book An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races (1853-1855). ... Image File history File links Stanley_M._Garn_Racial_Definitions. ... Image File history File links Stanley_M._Garn_Racial_Definitions. ... Stanley Marion Garn Ph. ...

William Henry Boyd's Racial Definitions

This map shows the racial classification scheme of the anthropologist William Henry Boyd in his book Genetics and the Races of Man (1956).

Early European race European race African race Asiatic race American Indian race Australoid race

Image File history File links William_Henry_Boyd_Racial_Definitions2. ... Image File history File links William_Henry_Boyd_Racial_Definitions2. ...

Egon Freiherr von Eickstedt's Racial Definitions for Europe

Racial classification of Europeans by the 20th century anthropologist Egon Freiherr von Eickstedt from his book Ethnology and the Race History of Mankind.

Alpine race Osteuropid race Nordic race Mediterranean race

Image File history File links Von_Eickstedt_Major_Races_of_Europe. ... Image File history File links Von_Eickstedt_Major_Races_of_Europe. ... (19th century - 20th century - 21st century - more centuries) Decades: 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s As a means of recording the passage of time, the 20th century was that century which lasted from 1901–2000 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar (1900–1999... Egon Freiherr von Eickstedt (1892-1965) was a German physical anthropologist who classified humanity into races around the 19th century. ...

Jan Czekanowski's Racial Definitions for Europe

This map shows the racial classification scheme of the anthropologist Jan Czekanowski in his book AAnz, vol. 5 (1928).

Pure Races α =Nordic race ε =Ibero-Insular race λ =Lapponoid race χ =Armenoid race

Mixed Types ι =Northwestern mixed type γ =Subnordic mixed type ω =Alpine mixed type ρ =Littoral mixed type β =Pile Dwelling mixed type δ =Dinaric mixed type

Researchers in the decades following Blumenbach classified the Malay and American races as branches of the Mongolian, leaving only the Caucasian, Mongolian, and Ethiopian races. Further explication in the early and mid twentieth century, arrived at three primary races: Image File history File links Jan_Czekanowski_Square_of_Pure_and_Mixed_Races_2. ... Image File history File links Jan_Czekanowski_Square_of_Pure_and_Mixed_Races_2. ... Jan Czekanowski (1882 - 1965), Polish anthropologist, statistician and linguist He worked at the University of Lviv and University of Poznan. ...

• Negroid
• Caucasoid
• Mongoloid or Sinoid

with a small number of less widespread races. Skull of the classic Niggeroid phenotype, exhibiting a pronounced dolichocephalism and both maxillary and alveolar prognathisms Niggeroid is an obsolete term once used in physical anthropology to delineate everyone indigenous to sub-Saharan and West Africa and portions of North Africa. ... Typical Caucasoid skull Caucasoid is a racial classification usually used as part of a phenotypal system, also including other classifications such as Australoid, Mongoloid, Negroid, and sometimes others such as Capoid. ... Typical Mongoloid Skull A portrait of the Mongol ruler Genghis Khan; the Mongolians, for which the term Mongoloid was named after, are an example of the prototype Northern Mongoloid. ... A portrait of the Mongol ruler Genghis Khan Taiwanese aborigine dancer. ...

The most widely referenced 20th century racial classification, by American anthropologist Carleton S. Coon, divided humanity into five races: To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

This map shows the racial classification scheme of Carleton S. Coon [2].

Caucasoid race   Congoid race   Capoid race   Mongoloid race   Australoid race

Image File history File links Carleton_S._Coon_Racial_Definitions3. ... Image File history File links Carleton_S._Coon_Racial_Definitions3. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Typical Caucasoid skull Caucasoid is a racial classification usually used as part of a phenotypal system, also including other classifications such as Australoid, Mongoloid, Negroid, and sometimes others such as Capoid. ... Congoid was used instead of Negroid by controversial anthropologist Carleton Coon in some versions of his classification of humanity into five races, the other four being Mongoloid, Caucasoid, Australoid, and Capoid. ... Main article: Khoisan One of the five macro-racial groups often recognized by physical anthropologists (along with Negroids, Australoids, Caucasoids and Mongoloids). ... Typical Mongoloid Skull A portrait of the Mongol ruler Genghis Khan; the Mongolians, for which the term Mongoloid was named after, are an example of the prototype Northern Mongoloid. ... Australoid is a broad racial sub-classification of Australasian peoples having generally dark skin and hair which can be curly, straight, or kinky, defined by the anthropologist Carleton S. Coon. ...

Coon assigned even some populations on sub-Saharan Africa to a broadly defined Caucasoid race, leading to charges that peoples with recorded ancient civilizations were being defined out of the black race, in order to depict the remaining "Congoid" race as lacking in culture.

Coon and his work were widely accused, even at the time, of obsolete thinking or outright racism, but some of his terminology continues in use to a lesser degree even today, even though the "-oid" terms now have offensive connotations [3]. In addition to references in legitimate scientific discussion, Coon's macro-racial classification, as well as his detailed list of European "subraces", is popular with racist groups who agree with the existence of distinct racial types, and is widely reproduced on "white nationalist" websites. To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article may require cleanup. ... White nationalism is the attempt to create racial identity groups which advance the social and economic interests of White or Caucasian people. ...

Criticism of the biological significance of the notion of "race"

In Blumenbach's day, physical characteristics like skin color, cranial profile, etc., went hand in hand with declarations of group moral character, intellectual capacity, and other aptitudes. The "fairness" and relatively high brows of "Caucasians" were held to be apt physical expressions of a loftier mentality and a more generous spirit. The epicanthic folds around the eyes of "Mongolians" and their slightly sallow outer epidermal layer supposedly bespoke a crafty, literal-minded nature. The dark skin, relatively sloping craniums and other common traits among "Ethiopians" were taken as wholesale proof of a closer genetic proximity to the other great apes, even though the skin of chimpanzees and gorillas beneath the hair is whiter than the average "Caucasian" skin, that the thin lips characteristic of "Caucasians" are actually closer in form to the lips of lower primates, that "high foreheads" can be seen in orangutans and some monkey species, and that the straight and relatively profuse body hair of Europeans is considerably more "ape-like" than the sparse, tightly curled body hair of "Ethiopians". By Coon's day, group physical characteristics were, for the most part, unhitched from assessments of group character and aptitude, and, since then, those maintaining the mere reality of physical group traits are often suspected of carrying the old malign racism. A 19th century Phrenology chart Phrenology (from Greek: φρήν, phrēn, mind; and λόγος, logos, knowledge) is a theory which claims to be able to determine character, personality traits, and criminality on the basis of the shape of the head (reading bumps). Developed by German physician Franz Joseph Gall around 1800, and... An epicanthal fold, epicanthic fold or epicanthus is a skin fold of the upper eyelid (from the nose to the inner side of the eyebrow) covering the inner corner (medial canthus) of the eye. ... Genera Subfamily Ponginae Pongo - Orangutans Gigantopithecus (extinct) Sivapithecus (extinct) Subfamily Homininae Gorilla - Gorillas Pan - Chimpanzees Homo - Humans Paranthropus (extinct) Australopithecus (extinct) Sahelanthropus (extinct) Ardipithecus (extinct) Kenyanthropus (extinct) Pierolapithecus (extinct) (tentative) The Hominids (Hominidae) are a biological family which includes humans, extinct species of humanlike creatures and the other great apes... Type Species Simia troglodytes Blumenbach, 1775 Species Pan troglodytes Pan paniscus Chimpanzee, often shortened to chimp, is the common name for the two extant species in the genus Pan. ... Type Species Troglodytes gorilla Savage, 1847 distribution of Gorilla Species Gorilla gorilla Gorilla beringei The gorilla, the largest of the living primates, is a ground-dwelling herbivore that inhabits the forests of Africa. ...

Criticism of the new biological significance of race often accompanied the development of racial theories. In Society Must Be Defended (1978-79), Michel Foucault showed how, from a historical and political discourse of "race struggle", the notion of "race" was discussed in scientific terms in the 19th century by racist biologists and eugenicists. Psychoanalysis, he argues, was instrumental in opposing this dangerous form of essentialism, which would lead eventually to the Nazi "state racism". Michel Foucault (IPA pronunciation: ; English-speakers pronunciation varies) (October 15, 1926 – June 25, 1984) was a French philosopher. ... Philosophy of History is an area of philosophy concerning the eventual significance, if any, of human history, and speculation as to a possible teleological end to its development. ... 1. ... Eugenics is the self-direction of human evolution: Logo from the Second International Congress of Eugenics, 1921, depicting it as a tree which unites a variety of different fields. ... Psychoanalysis is a family of psychological theories and methods based on the pioneering work of Sigmund Freud. ... Essentialism is the belief and practice centered on a philosophical claim that for any specific kind of entity it is at least theoretically possible to specify a finite list of characteristics, all of which any entity must have to belong to the group defined. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... State racism is a concept used by French philosopher Michel Foucault to designate the reappropriation of the historical and political discourse of race struggle, In the late seventeenth centruy. ...

Many significant criticisms also came from the school of Franz Boas beginning in the 1920s. During the mid-1930s, with the rise of Nazi Germany and its prominent espousing of racist ideologies, there was an outpouring of popular works by scientists criticizing the use of race to justify the politics of "superiority" and "inferiority". An influential work in this regard was the publication of We Europeans: A Survey of "Racial" Problems by Julian Huxley and A. C. Haddon in 1935, which sought to show that population genetics allowed for only a highly limited definition of race at best. Another popular work during this period, "The Races of Mankind" by Ruth Benedict and Gene Weltfish, argued that though there were some racial differences, they were primarily superficial, and in any case did not justify political action. Claude Lévi-Strauss' Race and History (UNESCO, 1952) was another milestone in the critique of the biological "race" notion, arguing in favor of cultural relativism through the famous metaphor of cultures as different trains crossing each others in various directions and speed, thus each one seeming to progress to himself while others supposedly kept immobile. The question of whether "race" was at all a useful scientific concept has been in continuous debate since that time, becoming especially politicized during and after the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s. Franz Boas Franz Boas (July 9, 1858 – December 21, 1942[1]) was one of the pioneers of modern anthropology and is often called the Father of American Anthropology. Born in Germany, Boas worked for most of his life in North America. ... Nazi Germany, or the Third Reich, commonly refers to Germany in the years 1933–1945, when it was under the firm control of the totalitarian and fascist ideology of the Nazi Party, with the Führer Adolf Hitler as dictator. ... 1. ... Sir Julian Sorell Huxley, FRS (June 22, 1887 – February 14, 1975) was a English biologist, author, Humanist and internationalist, known for his popularisations of science in books and lectures. ... Alfred Cort Haddon (May 24, 1855-April 20, 1940) was an influential British anthropologist. ... 1935 (MCMXXXV) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will take you to calendar). ... Population genetics is the study of the distribution of and change in allele frequencies under the influence of the four evolutionary forces: natural selection, genetic drift, mutation, and migration. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Claude Lévi-Strauss Claude Lévi-Strauss (IPA pronunciation ); born November 28, 1908) is a Jewish-French anthropologist who developed structuralism as a method of understanding human society and culture. ... UNESCO logo UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) is a specialized agency of the United Nations established in 1945. ... A critic (derived from the ancient Greek word krites meaning a judge) is a person who offers a value judgement or an interpretation. ... Cultural relativism is the principle that an individual humans beliefs and activities make sense in terms of his or her own culture. ... Historically, the civil rights movement was a concentrated period of time around the world of approximately one generation (1954-1980) wherein there was much worldwide civil unrest and popular rebellion. ...

See also

• Ancestry-informative marker
• Claude Lévi-Strauss
• Craniometry
• Nordic theory
• Physical anthropology
• Race
• Racialism
• Scientific racism

An ancestry-informative marker (AIM) is a gene, generally of humans, which have several polymorphisms that exhibit substantially different frequencies between races. ... Claude Lévi-Strauss Claude Lévi-Strauss (IPA pronunciation ); born November 28, 1908) is a Jewish-French anthropologist who developed structuralism as a method of understanding human society and culture. ... This article does not cite its references or sources. ... A Nazi illustration of the Nordic master race. ... Physical anthropology, often called biological anthropology, studies the mechanisms of biological evolution, genetic inheritance, human adaptability and variation, primatology, primate morphology, and the fossil record of human evolution. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Racialism is an emphasis on race or racial considerations[1]. Sometimes racialism refers merely to the somewhat less controversial belief in the existence and significance of racial categories. ... Scientific racism is racist propaganda disguised as science. ...

References

• Augstein, Hannah Franziska, ed. Race: The Origins of an Idea, 1760-1850. Bristol, England: Thoemmes Press, 1996. ISBN 1-85506-454-5
• Dain, Bruce R. A Hideous Monster of the Mind: American Race Theory in the Early Republic. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-674-00946-0
• Banton, Michael P. Racial Theories. 2nd ed. Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998. ISBN 0-521-33456-X
• Foucault, Michel. Society Must Be Defended: Lectures at the Collège De France, 1975-76. Trans. David Macey. Eds. Mauro Bertani and Alessandro Fontana. City: Picador, 2003. ISBN 0-312-20318-7
• Gossett, Thomas F.. Race: The History of an Idea in America. 1963. Ed. and with a foreword by Shelley Fisher Fishkin and Arnold Rampersad. Oxford, England: Oxford UP, 1997. ISBN 0-19-509778-5
• Gould, Stephen Jay. The Mismeasure of Man. Rev. and expand ed. New York: Norton, 1996. ISBN 0-393-03972-2
• Hannaford, Ivan. Race: The History of an Idea in the West. Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1996. ISBN 0-8018-5222-6
• Shipman, Pat. The Evolution of Racism: Human Differences and the Use and Abuse of Science. 1994. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-674-00862-6

External links

Dictionary definitions

• Definition of "race" in the 1913 Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary provided by the ARTFL Project, University of Chicago.
• Definition of "race" in the Wiktionary

Web sites devoted to the history of "race"

• History of Race in Science is a web site devoted to providing information for scholars and students of the history of "race" in science, medicine, and technology. This site is maintained at the Department of History at the University of Toronto and includes excellent subject bibliographies as well as an annotated link list.
• PBS website for the three-part television documentary "Race-The Power of an Illusion" with background reading and teaching resources.