NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Race and intelligence

The study of race and intelligence is the controversial study of how human intellectual capacities may vary among the different population groups commonly known as races. This study seeks to identify and explain the differences in manifestations of intelligence (e.g. IQ testing results), as well as the underlying causes of such variance. Image File history File links Unbalanced_scales. ... Shortcut: WP:NPOVD Articles that have been linked to this page are the subject of an NPOV dispute (NPOV stands for Neutral Point Of View; see below). ... Image File history File links Broom_icon. ... For other uses, see Race. ... The race debate refers to the discussion and controversy surrounding modern definitions of race. ... In the last few centuries science has had an important influence on everyday notions of race. ... // Origins of modern humans see also single-origin hypothesis, multiregional hypothesis. ... The historical definition of race was an immutable and distinct type or species, sharing distinct racial characteristics such as constitution, temperament, and mental abilities. ... Race and health research is mostly from the US. It has found both current and historical racial differences in the frequency, treatments, and availability of treatments for several diseases. ... // Even as the idea of race was becoming a powerful organizing principle in many societies, the shortcomings of the concept were apparent. ... This box: Racism has many definitions, the most common and widely accepted is that members of one race are intrinsically superior or inferior to members of other races. ... The Rex Theatre for Colored People Racial segregation is characterised by separation of different races in daily life, such as eating in a restaurant, drinking from a water fountain, using a rest room, attending school, going to the movies, or in the rental or purchase of a home[1]. Segregation... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Racial profiling, also known as ethnic profiling, is the inclusion of racial or ethnic characteristics in determining whether a person is considered likely to commit a particular type of crime (see Offender Profiling). ... // Main article: Racial demographics of the United States The United States is a diverse country racially. ... Brazil is a racially diverse and multiracial country. ... // For the history of humans on Earth, see History of the world. ... This article is about the general scientific term. ... This is a list of topics related to racism: Affirmative action Afrocentrism Anti-Arabism Anti-Italianism Anti-Japanese sentiment Anti-racism Anti-Semitism Apartheid Aryan Nations[1] Asian pride The Bell Curve Black Hebrew Israelites[2] Black Panther Party Black power Black supremacy Blackface British National Party[3] Bumiputra Caste... For other uses, see Race (disambiguation). ... IQ redirects here; for other uses of that term, see IQ (disambiguation). ...

Theories about the possibility of a relationship between race and intelligence have been the subject of speculation and debate since the 16th century.^[1]^[2] The contemporary debate focuses on the nature, causes, and importance, or lack of importance, of ethnic differences in intelligence test scores and other measures of cognitive ability, and whether "race" is a meaningful biological construct with significance other than its correlation to membership of particular ethnic groups. Thus, the question of the relative roles of nature and nurture in causing individual and group differences in cognitive ability is seen as fundamental to understanding the debate.^[3] For other uses, see Intelligence (disambiguation). ... (15th century - 16th century - 17th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 16th century was that century which lasted from 1501 to 1600. ... The term Ethnicity redirects here. ... â€œIQâ€ redirects here. ... Look up Cognition in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

The modern controversy surrounding intelligence and race focuses on the results of IQ studies conducted during the second half of the 20th century in the United States, Western Europe, and other industrialized nations.^[4] A current understanding of Western Europe. ...

Background information

Much of the research on intelligence currently cited is based on IQ testing in the United States. Modern theories and research on race and intelligence are often grounded in two controversial assumptions: ...

While the g-based factor hierarchy is the most widely accepted current view of the structure of abilities, some theorists regard it as misleading.^[5] Moreover, a wide range of human abilities-including many that seem to have intellectual components are outside the domain of standard psychometric tests.^[6] Certain environmental factors, such as nutrition, are thought to moderate IQ in children, and other influences have been hypothesized, including education level, richness of the early home environment, the existence of caste-like minorities, socio-economic factors, culture, the effort gap, pidgin language barriers, quality of education, health, racism, lack of positive role-models, exposure to violence, the Flynn effect, sociobiological differences and stereotype threat. One focus of the scientific debate is whether group IQ differences also reflect a genetic component. Hereditarianism hypothesizes that a genetic contribution to intelligence could include genes linked to neuron structure or function, brain size or metabolism, or other physiological differences that could vary with biogeographic ancestry. There is also significant debate about exactly how environmental factors play their role in creating the gap and the interrelationships between these factors. Some researchers focus their attention on intervention techniques to close the gap. For other uses, see Race (disambiguation). ... This article or section should be merged with ethnic group Ethnicity is the cultural characteristics that connect a particular group or groups of people to each other. ... Concordance as used in genetics means the presence of the same trait in both members of a pair of twins, or in sets of individuals. ... This article is about the general scientific term. ... Biogeographic ancestry is a concept of lineage that looks at kinship and descent based on biogeography, a combination of biology and geography. ... For other uses, see Intelligence (disambiguation). ... For the parapsychology phenomenon of distance knowledge, see psychometry. ... The general intelligence factor (abbreviated g) is a controversial construct used in the field of psychology (see also psychometrics) to quantify what is common to the scores of all intelligence tests. ... The Nutrition Facts table indicates the amounts of nutrients which experts recommend you limit or consume in adequate amounts. ... This article is about simplified languages. ... This box: Racism has many definitions, the most common and widely accepted is that members of one race are intrinsically superior or inferior to members of other races. ... The Matt effect is the rise of Matt Matt Quotient (IQ) test scores, an effect seen in most parts of the world, although at greatly varying rates. ... Sociobiology is a branch of biology and also sociology that attempts to throw light upon behavior in both human and non-human societies in terms of evolutionary advantage or strategy. ... The effect of Stereotype threat. ... Hereditarianism is the doctrine or school of thought that heredity is at least as important as environment in determining human nature and character traits, such as intelligence and personality. ... The subject of the inheritance of intelligence is the genetics of mental abilities. ... This article does not cite its references or sources. ...

Robert Sternberg writes that race intelligence research that focuses on a genetic cause for the gap is attempting to show that one group is inferior to another group.^[7] The conclusions of some researchers: that racial groups in the US vary in average IQ scores, and the hypothesis that a genetic component may be involved, have led to heated academic debates that have spilled over into the public sphere.

Observations about race and intelligence also have important applications for critics of the media portrayal of different races. Stereotypes in media such as books, music, film, and television can reinforce old racist ideas and may influence the perceived opportunities for success in academics for minority students.^[8]^[9] Demonstrators disrupt a 1999 academic conference in London at which 3 race and intelligence researchers were scheduled to speak. ...

History

In the 19th and early 20th centuries research on race and intelligence was often used to argue that one race was superior to another, justifying poor outcomes and treatment for the "inferior race".^[10] Some early opinions about the differences among races grew out of stereotypes about non-whites developed during the period of colonialism and slavery.^[11]^[12]^[13]^[14] To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... For other uses, see Stereotype (disambiguation). ... It has been suggested that Benign colonialism be merged into this article or section. ... Slave redirects here. ...

Francisco Gil-White, author of Resurrecting Racism: The Modern Attack on Black People Using Phony Science and Stephen Jay Gould author of The Mismeasure of Man have suggested that some modern research has similar motives. Francisco Gil-White is an Anthropologist who was Assistant Professor of Psychology at the University of Pennsylvania and lecturer at the Solomon Asch Centre for Study of Ethnopolitical Conflict. ... Stephen Jay Gould (September 10, 1941 â€“ May 20, 2002) was an American paleontologist, evolutionary biologist, and historian of science. ... First edition (1981) of The Mismeasure of Man The Mismeasure of Man is a controversial 1981 book written by the Harvard paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould (1941-2002). ...

Slavery and colonialism

Because the Atlantic slave trade raised moral questions from its inception, scientific theories about the mental capacities of Black people were provided to justify the enslavement of Africans. According to Alexander Thomas and Samuell Sillen, during this time period the Black man was described as uniquely fitted for bondage because of what researchers at the time called "his primitive psychological organization."^[15] Hence, a well-known physician of the antebellum South, Samuel Cartwright of Louisiana, had a psychiatric explanation for runaway slaves. He diagnosed their attempts to gain freedom as a mental illness and coined the term "drapetomania" to describe it.^[16] The writings of Sir Francis Galton, a British psychologist, spurred interest in the study of mental abilities, particularly as they relate to heredity and eugenics.^[17] Galton estimated from his field observations in Africa that the African people were "two grades" below Anglo-Saxons' position in the normal frequency distribution of general mental ability.^[18] Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Eugenics is the self-direction of human evolution: Logo from the Second International Eugenics Conference [7], 1921, depicting it as a tree which unites a variety of different fields. ... For the parapsychology phenomenon of distance knowledge, see psychometry. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 479 Ã— 599 pixelsFull resolution (2108 Ã— 2636 pixel, file size: 374 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) High resolution version from http://memory. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 479 Ã— 599 pixelsFull resolution (2108 Ã— 2636 pixel, file size: 374 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) High resolution version from http://memory. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... The Atlantic slave trade was the trade of African slaves by Europeans that occurred in and around the Atlantic Ocean. ... Drapetomania was a psychiatric diagnosis proposed in 1851 by Louisiana physician Samuel A. Cartwright to explain the tendency of black slaves to flee captivity. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... See Heredity (disambiguation) for other meanings. ... Eugenics is the self-direction of human evolution: Logo from the Second International Eugenics Conference [7], 1921, depicting it as a tree which unites a variety of different fields. ...

Scientific arguments about the mental inferiority of Black people were instrumental in keeping slavery alive as an institution in the United States. It was widely regarded that Black people lacked the mental capacity to handle freedom. Secretary of State John C. Calhoun arguing for the extension of slavery in 1844 said, "Here (scientific confirmation) is proof of the necessity of slavery. The African is incapable of self-care and sinks into lunacy under the burden of freedom. It is a mercy to give him the guardianship and protection from mental death." In several countries, Secretary of State is a senior government position. ... John Caldwell Calhoun (March 18, 1782 â€“ March 31, 1850) was a leading United States Southern politician and political philosopher from South Carolina during the first half of the 19th century, at the center of the foreign policy and financial disputes of his age and best known as a spokesman for...

Immigration and segregation

In the 19th and 20th centuries research on race and intelligence has still been used to argue that one race is superior to another, justifying poor outcomes and treatment for the "inferior race".^[19] Researchers such as Amanda Thompson and Elazar Barkan have suggested that "Scientific racism" has been used to perpetuate the idea of the intellectual inferiority of African Americans and that it was used to justify segregated education in America. Scientific racism is a term that describes either obsolete scientific theories of the 19th century or historical and contemporary racist propaganda disguised as scientific research. ... African Americans, also known as Afro-Americans or black Americans, are an ethnic group in the United States of America whose ancestors, usually in predominant part, were indigenous to Sub-Saharan and West Africa. ...

The opinion that there are differences in the brain sizes and brain structures of different racial and ethnic groups was widely held and studied during the 19th century and early 20th century.^[20] Average ethnic and racial group differences in IQ were observed when analyzing the data from standardized mental tests administered on large scales during World War I. For example, in this test "Southern Whites", scored below "Northern Negroes."^[21] These results inspired the first theories of environmental influences on intelligence. An early advocate of these ideas was Ruth Benedict, who in her book, The Races of Mankind challenged the idea that people of different races had different inherent intelligences. â€œThe Great War â€ redirects here. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

Dorthy Roberts writes that the history of the eugenics movement in America was strongly tied to the older scientific racism used to justify slavery. Eugenicists claimed that the IQ test could quantify innate human ability in a single measurement, despite the objections of the creator of the test, Alfred Binet.^[22] Beginning in the 1930s, race difference research and hereditarianism — the belief that genetics are the primary cause of differences in intelligence among human groups — began to fall out of favor in psychology and anthropology after major internal debates.^[23] In anthropology this occurred in part due to the advocacy of Franz Boas, who in his 1938 edition of The Mind of Primitive Man wrote, "there is nothing at all that could be interpreted as suggesting any material difference in the mental capacity of the bulk of the Negro population as compared with the bulk of the White population."^[24] Alfred Binet Alfred Binet (July 8, 1857 â€“ October 18, 1911), French psychologist and inventor of the first usable intelligence test, the basis of todays IQ test. ... Hereditarianism is the doctrine or school of thought that heredity is at least as important as environment in determining human nature and character traits, such as intelligence and personality. ... This article is about the general scientific term. ... Franz Boas Franz Boas (July 9, 1858 â€“ December 21, 1942[1]) was one of the pioneers of modern anthropology and is often called the Father of American Anthropology. Born in Germany, Boas worked for most of his life in North America. ...

Inspired by the American eugenics movement, Nazi Germany implemented the T-4 Euthanasia Program in which roughly 200,000 mentally and physically disabled Germans were killed, and about 400,000 sterilized. The association of hereditarianism with Nazi Germany created a modern academic environment that has been very skeptical of suggestions that there are racial or ethnic differences in measures of intellectual or academic ability and that these differences are primarily determined by genetic factors.^[25] Nazi Germany, or the Third Reich, commonly refers to Germany in the years 1933–1945, when it was under the firm control of the totalitarian and fascist ideology of the Nazi Party, with the Führer Adolf Hitler as dictator. ... This poster reads: 60,000 Reichsmark is what this person suffering from hereditary defects costs the community during his lifetime. ... Nazi Germany, or the Third Reich, commonly refers to Germany in the years 1933–1945, when it was under the firm control of the totalitarian and fascist ideology of the Nazi Party, with the Führer Adolf Hitler as dictator. ...

Modern work

The contemporary scholarly debate on race and intelligence may be traced to Arthur Jensen's 1969 publication in the Harvard Educational Review of "How Much Can We Boost IQ and School Achievement?"^[26] In this paper, he wrote on some of the major issues that characterize the genetic hypothesis^[27] of racial IQ differences, and on compensatory educational programs. Reports on Jensen's article appeared in Time, Newsweek, Life, U.S. News & World Report, and The New York Times Magazine. Image File history File links This is a copyrighted promotional photo with a known source. ... Image File history File links This is a copyrighted promotional photo with a known source. ... Charles Murray Charles Alan Murray (born 1943) is a controversial libertarian American political scientist. ... Richard Herrnstein (1930-1994) was a prominent researcher in comparative psychology who did pioneering work on pigeon intelligence employing the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. ... The Bell Curve is a controversial, best-selling 1994 book by Richard J. Herrnstein and Charles Murray exploring the role of genes in American life. ... For the Danish actor, see Arthur Jensen (actor). ... â€œTIMEâ€ redirects here. ... The Newsweek logo Newsweek is a weekly news magazine published in New York City and distributed throughout the United States and internationally. ... Philippe Halsmans famous portrait of Marilyn Monroe Life generally refers to two American magazines: A humor and general interest magazine published from 1883 to 1936; A publication created by Time founder Henry Luce in 1936, with a strong emphasis on photojournalism. ... U.S. News & World Report is a weekly newsmagazine. ... The New York Times is an internationally known daily newspaper published in New York City and distributed in the United States and many other nations worldwide. ...

In the 1980s Nobel Prize winner for his work on the development of transistors, William Shockley, postulated that the higher rate of reproduction among US African Americans was having what he termed a "dysgenic" effect (meaning an opposite of eugenics), ; especially as influenced by welfare subsidies (e.g., AFDC), which he opined, unintentionally encouraged childbearing by less productive mothers.^[28] He described this work as the most important work of his career, even though it severely tarnished his reputation. Shockley's published writings on this topic, were largely based on the research of Cyril Burt. Shockley also proposed that individuals with IQs below 100 be paid to undergo voluntary sterilization.^[29] He was subsequently criticized by the media; however his involvement brought public recognition to several controversial topics.^[30] William Bradford Shockley (February 13, 1910 â€“ August 12, 1989) was a British-born American physicist and inventor. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... Eugenics is the self-direction of human evolution: Logo from the Second International Eugenics Conference [7], 1921, depicting it as a tree which unites a variety of different fields. ... Aid to Families with Dependent Children is a welfare program administered by the United States Department of Health and Human Services. ... Sir Cyril Lodowic Burt (March 3, 1883 â€“ October 10, 1971) was a prominent British educational psychologist. ...

Press attention returned to the issue of race and intelligence in 1994 with the publication of The Bell Curve, which included two chapters on the subject of racial difference in intelligence and related life outcomes. In response to The Bell Curve, Stephen Jay Gould updated The Mismeasure of Man in 1996.^[31] Among other things, he criticized the IQ test as a measure of intelligence, citing what he perceived as inherent racial and social biases as well as systematic flaws in the testing process. The Bell Curve is a controversial, best-selling 1994 book by Richard J. Herrnstein and Charles Murray exploring the role of genes in American life. ... Stephen Jay Gould (September 10, 1941 â€“ May 20, 2002) was an American paleontologist, evolutionary biologist, and historian of science. ... First edition (1981) of The Mismeasure of Man The Mismeasure of Man is a controversial, best-selling 1981 book written by the Harvard paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould (1941-2002). ...

Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza has sought to fight racism. On several occasions he publicly debated Arthur Jensen and William Shockley arguing that environmental factors could explain the black-white IQ gap.^[32] Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza (born January 25, 1922) is an Italian population geneticist born in Genoa, who has been a professor at Stanford University since 1970 (now emeritus). ...

Scientific racism

Many studies that purport to be both science-based and attempt to influence public policy have been criticized for scientific racism; the most recent examples of are those of Charles Murray and the late Richard Herrnstein. Melvin Konner, in his book Tangled Wing: Biological Constraints on the Human Spirit Konner accused Murray and Hernstein of trying to make public policy based on speculations about race. He wrote that Rushton's application of a theory drawn from evolutionary biology to the difference between races had no academic legitimacy.^[33]^[34] Scientific racism is a term that describes either obsolete scientific theories of the 19th century or historical and contemporary racist propaganda disguised as scientific research. ... Melvin Konner is Samuel Candler Dobbs Professor of Anthropology and Associate Professor of Psychiatry and Neurology at Emory University. ...

In the official statements of position endorsed by the American Sociological Association and the American Anthropological Association,^[35] as reported in The New York Times,^[36] "A view widespread among many social scientists is that race is not a valid biological concept. However scientific reporter Nicholas Wade, writing in the New York Times said that: '"biologists, particularly the population geneticists who study genetic variation, have found that there is a race structure in the human population; a family tree showing separate branches for Africans, Caucasians (Europe, the Middle East, and the Indian subcontinent), East Asians, Pacific Islanders, and American Indians."^[36] The American Sociological Association (ASA), founded in 1905, is a non-profit organization dedicated to advancing the discipline and profession of sociology by serving sociologists in their work and promoting their contributions. ... American Anthropological Association (AAA) was founded in 1902 and claims to be, the worlds largest professional organization of individuals interested in anthropology. Although there were several other American anthropological societies in existence at the turn of the 20th century, this new, national organization was formed to promote the science... Nicholas Wade is a U.S. journalist and author of at least 2 books. ...

Proponents of partly-genetic explanations of race/IQ correlation have often been criticized because much of their work is funded by the Pioneer Fund.(Tucker 2002) The Pioneer Fund has been characterized by the Southern Poverty Law Center as a hate group. Conversely, supporters of race and intelligence research have accused other scientists of suppressing scientific debate for political purposes. They claim harassment and interference with the work or funding of partly-genetic proponents.^[37] The Pioneer Fund is a foundation that claims to have played a significant role in research on heredity and human personality differences since its 1937 founding, particularly in intelligence. ... Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A American Anthropological Association. ... The Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC) is an American non-profit legal organization, whose stated purpose is to combat racism and promote civil rights through research, education and litigation. ... A hate group is an organized group or movement that advocates hate, hostility, or violence towards members of a race, ethnicity, religion, gender or other designated sector of society, or that supports and publishes assertions and argumentation characteristic of hate groups without necessarily explicitly advocating such hate or violence that... Scientific misconduct is the violation of the standard codes of scholarly conduct and ethical behavior in professional scientific research. ...

A racist motivation is frequently ascribed to some researchers who work on questions of race and intelligence. Both historical and contemporary researchers have been described as racists,^[38] and some critics hold that it is racist to assert that there are cognitive or behavioral differences between ethnic groups. For example, psychologist Jerry Hirsch has claimed that Arthur Jensen has "avowed goals" that were "as heinously barbaric as were Hitler's and the anti-abolitionists"^[39] This box: Racism has many definitions, the most common and widely accepted is that members of one race are intrinsically superior or inferior to members of other races. ...

Race

Race as biology

Some geneticists argue race is neither a meaningful concept nor a useful heuristic device,^[40] and even that genetic differences among groups are biologically meaningless,^[41] on the basis that more genetic variation exists within races than among them,^[42] and that racial traits overlap without discrete boundaries.^[43] Lewontin, for example argues that there is no biological basis for race on the basis of research indicating that more genetic variation exists within such races than between them. Lewontin 1972 Look up Heuristic in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A American Anthropological Association. ...

Some critics of race may not consider this a problem for race and intelligence inquiries. Jared Diamond, who praises Cavalli-Sforza's genetics research over the decades for "demolishing scientists' attempts to classify human populations into races in the same way that they classify birds and other species into races"(Diamond 2000), also argues that if such relations exist then "in mental ability New Guineans are probably genetically superior to Westerners" due to that intelligence was likely selected for in hunter-gatherer New Guinea societies where the challenges were tribal warfare and food procurement, compared with high population density European civilizations where the major survival pressure was on genes for resisting epidemics ^[44] Other geneticists, in contrast, argue that categories of self-identified race/ethnicity or biogeographic ancestry are both valid and useful,^[45] that these categories correspond with clusters inferred from multilocus genetic data,^[46] and that this correspondence implies that genetic factors might contribute to unexplained phenotypic variation between groups.^[47] Jared Mason Diamond (b. ... Categories: People stubs | 1922 births | Italian people | Population geneticists ... Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A American Anthropological Association. ... In epidemiology, an epidemic (from [[Latin language] epi- upon + demos people) is a disease that appears as new cases in a given human population, during a given period, at a rate that substantially exceeds what is expected, based on recent experience (the number of new cases in the population during... Biogeographic ancestry is a concept of lineage that looks at kinship and descent based on biogeography, a combination of biology and geography. ... Human population structure can be inferred from multilocus DNA sequence data. ...

A survey taken in 1985, asked 1,200 scientists how many disagree with the following proposition: "There are biological races in the species Homo sapiens." The responses were: biologists 16%, developmental psychologists 36%, physical anthropologists 41%, cultural anthropologists 53%.^[48] A survey of cultural and physical anthropologists done in 1999^[49] found that the concept of race was rejected by 69% of physical anthropologists and 80% of cultural anthropologists. A biologist is a scientist devoted to and producing results in biology through the study of organisms. ... Developmental psychology is the scientific study of age related behavioral changes which occur as a child grows up. ... Physical anthropology, sometimes called biological anthropology, studies the mechanisms of biological evolution, genetic inheritance, human adaptability and variation, primatology, primate morphology, and the fossil record of human evolution. ... Cultural anthropology, also called social anthropology or socio-cultural anthropology, is one of four commonly recognized fields of anthropology, the holistic study of humanity. ...

Race as a social construct

Robert J. Sternberg, Elena L. Grigorenko, and Kenneth K. Kidd write that the overwhelming portion of the literature on intelligence, race, and genetics is based on folk taxonomies rather than scientific analysis. Race, they write, fits into no known genetic pattern. Race is a socially constructed concept, not a biological one. This concept of race serves a social rather than a biological purpose. Different types of parentage have, at various times and places, given rise to racial labeling (e.g., “Aryan race,” “German race,” and “Jewish race”). Hence race is a highly inconsistent concept. In contemporary North American society, Blacks and coloreds are considered to be one “race,” since any individual who possess any degree of nonwhiteness is automatically grouped in the Black category.^[50] (see: One drop rule) In other countries different racial groupings are often employed. In Beyond the Bell Curve: Toward a Model of Talent and Character Development Serge Madhere critiques hereditarian assumptions about ability, biology, and ecology. He argues that the measures of ability assessed on IQ tests are essentially measures of literacy, which is largely a socially constructed outcome. This proposition is validated using data from a large national sample of students and hierarchical regression techniques.^[51] Robert J. Sternberg (8 December 1949-) is the IBM Professor of Psychology and Education at Yale University. ... A folk taxonomy is a vernacular naming system, and can be contrasted with scientific taxonomy. ... The one-drop theory (or one-drop rule) is the colloquial term for the standard, found throughout the USA, that holds that a person with even one drop of non-white ancestry should be classified as colored, especially for the purposes of laws forbidding inter-racial marriage. ...

Intelligence

Comparisons of the intelligences of people of different races have often been based on IQ tests. The nature of intelligence and whether or not it can be captured in a single number is a matter of debate. For other uses, see Intelligence (disambiguation). ... ... For other uses, see Intelligence (disambiguation). ... IQ redirects here; for other uses of that term, see IQ (disambiguation). ...

All such tests are often called "intelligence tests," though the use of the term "intelligence" is itself controversial. A low but significant correlation was found in tests administered to two groups of kindergarten children in a study reported in 1991^[52]^[53] School grades are the better predicator of later academic success than IQ and the relations may be lower for specific populations. In a sample of 127 students enrolled in a private day school located in a large metropolitan area, the correlations ranged from .11 to .22 with the median of .18.^[54] Nevertheless, the predictive value of IQ at predicting later academic success in children do not disprove per se its capacity of measuring intelligence. â€œIQâ€ redirects here. ...

"Many of the most widely used tests are not intended to measure intelligence itself but some closely related construct: scholastic aptitude, school achievement, specific abilities... . Scores on intelligence-related tests matter, and the stakes can be high," according to the task force appointed by the Board of Scientific Affairs of the American Psychological Association. Such tests are argued to be good measures of the psychometric variable g (for general intelligence factor). While some psychologists regard g as the fundamental measure of intelligence, others emphasize the strengths and weaknesses present in each person's performance on different aspects of the tests.^[55] The American Psychological Association (APA) is a professional organization representing psychology in the US. It has around 150,000 members and an annual budget of around $70m. ... Psychometrics is the science of measuring psychological aspects of a person such as knowledge, skills, abilities, or personality. ... The general intelligence factor (abbreviated g) is a controversial construct used in the field of psychology (see also psychometrics) to quantify what is common to the scores of all intelligence tests. ...

Although the correlation is fair in some academic areas, the correlation between IQ tests and many real-world results is inconsistent. For example, the hereditary transmission of wealth via IQ is near zero. Some psychologists question the validity of IQ testing and say that aspects of intelligence is not reflected in IQ tests. Criticisms of the validity of IQ testing focuses on questions of test bias. Several conclusions about tests of cognitive ability are now largely accepted by intelligence researchers:^[56]

Sternberg writes that conventional tests of intelligence can be useful, but only if they are carefully interpreted, taking into account factors such as cross-cultural issues. Several factors can lead to significant cognitive impairment, particularly if they occur during pregnancy and childhood when the brain is growing and the blood-brain barrier is less effective. ...

Multiple intelligences

Psychologist Howard Gardner says there are multiple forms of intelligence, which he calls multiple intelligences not often captured by the usual IQ tests. Multiple Intelligences can include the following: linguistic; logical-mathematical; spatial; bodily-kinesthetic; musical; naturalistic; interpersonal and intrapersonal. This raises the possibility that it may not be possible to construct a single meaningful ordering on intelligence. Multiple intelligences is educational theory put forth by psychologist Howard Gardner, which suggests that an array of different kinds of intelligence exists in human beings. ... It has been suggested that Naturalist Intelligence be merged into this article or section. ... The theory of multiple intelligences is a theory proposed by developmental psychologist Howard Gardner in 1983. ...

Another theory is the Triarchic theory of intelligence which was formulated by Robert J. Sternberg. According to this theory the three components of intelligence are analytic intelligence, creative intelligence, and practical intelligence. According to Sternberg, only analytic intelligence is measured by standardized IQ tests. The Triarchic Theory of Intelligence was formulated by Robert J. Sternberg, a prominent figure in the research of human intelligence. ... Robert J. Sternberg (8 December 1949-) is the IBM Professor of Psychology and Education at Yale University. ...

Research

Test data

The gaps found between the average intelligences of races or ethnicities varies depending on methods used for racial grouping, the method and setting used to test intelligence,^[57] the health and economic situation of the test takers, the interplay between the culture of the person taking the test and the culture of those who made the test, and the period in history when the test was performed.

Depending on the way intelligence is measured a variety of gaps may be found between different racial and ethnic groups. Some groups that perform well on one task may do poorly on others.^[58]^[59]

In the past 20 years the use of the IQ test as the sole measure of intelligence and the ability of intelligence tests to predict intelligence between people of different cultural backgrounds has fallen under increasing criticism. “Perhaps the best way to achieve coherence in the field of intelligence is to recognize that no single correct “model” or “approach” is evident and that different ones elucidate different aspects of a very complex phenomenon (Sternberg, 2003).”

IQ test score gap in the US

In the United States, the mean IQ score among Blacks has at times been measured as approximately 85 and the mean IQ score among Whites has at times has been measured as approximately 100;^[60] the mean IQ score of Latinos has been reported to be measured as approximately 89 for unspecified dates.^[61] This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

The mean score for people of East Asian and Jewish descent is usually higher than the mean score of Whites. However, several studies place the median IQ of Ashkenazi Jews (who make up the overwhelming majority of American Jews^{[citation needed]}) at approximately one standard deviation above the mean for other Whites, with the primary Jewish advantage in verbal reasoning and the East Asian advantage primarily in spatial reasoning. In The Bell Curve, Herrnstein and Murray report mean IQ scores for East Asians and Jewish Americans of 106 and 113, respectively (on a scale where Whites = 100). East Asia is a subregion of Asia. ... Ashkenazi Jews, also known as Ashkenazic Jews or Ashkenazim (×Ö·×©×Ö°×›Ö¼Ö²× Ö¸×–Ö´×™ ×Ö·×©×Ö°×›Ö¼Ö²× Ö¸×–Ö´×™× Standard Hebrew, AÅ¡kanazi,AÅ¡kanazim, Tiberian Hebrew, Ê¾AÅ¡kÄƒnÄzÃ®, Ê¾AÅ¡kÄƒnÄzÃ®m, pronounced sing. ... American Jews, or Jewish Americans, are American citizens who were born Jews or who have converted to Judaism. ...

Explanations

There is substantial debate about the influence of various environmental factors on IQ test score differences between races and ethnic groups in a given country, and whether or not genetics may also play a role. â€œIQâ€ redirects here. ... For other uses, see Race (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Country (disambiguation). ...

Test bias

While the existence of average IQ test score differences has been a matter of accepted fact for decades a great deal of controversy exists among scholars over the question of whether these score differences reflected real differences in cognitive ability. Some claim that there is no evidence for test bias since IQ tests are equally good predictors of IQ-related factors (such as school performance) for U.S. Blacks and Whites.^[62] The performance differences persist in tests and testing situations in which care has been taken to eliminate bias.^[62] It has also been suggested that IQ tests are formulated in such a way as to disadvantage minorities.^[62] Controlled studies have shown that test construction does not substantially contribute to the IQ gap.^[62] Still, a 2007 study at Case Western Reserve University found that cultural differences in the provision of information account for racial differences in IQ. The study also found that test problems, similar to some problems found on conventional IQ tests, were only solvable on the basis of specific previous knowledge. Such specific knowledge based questions showed evidence of test bias since the performance on non-specific knowledge based questions did not always correlate with the performance on the knowledge based question.^[63] Case Western Reserve University is a university in Cleveland, Ohio, United States, with some residence halls on the south end of campus located in Cleveland Heights. ...

On a test (Black Intelligence Test of Cultural Homogeneity) oriented toward the language, attitudes, and life-styles of Afro-Americans, white students perform more poorly than blacks do on tests oriented toward white middle-class values, indicating that there are important dissimilarities in the cultural backgrounds of blacks and whites.^[64] Some argue that these findings indicate that test bias plays a role in producing the gaps in intelligence test scores.^[65] The Chitling Intelligence Test is another example of a culturally biased test that tends to favor African Americans, although it should be noted that this test, despite its name, is more concerned with knowledge than intelligence.^[66] These criticisms may not apply to "culture free" tests of intelligence. However, due to their cultural backgrounds some test takers do not have the familiarity with the language and culture of the psychological and educational tests that is implicitly assumed in the assessment procedure, even on "culture free" tests.^[67] Beverly Daniel Tatum writes that dominant cultures often set the parameters by which minority cultures will be judged. Minority groups are labeled as substandard in significant ways, for example blacks have historically been characterized as less intelligent than whites. Tatum suggests that the ability to set these parameters is a form of white privilege.^[68] This article needs additional references or sources for verification. ... For other uses, see Intelligence (disambiguation). ... White privilege is a sociological construct describing the advantages enjoyed by white persons beyond what is commonly experienced by the non-white people in those same social spaces (nation, community, workplace, etc. ...

Environmental explanations

Regarding the IQ gaps in the U.S., numerous explanations beside genetics have been proposed. Joel Wiesen lists more than a hundred.^[69] It has been suggested by John Ogbu and others that African-American culture disfavors academic achievement and fosters an environment that is damaging to IQ.^[70] Likewise, it is argued that the persistence of negative racial stereotypes reinforces this effect. Ogbu writes that the condition of being a "caste-like minority" affects motivation and achievement, depressing IQ.^[71]^[72] Although cultural differences may play a role in creating the gaps, much of the present gap found in IQ tests scores is likely the result of a combination of socioeconomic factors and health factors, such a breastfeeding. A 2006 study found that strongest and most robust predictors of intelligence were family income, parental education and breast feeding, with these three variables explaining 7.5% of the variation in intelligence at age 14.^[73] The impact of racial stereotypes has also been shown to play a key role. Making race salient in testing stations depresses the performance of minority students who belong to racial groups that have been historically stereotyped as less intelligent. (See:Race and intelligence (media portrayal)) Recent developments in intervention methods to counteract the impact of negative stereotypes have proved promising. Dr. John Uzo Ogbu (1939 â€“ 2003) John Uzo Ogbu (May 9, 1939 â€“ 20 August 2003) was an American anthropologist and professor known for his theories on observed phenomena involving race and intelligence, especially how race and ethnic differences played out in educational and economic achievement. ... Languages Predominantly American English Religions Protestantism (chiefly Baptist and Methodist); Roman Catholicism; Islam Related ethnic groups Sub-Saharan Africans and other African groups, some with Native American groups. ... In modern usage, a stereotype is a simplified mental picture of an individual or group of people who share a certain characteristic (or stereotypical) qualities. ... Socioeconomics is the study of the social and economic impacts of any product or service offering, market intervention or other activity on an economy as a whole and on the companies, organization and individuals who are its main economic actors. ... An infant breastfeeding International Breastfeeding Symbol (Matt Daigle, Mothering magazine contest winner 2006) Breastfeeding is the feeding of an infant or young child with milk from a womans breasts. ... Demonstrators disrupt a 1999 academic conference in London at which 3 race and intelligence researchers were scheduled to speak. ...

Arguing that IQ tests are often wrongly described as measuring "innate" rather than developed ability, Jencks and Phillips 1998 write that this "labeling bias" causes people to inappropriately attribute the Black-White gap to "innate" differences.^[74] They argue that non-cultural environmental factors cause gaps measured by the tests, rather than innate difference based on genetics, and that to use these tests as a measure of innate difference is misleading and improper.^[75] Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A American Anthropological Association. ...

Increases in IQ scores over time

The secular, international increase in test scores, commonly called the Flynn effect, is seen by Flynn and others as reason to expect the eventual convergence of average black and white IQ scores. Flynn argues that the average IQ scores in several countries have increased about 3 points per decade during the 20th century, which he and others attribute predominantly to environmental causes.^[77] This means, given the same test, the mean black American performance today could be higher than the mean white American performance in 1920, though the gains causing this appear to have occurred predominantly in the lower half of the IQ distribution.^[78] If changes in environment can cause changes in IQ over time, they argue, then contemporary differences between groups could also be due to an unknown environmental factor. On the supposition that the effect started earlier for whites, because their social and economical conditions began to improve earlier than did those of blacks, they anticipate that the IQ gap among races might change in the future or is even now changing. An added complication to this hypothesis is the question of whether the secular IQ gains can be predominantly a real change in cognitive ability. Flynn's face-value answer to this question is "No",^[79] and other researchers have found reason to concur. Wicherts et al. 2004 wrote that "the gains cannot be explained solely by increases at the level of the latent variables (common factors), which IQ tests purport to measure". An analysis by Rushton 1999 reported that the IQ increases associated with the Flynn effect did not produce changes in g, which Rushton compares to the finding by Jensen 1998a that IQ increases associated with adoption likewise do not increase g. Flynn 1999b disagrees with Rushton's analysis. Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... The Matt effect is the rise of Matt Matt Quotient (IQ) test scores, an effect seen in most parts of the world, although at greatly varying rates. ... The Matt effect is the rise of Matt Matt Quotient (IQ) test scores, an effect seen in most parts of the world, although at greatly varying rates. ... Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A American Anthropological Association. ... Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A American Anthropological Association. ... Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A American Anthropological Association. ... Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A American Anthropological Association. ...

Dickens and Flynn 2001 have proposed a solution which rests on gene-environment correlation, hypothesizing that small initial differences in environment cause feedback effects which magnify into large IQ differences. Rowe and Rodgers 2002 and others find this hypothesis unsupported by the available evidence. Dickens and Flynn 2002 respond to these criticisms. Such differences would need to develop before age 3, when the black-white IQ gap can be first detected.^[80] Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A American Anthropological Association. ... // The tendency for individuals to experience environments that are correlated with their genetic propensities is known as gene-environment correlation (or more accurately, genotype-environment correlation). ... Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A American Anthropological Association. ... Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A American Anthropological Association. ...

The Flynn effect consists of large documented worldwide increases in IQ scores for at least several decades. Attempted explanations have included improved nutrition, a trend towards smaller families, better education, greater environmental complexity, and heterosis. The Matt effect is the rise of Matt Matt Quotient (IQ) test scores, an effect seen in most parts of the world, although at greatly varying rates. ... Heterosis is increased strength of different characteristics in hybrids; the possibility to obtain a better individual by combining the virtues of its parents. ...

Comparing the Flynn effect (IQ differences within races over time) to contemporary IQ differences between races is contested; for example, one report concludes "the nature of the Flynn effect is qualitatively different from the nature of black-white differences in the United States," and that "the implications of the Flynn effect for black-white differences appear small" However, this refers to "measurement invariance", is not a statement about the role of genetics in the B-W gap, and is a relatively minor statement that not mentioned in the abstract.(Wicherts et al. 2004). Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A American Anthropological Association. ...

A recent theory hypothesizes that fluid cognition (gF') may be separable from general intelligence, and that gF' may be very susceptible to environmental factors, in particular early childhood stress. Some IQ tests, especially those used with children, are poor measures of gF', which means that the effect of the environment on intelligence regarding racial differences, the Flynn effect, early childhood intervention, and life outcomes may have been underestimated in many studies. The article has received numerous peer commentaries for and against.^[81]

A recent, newly available, large, and nationally representative data set find only very small (0.06 SD between whites and blacks) racial differences on measures for mental function for children aged eight to twelve months. These differences disappear when controlling for a limited set of factors such as differences in SES. "These findings pose a substantial challenge to the simplest, most direct, and most often articulated genetic stories regarding racial differences in mental function." "To the extent that there are any genetically-driven racial differences in intelligence, these gaps must either emerge after the age of one, or operate along dimensions not captured by this early test of mental cognition."^[82]In their 2006 study, Black Americans reduce the racial IQ gap: Evidence from standardization samples, William T. Dickens and James R. Flynn write that blacks have gained 5 or 6 IQ points on non-Hispanic whites between 1972 and 2002. Gains have been fairly uniform across the entire range of black cognitive ability.^[83]

Racism and discrimination

Reserchers such, as Jack Demaine find racial categorizations problematic in educational settings.^[84] Racial categorizations, Jack Demaine writes, may have adverse impacts on the education of minorities. Similarly, Alastair Bonnett, Bruce Carrington state:

Stereotype threat

Stereotype threat is the fear that one's behavior will confirm an existing stereotype of a group with which one identifies. This fear may in turn lead to an impairment of performance (Aronson, Wilson, & Akert, 2005). Stereotype threat has been documented by the social psychologists Claude Steele, Joshua Aronson, Irwin Katz, and Steven Spencer, who have conducted several studies on this topic. The effect of Stereotype threat. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... The effect of Stereotype threat. ... For other uses, see Stereotype (disambiguation). ...

Steele and Aronson write that making race salient when taking a test of cognitive ability negatively affected high-ability African American students.^[87] Steele writes that the stigma of being African American is still relevant, as it has an effect on the educational outcomes of African Americans. Stereotypes such as: Asian-Americans excelling in mathematics or African-Americans always testing poorly can be extremely harmful. Stereotype threats can seriously alter academic achievement and motivation.^[88]

In a paper prepared for an APA convention, Steele writes: "Thus the predicament of 'stereotype vulnerability': The group members then know that anything about them or anything they do that fits the stereotype can be taken as confirming it as self-characteristic, in the eyes of others, and perhaps even in their own eyes. This vulnerability amounts to a jeopardy of double devaluation: once for whatever bad thing the stereotype-fitting behavior or feature would say about anyone, and again for its confirmation of the bad things alleged in the stereotype." The American Psychological Association (APA) is a professional organization representing psychology in the US. It has around 150,000 members and an annual budget of around $70m. ...

Steele and Aronson are not first to test stereotype threat. During the 1960’s Irwin Katz, psychologist, suggested that stereotype threat could also influence performance on IQ tests. Katz found that Blacks were able to score better an IQ subtest if the test was presented as a test of eye-hand coordination. Blacks also scored higher on an IQ test when they believe the test will be compared to that of other blacks.^[89] Katz concluded that his subjects were thoroughly aware of the judgment of intellectual inferiority held by many white Americans. With little expectation of overruling this judgment, their motivation was low, and so were their scores.^[90] Paul Sackett, a psychologist agrees that stereotype threat is a real phenomenon and that it is is a potentially important contributor to the racial achievement gap. He cautions however, that these findings may be widely misinterpreted to mean that eliminating stereotype threat eliminates the entire Black-White performance gap, and encourages researchers to continue their study of this and other phenomena. ^[91]

Since stereotype threat appears to be one key contributing factors to the gaps in test scores, researchers Geoffrey L. Cohen, Julio Garcia, Nancy Apfel, and Allison Master proposed intervention methods to address the problem in 2006. The intervention, a brief in-class writing assignment, significantly improved the grades of African American students and reduced the racial achievement gap by 40%. These results suggest that the racial achievement gap, a major social concern in the United States, could be ameliorated by the use of timely and targeted social-psychological interventions.^[92]

Caste-like minorities

John Ogbu writes that caste-like minorities are not the same as other racial minorities. Caste-like minorities are incorporated into a country involuntarily and permanently. These include Blacks, American Indians, Mexicans, Native Hawaiians, Puerto Ricans and others. Membership is a low caste acquired at birth and retained permanently. Caste members are regarded by the white majority as inferior and not desirable as neighbors or workmates. Often, they lack political power and are economically subordinate. They face a job ceiling, and are not hired on the basis of training and skills like other minorities. Caste-like groups also reject the ideology and beliefs of the dominant group culture. They believe their problems are due to the "system" and racism than their own inadequacies. They may develop a "collective institutional discrimination perspective". This leads them into channel efforts into collective struggle.^[93] Image File history File links John_Ogbu. ... Image File history File links John_Ogbu. ... Dr. John Uzo Ogbu (1939 â€“ 2003) John Uzo Ogbu (May 9, 1939 â€“ 20 August 2003) was an American anthropologist and professor known for his theories on observed phenomena involving race and intelligence, especially how race and ethnic differences played out in educational and economic achievement. ... Caste systems are traditional, hereditary systems of social restriction and social stratification, enforced by law or common practice, based on endogamy, occupation, economic status, race, ethnicity, // 1555, a race of men, from L. casto chaste, from castus pure, cut off, separated, pp. ... A Sioux in traditional dress including war bonnet, about 1908 Native Americans â€“ also Indians, American Indians, First Nations, First Peoples, Indigenous Peoples of America, Aboriginal Peoples, Aboriginal Americans, Amerindians, Amerind, Native Canadians (or of other nations) â€“ are those peoples indigenous to the Americas, living there prior to European colonization and...

Like Blacks and Hispanics in the U.S., minorities in non-US societies show achievement gaps (such as the Māori in New Zealand, aboriginals in Australia, scheduled castes ("untouchables") in India, non-European Jews in Israel, and the Burakumin in Japan). The most prominent finding cited is that Northern Irish Catholics used to score about 15 points lower than Protestants. Similarly, Irish, Italian and Polish immigrants in the U.S. are reported to have all scored about 80 in the beginning of the 19th century, but now tend to reach 100. The same is true of persons from rural versus urban areas in general (see e.g., this article by conservative columnist and economist Thomas Sowell and this page on European and Greek IQ. More arguments of the kind are to be found here). This article is about the MÄori people of New Zealand. ... Australian Aborigines are the main indigenous people of Australia. ... In South Asias caste system, a Dalit; often called an untouchable; is a person of shudra; the lowest of the four castes. ... Burakumin (: buraku, community or hamlet + min, people), or hisabetsu buraku ( discriminated communities / discriminated hamlets) are a Japanese social minority group. ... Thomas Sowell (born June 30, 1930), is an American economist, political writer, and commentator. ...

This table illustrates how social status or caste position is related to test scores and school success in nations around the world. Source: Inequality by Design: Cracking the Bell Curve Myth by Claude S. Fischer, Michael Hout, Martín Sánchez Jankowski, Samuel R. Lucas, Ann Swidler, and Kim Vos^[94] Caste systems are traditional, hereditary systems of social restriction and social stratification, enforced by law or common practice, based on endogamy, occupation, economic status, race, ethnicity, // 1555, a race of men, from L. casto chaste, from castus pure, cut off, separated, pp. ...

These results, just like the inferior test scores of Eastern and Southern Europeans immigrants in the United States 75 years ago, may represent a social division that leads to the gaps in test scores, rather than a pre-established and "natural" hierarchy of "races." In other words, these divisions, are closely aligned with local "social constructs" of race, the outcomes for ethnic groups are, in the opinion of these authors, a result of the social structure rather than confirmation of its validity.^[94] This article does not cite its references or sources. ... Look up black in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Latino refers to people living in the US of Latin American nationality and their US-born descendants. ... A Sioux in traditional dress including war bonnet, about 1908 Native Americans â€“ also Indians, American Indians, First Nations, First Peoples, Indigenous Peoples of America, Aboriginal Peoples, Aboriginal Americans, Amerindians, Amerind, Native Canadians (or of other nations) â€“ are those peoples indigenous to the Americas, living there prior to European colonization and... This article is about the Scottish as an ethnic group. ... Northern Ireland (Irish: , Ulster Scots: Norlin Airlann) is a constituent country of the United Kingdom lying in the northeast of the island of Ireland, covering 5,459 square miles (14,139 kmÂ², about a sixth of the islands total area). ... Protestantism is a general grouping of denominations within Christianity. ... Languages Several hundred Indigenous Australian languages (many extinct or nearly so), Australian English, Australian Aboriginal English, Torres Strait Creole, Kriol Religions Primarily Christian, with minorities of other religions including various forms of Traditional belief systems based around the Dreamtime Related ethnic groups see List of Indigenous Australian group names Indigenous... Te Puni, Māori Chief Māori is the name of the indigenous people of New Zealand, and their language. ... Afrikaners (sometimes known as Boers) are white South Africans, predominantly of Calvinist German, French Huguenot, Friesian and Walloons descent who speak Afrikaans. ... The term Flemings (Dutch: ) denotes the majority population in Flanders (the northern half of Belgium). ... Languages Arabic other minority languages Religions Predominantly Sunni Islam, as well as Shia Islam, Greek Orthodoxy, Greek Catholicism, Roman Catholicism, Alawite Islam, Druzism, Ibadi Islam, and Judaism Footnotes a Mainly in Antakya. ... This page deals with the Hindu varnas. ... In South Asias caste system, an untouchable, dalit, or achuta is a person outside of the four castes, and considered below them. ... Languages Romani, languages of native region Religions Christianity, Islam Related ethnic groups South Asians (Desi) The Roma (singular Rom; sometimes Rroma, Rrom) or Romanies are an ethnic group living in many communities all over the world. ... Burakumin (: buraku, community or hamlet + min, people), or hisabetsu buraku ( discriminated communities / discriminated hamlets) are a Japanese social minority group. ... The term Asian can refer to something or someone from Asia. ...

Quality of education

Some researches have written that studies that find test performance gaps between races even after adjusting for education level, such as the analysis found in The Bell Curve, fail to adjust for the quality of education. Not all high school graduates or college graduates have received the same quality of education. A 2006 study reported that that years of education is an inadequate measure of the educational experience among multicultural elders, and that adjusting for quality of education greatly reduced the overall effect of racial differences on the tests.^[108] A 2004 study reported that quality of education and cultural experience influence how older African Americans approach neuropsychological tasks and concluded that adjustment for these variables may improve specificity of neuropsychological measures.^[109] Yet another study reported that, although significant differences were observed between the ethnic groups when matched for years of education, equating for literacy level eliminated all performance differences between African Americans and Whites on both cancellation tasks which assess visual scanning.^[110] (Like reaction time tests cancellation task tests are sometimes regarded as "culture free" tests of intelligence.) Eric A. Hanushek and Steven G. Rivkin wrote in their 2006 book that unequal distributions of inexperienced teachers and of racial concentrations in schools can explain all of the increased achievement gap between grades 3 and 8.^[111]

A 2004 study in South Africa found highly significant effects for both level and quality of education within the black African first language groups taking the Wechsler IQ tests. Scores black African first language groups with advantaged education were comparable with the US standardization, whereas scores for black African first language participants with disadvantaged education were significantly lower than this. The study cautioned that faulty conclusions may be drawn about the effects of ethnicity and the potential for neuropsychological misdiagnosis.^[112] Neuropsychology is a branch of psychology and neurology that aims to understand how the structure and function of the brain relate to specific psychological processes. ... In the United States medical error is estimated to result in 44,000 to 98,000 unnecessary deaths each year and 1,000,000 excess injuries[1]. It is estimated that in a typical 100 to 300 bed hospital in the United States that excess costs of $1,000,000...

Racial discrimination in education

Roslyn Arlin Mickelson writes that racial discrimination in education arises from actions of institutions or individual state actors, their attitudes and ideologies, or processes that systematically treat students from different racial/ethnic groups disparately or inequitably.^[113] Despite advancement in education reform efforts, to this day African American students continue to experience inequities within the educational system. Hala Elhoweris , Kagendo Mutua , Negmeldin Alsheikh and Pauline Holloway conducted a study of the effect of students' ethnicity on teachers' educational decision making. The results of this study indicated that the student's ethnicity did make a difference in the teachers' referral decisions for gifted and talented educational programs.^[114]Recently, a number of scholars have examined the issue of disproportionate representation of minority students in special education programs ^[115]^[116] Gifted education is a broad term for special practices, procedures and theories used in the education of children who have been identified as gifted or talented. ... This article is about educating students with disabilities or behavioral problems. ...

Teachers' perceptions of a students cultural background may effect school achievement. African American students with African American cultural backgrounds, for example, have been found to benefit from culturally responsive teaching.^[117] In a 2003 study researchers found that teachers perceived students with African American culture-related movement styles as lower in achievement, higher in aggression, and more likely to need special education services than students with standard movement styles irrespective of race or other academic indicators. ^[118]

Ellis Cose writes that low expectations may have a negative impact on the achievement of minorities. He writes that black people did not need to read The Bell Curve to be aware of the low expectations held for them by the majority culture. He recalls examples of low expectations from his teachers in school who regarded his use of AAVE as "laziness" and teachers who did not feel it was important to purchase new text books because they did not expect the students to be able to read anything complex. He contrasts these low expectations with the high expectations philosophy of Xavier University where, using the ideas Whimbey articulated in his book Intelligence can be Taught teachers created a program called SOAR. SOAR raised the performance of black students and lead Xavier to become the university that sends the greatest number of black students to medical school in the United States. The SOAR program produced gains equivalent to 120 points on an SAT test. Cose writes that "..we must treat people, whatever their color, as if they have unlimited intellectual capacity."^[119] African-American Vernacular English (AAVE), also called Ebonics, Black English, or Black English Vernacular (BEV) is a dialect of American English. ... Xavier University of Louisiana is a historically African-American Roman Catholic University located off Carrollton Avenue in Mid-City New Orleans, Louisiana. ...

Socio-economic factors

IQ is correlated with economic factors. Blacks and Hispanics suffer poorer economic conditions than Whites. It has been suggested that the effects of poverty are responsible for some or all of the IQ gap. However, in the American Psychological Association report Neisser et al. (1996) argue that economics cannot be the whole explanation. According to Richard J. Herrnstein and Charles Murray, authors of The Bell Curve, to the moderate extent that IQ and income are related, it appears that IQ determines income, and not the other way around (Murray 1998). There are, however, many other potential Socio-economic factors factors beside income. Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links TBC-BW-IQ-SES-withDiff. ... Image File history File links TBC-BW-IQ-SES-withDiff. ... The Bell Curve is a controversial, best-selling 1994 book by Richard J. Herrnstein and Charles Murray exploring the role of genes in American life. ... Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A American Anthropological Association. ... Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A American Anthropological Association. ...

Researchers have reported that many American Blacks and Hispanics are not given sufficient opportunity to learn language and thinking skills during the first three years of life, possibly due to economic status. The first three years are especially critical years for neural development of the brain, and previous studies have shown that when human children were deprived of most or all language skills at an early age, they never developed the ability to master language at a later age; if they only mastered a small amount of language and thinking skills at a young age, then they could only make small improvements in later years. A recent study has shown that many American Blacks and Hispanics are raised in homes where their parents speak relatively few sentences, and the sentences usually show only simple grammar. As a result, their children never hear millions of words during the time when their brains are developing linguistic skills. Without this linguistic input during their developing years, many are observed to quickly fall behind, and they can never catch up. Children in poorer welfare families, which includes a higher percentage of many minority populations, apparently hear up to 30 million fewer words by age three than children in higher income, usually White, families. (Source: The Early Catastrophe: The 30 Million Word Gap by Age 3)

Work by Carneiro et al. (2005) on average Black-Hispanic-White differences in IQ, education, and income casts doubt on conventional explanations of Black-White differences: Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A American Anthropological Association. ...

A recent 1996 study using multiple socio-economic factors have accounted for 80% of the gap, and suggest that any remaining gap is statistically insignificant.^[121]

Health

In the developing world there are are many factors can greatly decrease IQ scores. Examples include nutrition deficiencies in iodine and iron; certain diseases like malaria; unregulated toxic industrial substances like lead and mercury; and poor health care for pregnant women and infants. Also in the developed world there are many biological factors that can affect IQ. Increased rates of low birth weight babies and lower rates of breastfeeding in Blacks as compared to Whites are some factors of many that have been proposed to affect the IQ gap.^[124] Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Year 1976 Pick up sticks(MCMLXXVI) was a leap year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Several factors can lead to significant cognitive impairment, particularly if they occur during pregnancy and childhood when the brain is growing and the blood-brain barrier is less effective. ... Race and health research is mostly from the US. It has found both current and historical racial differences in the frequency, treatments, and availability of treatments for several diseases. ... For the record label, see Iodine Recordings. ... For other uses, see Iron (disambiguation). ... Malaria is a vector-borne infectious disease caused by protozoan parasites. ... This article is about the metal. ... General Name, Symbol, Number mercury, Hg, 80 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 12, 6, d Appearance silvery Standard atomic weight 200. ...

Other researchers have come across what they see as additional reasons for the IQ gap. The paper Poverty and Brain Development in Early Childhood holds that there is a large amount of neural damage in many American Black and Hispanic children due to inadequate nutrition, substance abuse of the children's parents, a high incidence of maternal depression, exposure to environmental toxins, psychological trauma, and the neural effects of physical abuse. Masters (1997) has proposed a "neurotoxity hypothesis" where pre- and post-natal exposure to heavy metal poisons differentially impacts Blacks. Black children have much higher lead levels than white children.^[125]Drug abuse during pregnancy (e.g., alcohol and phenobarbital) can negatively affect IQ. Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A American Anthropological Association. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Phenobarbital (INN) or phenobarbitone (former BAN) is a barbiturate, first marketed as Luminal by Farbwerke Fr. ...

A study of LBW babies indicates that breastfeeding can significantly improve their IQ scores tested at 8 years old (Lucas et al. 1996). After controlling for possible confounding factors, an improvement of 8.3 IQ points was reported in the breastfed group as compared to the formula fed group. Black mothers are known to breastfeed infants less and for a shorter time than White mothers (Ryan et al. 1996; Leary 1988)^[126]Studies have shown IQ gains lasting into adulthood with increased duration of breastfeeding. Several recent studies shows that the intake of certain micronutrients, like those present in breast milk or fish oil, affects IQ scores even in developed nations. Helland et al (2003) have shown larger head size at birth and higher IQ scores at 4 years of age when mothers took fish oil supplements during pregnancy and lactation.^[127] Jensen (1998) believes that dietary supplementation is a promising avenue of research for raising Black children's levels of g. Lynn (1990) has proposed a nutritional hypothesis for the Flynn effect. Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A American Anthropological Association. ... Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A American Anthropological Association. ... Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A American Anthropological Association. ... Micronutrients for plants: There are about eight nutrients essential to plant growth and health that are only present in very small quantities. ... Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A American Anthropological Association. ... Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A American Anthropological Association. ... Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A American Anthropological Association. ...

Exposure to violence in childhood has been associated with lower school grades^[128] and lower IQ in children of all races.^[129] A group of largely African American urban first-grade children and their caregivers were evaluated using self-report, interview, and standardized tests, including IQ tests. The study reported that exposure to violence and trauma-related distress in young children were associated with substantial decrements in IQ and reading achievement. Exposure to Violence or Trauma lead to a 7.5-point (SD, 0.5) decrement in IQ and a 9.8-point (SD, 0.66) decrement in reading achievement.^[128] Violence may have a negative impact on IQ, or IQ may be protective against violence.^[129] The causal mechanism and direction of causation is unknown.^[128] Neighborhood risk has been related to lower school grades for African-American adolescents in another study from 2006.^[130]

Culture

Many anthropologists have argued that intelligence is a cultural category; some cultures emphasize speed and competition more than others, for example. During WWI African-Americans from the north tested higher than those from the south. This could be because African-Americans in the north had received more formal education (see Race: Science and Politics, written by Ruth Benedict in 1940). It is a matter of debate to what extent genetics can affect culture and what exactly are the causality relations between culture and nature.

It has been suggested that Black culture disfavors academic achievement and fosters an environment that is damaging to IQ (Boykin 1994). Likewise, it is argued that a persistence of racism reinforces this negative effect. John Ogbu^[132] has developed a hypothesis that the condition of being a "caste-like minority" affects motivation and achievement, depressing IQ. Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A American Anthropological Association. ...

Language

Sandra Lee McKay author of Sociolinguistics and Language Teaching writes that language may present a barrier for students who speak pidgin and creole languages. Unlike other languages such as Spanish and Chinese, pidgin and creole languages such as African American Vernacular English (AAVE) are not commonly recognized in classroom settings. As a result of this, students are not taught the Standard American English (SAE) used on tests as a second language in the same way as students who speak Spanish or Chinese. Students who speak AAVE face challenges similar to those learning English as a Second Language. (ESL)^[133] Sandra Lee McKay is a sociolinguist at San Francisco State University. ... This article is about simplified languages. ... Note: This page or section contains IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode. ... General American is a notional accent of American English based on speech patterns common in the Midwest of the United States and those used by many American network television broadcasters. ... ESL is a common abbreviation for: English as a Second Language. ...

John Russel Rickford author of Unequal partnership: Sociolinguistics and the African American speech community^[134] rebutts misconceptions about the cognitive limitations of the use of AAVE notes the unfair disadvantages IQ tests pose for its speakers. Geneva Smitherman writes that "80 to 90 percent of American blacks” speak AAVE “at least some of the time".^[135] Anne H. Charity, Hollis S. Scarborough, Darion M. Griffin found in a 2004 study that higher familiarity with SE was associated with better reading achievement for urban African American students in kindergarten through second grade. The improvement in reading ability was independent of other cognitive measures suggesting that speakers of AAVE face barriers in education.^[136] Note: This page or section contains IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode. ...

Role-model effects

Thomas S. Dee, in his studyTeachers, Race, and Student Achievement in a Randomized Experiment found that the race of the teacher has impacts on student achievement. An own-race teacher significantly increased the math and reading achievement of both black and white students.^[137] Using single-equation regression models Mark O. Evans has also found evidence of effects for African-American students. ^[138] These findings may confirm the suggestion for the aggressive recruitment of minority teachers are based on hypothesized role-model effects for minority students.

In Sabrina Zirkel's longitudinal study of young adolescents students who reported having at least one race- and gender-matched role model performed better academically up to 24 months later, reported more achievement-oriented goals, enjoyed achievement-relevant activities to a greater degree, thought more about their futures, and looked up to adults rather than peers more often than did students without a race- and gender-matched role model. These effects held only for race- and gender-matched role models—not for non-matched role models.^[139]

Theories on the intelligence of Ashkenazi Jews

A link between disease mutations specific to the Ashkenazi Jews and high IQ scores has been suggested by scientists at the University of Utah, who cite evidence that sphingolipid disorders promote the growth and interconnection of brain cells and that mutations in the DNA repair genes, involved in some Ashkenazic diseases, may also unleash growth of neurons. The researchers predict that these disease mutations will enhance IQ in heterozygotes. This prediction is based on evidence that selection pressure has increased the frequency of the disease mutations in the reproductively isolated Ashkenazi population in medieval times. The hypothesis has not yet been empirically tested.^[140] Ashkenazi Jews have been reported to score 0.75 to 1.0 standard deviations above the general European average, corresponding to an IQ 112-115.^[141]^[142]^[143] Ashkenazi intelligence refers to the general intelligence of Ashkenazi Jews, the Jews of Central and Eastern European origin who are the descendants of Jews who settled in the Rhineland beginning about the year 800 CE. // Psychometrics research has found that Ashkenazi Jews have the highest mean score of any ethnic... Language(s) Yiddish, Hebrew, Russian, English Religion(s) Judaism Related ethnic groups Sephardi Jews, Mizrahi Jews, and other Jewish ethnic divisions Ashkenazi Jews, also known as Ashkenazic Jews or Ashkenazim (Standard Hebrew: sing. ...

Genetic explanation

Arthur Jensen and J. Philippe Rushton argue that the Black-White IQ gap is significantly genetic and reflects underlying group characteristics. That is, they argue that the same mix of genetic and environment factors that cause IQ differences among individuals or between families of the same race also causes the differences seen between races. In this view, the genetic contribution to average intelligence differences among races are like average skin color differences: a product of different allelic frequencies within each population. Others are critical of Jensen's methods and evaluation (Sternberg 2005; Suzuki and Aronson 2005; Nisbett 2005). The subject of the inheritance of intelligence is the genetics of mental abilities. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... For the Danish actor, see Arthur Jensen (actor). ... Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A American Anthropological Association. ... Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A American Anthropological Association. ... Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A American Anthropological Association. ...

The results of most (indirect) analyses used to test the genetic hypothesis do not logically contradict a primarily environmental explanation of the lower IQ of Blacks. That is, a plausible (but some argue ad hoc) environmental explanation for the lower mean IQ in Blacks can be offered in most cases. Ad hoc is a Latin phrase which means for this [purpose]. It generally signifies a solution that has been tailored to a specific purpose, such as a tailor-made suit, a handcrafted network protocol, and specific-purpose equation and things like that. ...

Arthur Jensen and J. Philippe Rushton have concluded that the US IQ gap is partially genetic. Rushton and Jensen say that while plausible environmental explanation for the lower mean IQ in Blacks in the U.S. can be offered in many cases, these explanations are less capable of explaining the higher average IQ of East Asians than Whites. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (582x657, 90 KB) This is a copyrighted promotional photo with a known source. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (582x657, 90 KB) This is a copyrighted promotional photo with a known source. ... For the Danish actor, see Arthur Jensen (actor). ... The Harvard Educational Review is an interdisciplinary scholarly journal of opinion and research dealing with education, published by the Harvard Education Publishing Group. ...

Rushton and Jensen (2005a) believe that the best explanation is that 50%-80% of the group differences in average US IQ is genetic.^[153] IQ redirects here; for other uses of that term, see IQ (disambiguation). ... Regression toward the mean refers to the fact that those with extreme scores on any measure at one point in time will, for purely statistical reasons, probably have less extreme scores the next time they are tested. ... Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A American Anthropological Association. ...

Other evidence, such as transracial adoption, certain racial admixture studies, behavior genetic modeling of group differences, evolutionary explanations and "life-history" traits such as measures of maturation, personality, reproduction and social organization have also been proposed to indicate a genetic contribution to the IQ gaps and explain how these arose.^[154] Critics of this view, such as Robert Sternberg, argue that these studies are either flawed and thus inconclusive, or else that they support a primarily environment (<20% genetic) hypothesis.^[155] For example, Dolan and Hamaker 2001 argue that the statistical methods linking the Black-White gap to g are insufficient.^[156] The Minnesota Transracial Adoption Study examined the IQ test scores of 130 black/interracial children adopted by advantaged white families. ... Robert J. Sternberg (8 December 1949-) is the Dean of Arts and Sciences at Tufts University and is the former IBM Professor of Psychology and Education at Yale University. ... Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A American Anthropological Association. ...

According to Linda Gottfredson, a researcher at the University of Delaware IQ differences among individuals of the same race reflect (1) real, (2) functionally/socially significant, and (3) substantially genetic differences in the general intelligence factor (Gottfredson 2005b, p. 311). Also, again according to Dr Gottfredson, average IQ differences among races reflect (1) real and (2) significant differences in the same g factor (Gottfredson 2005b, p. 311). However, it is a matter of debate whether IQ differences among races in a given country are primarily environmental, primarily genetic or simply an artifact of an inaccurate use of social racial identification as a proxy for genetics.^[157] This article needs additional references or sources for verification. ... IQ redirects here; for other uses of that term, see IQ (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Race (disambiguation). ... The general intelligence factor (abbreviated g) is a controversial construct used in the field of psychology (see also psychometrics) to quantify what is common to the scores of all intelligence tests. ... Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A American Anthropological Association. ... Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A American Anthropological Association. ... For other uses, see Country (disambiguation). ...

A recent review summarizing the arguments for a genetic explanation can be found here.^[158] A critique of genetic explanations can be found here.^[159]

Media portrayal

Media portrayal of race and intelligence in various mediums, such as films, books, and newspapers, characterize people of various races to be more or less intelligent. Critics of contemporary media have highlighted portrayals of minorities as less intelligent^[160] (or in the case of Asians, on occasion more intelligent^[161]) in films and movies.

Patricia J. Williams, writer for The Nation, said this of Jar Jar Binks, a character from the 2002 Star Wars film: "...intentionally or not, Jar Jar's pratfalls and high jinks borrow heavily from the genre of minstrelsy. Despite the amphibian get-up, his relentless, panicky, manchild-like idiocy is imported directly from the days of Amos 'N' Andy." Many aspects of Jar Jar's character are believed to be highly reminiscent of the archetypes portrayed in blackface minstrelsy.^[162] The Nation (ISSN 0027-8378) is a weekly [1] U.S. periodical devoted to politics and culture, self-described as the flagship of the left. [2] Founded on July 6, 1865 as an Abolitionist publication, it is the oldest continuously published weekly magazine in the United States. ... Jar Jar Binks (born c. ... This article is about the series. ... Illustrator J.J. Goulds 1930 drawing of Amos and Andy for New Movie Magazine Amos n Andy was a situation comedy popular in the United States from the 1920s through the 1950s. ... This reproduction of a 1900 minstrel show poster, originally published by the Strobridge Litho Co. ... Detail from cover of The Celebrated Negro Melodies, as Sung by the Virginia Minstrels, 1843 The minstrel show, or minstrelsy, was an American entertainment consisting of comic skits, variety acts, dancing, and music, performed by white people in blackface or, especially after the American Civil War, African Americans in blackface. ...

According to Robert M. Entman an Andrew Rojecki, authors of the The Black Image in the White Mind, in television and film Black characters are less likely to be the "the intellectual drivers of its problem solving." Entman and Rojeki assert that media images of Blacks may have profound effects on the perceptions by both Blacks and Whites about black intellectual potential.^[163]

Contemporary sports commentators have questioned whether blacks are intelligent enough to hold "strategic" positions or coach games such as football.^[164] In another example, a study of the portrayal of race, ethnicity and nationality in televised sporting events by journalist Derrick Jackson in 1989 showed that blacks were more likely than Whites to be described in demeaning intellectual terms.^[165] Political activist and one-time presidential candidate Rev. Jesse Jackson said in 1985 that the news media portray blacks as less intelligent than we are.^[166] Film director Spike Lee explains that these images have negative impacts. "In my neighborhood, we looked up to athletes, guys who got the ladies, and intelligent people," said Lee. "[Now] If you're intelligent, you're called a white guy or girl."^[167] Jesse Jackson The Reverend Jesse Louis Jackson Sr. ... Shelton Jackson Lee (born March 20, 1957, in Atlanta, Georgia), better known as Spike Lee, is an Emmy Award - winning, and Academy Award - nominated American film director, producer, writer, and actor noted for his films dealing with controversial social and political issues. ...

Even so-called positive images of Black people can lead to stereotypes about intelligence. In Darwin's Athletes: how sport has damaged Black America and preserved the myth of race, John Hoberman writes that the prominence of African-American athletes encourages a de-emphasis on academic achievement in black communities.^[168] In a 1997 study on racial stereotypes in sports, participants were shown a photograph of a white or a black basketball player. They then listened to a recorded radio broadcast of a basketball game. White photographs were rated as exhibiting significantly more intelligence in the way they played the game, even though the radio broadcast and target player represented by the photograph were the same throughout the trial.^[169] Several other authors have said that sports coverage that highlights 'natural black athleticism' has the effect of suggesting white superiority in other areas, such as intelligence.^[170] Dr. John Hoberman is a Professor of Germanic languages and the current chair of the Department of Germanic Studies at the University of Texas at Austin. ...

Controversies

Utility of research

Theories of race and intelligence have been challenged on grounds of their utility. Critics want to know what purpose such research could serve and why it has been an intense an area of focus for a few researchers. Some defend the research, saying it has egalitarian aims or that it is pure science, others say that the true motivation for the reserch is the same as that of the eugenics movement and other forms of scientific racism.^[171]^[172]. Even supporters of intelligence research have described such research as analogous to "working with dynamite" or "dangerous play" in sports^[173]. It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Hard science. ... Eugenics is the self-direction of human evolution: Logo from the Second International Eugenics Conference [7], 1921, depicting it as a tree which unites a variety of different fields. ... Scientific racism is a term that describes either obsolete scientific theories of the 19th century or historical and contemporary racist propaganda disguised as scientific research. ...

Policy implications

Public policy implications of IQ and race research are one of the greatest sources of controversy surrounding this issue. Regardless of the source of the gap, most educators agree that it must be addressed. They often advocate equitable funding for education.^[174]^[175] This article is being considered for deletion in accordance with Wikipedias deletion policy. ...

Some proponents of a genetic^[27] interpretation of the IQ gap, such as Rushton and Jensen (2005a) and Gottfredson (2005b), have sometimes argued that their interpretation does not in itself demand any particular policy response: while a conservative/libertarian commentator^[176] may feel the results justify, for example, reductions in affirmative action, a liberal commentator may argue from a Rawlsian point of view (that genetic advantages are undeserved and unjust) for substantial affirmative action.^[177] Since all races have representatives at all levels of the IQ curve, this means any policy based on low IQ affects members of all races. Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A American Anthropological Association. ... Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A American Anthropological Association. ... For other uses, see Libertarianism (disambiguation). ... This box: Affirmative actionrefers to policies intended to promote access to education or employment aimed at a historically socio-politically non-dominant group (typically, minorities or women). ... Liberalism is an ideology, philosophical view, and political tradition which holds that liberty is the primary political value. ... John Rawls (February 21, 1921 â€“ November 24, 2002) was an American philosopher, a professor of political philosophy at Harvard University and author of A Theory of Justice (1971), Political Liberalism, Justice as Fairness: A Restatement, and The Law of Peoples. ...

According to the "Mainstream Science on Intelligence" statement published in Intelligence in 1997: Mainstream Science on Intelligence is a 1994 editorial written by Linda Gottfredson and published in the Wall Street Journal on December 13. ... Intelligence is a psychology journal that addresses intelligence and psychometrics. ...

While not specifically race-related, policies focused on geographical regions or nations may have disproportionate influences on certain racial groups and on cognitive development. Differences in health care, nutrition, regulation of environmental toxins, and geographic distribution of diseases and control strategies between the developing world and developed nations have all been subjects of policies or policy recommendations (see health and nutrition policies relating to intelligence). This article is being considered for deletion in accordance with Wikipedias deletion policy. ...

Finally, germinal choice technology may one day be able to select or change directly alleles found to influence intelligence or racially identifying traits (such as skin color; see gene SLC24A5), making them susceptible to biotechnological intervention.^[179] Germinal choice technology refers to a set of technologies that currently or that are expected to in the future allow parents to influence the genetic constitutions of their children. ... For the hard rock band, see Allele (band). ... SLC24A5 (solute carrier family 24, member 5) is a gene that is thought to be one of many genes that control skin pigmentation in humans, and therefore implicated in defining race. ...

End material

See also

Brain to body mass ratio (also known as the Encephalization Quotient or EQ) is a rough estimate of the possible intelligence of an organism. ... The evolution of intelligence refers to a set of theories that attempt to explain how intelligence in various animals has evolved. ... The nature and origins of hominid intelligence is a much-studied and much-debated topic, of natural interest to humans as the most successful and intelligent hominid species. ... Epidemiological studies have shown that human populations show a positive correlation between intelligence and height[1][2][3][4][5][6][7]. Similar associations have been found in early and late childhood and adulthood in both developed and developing countries, and associations persisted after controlling for social class and parental... // When comparing different species brain size does present a correlation with intelligence. ... Sex and intelligence research investigates differences in the distributions of cognitive skills between men and women. ...

Notes

^ Andor, L. E., ed. Aptitudes and Abilities of the Black Man in Sub-Saharan Africa: 1784-1963: An Annotated Bibliography. Johannesburg: National Institute for Personnel Research, 1966.
^ "Race as Biology Is Fiction, Racism as a Social Problem Is Real: Anthropological and Historical Perspectives on the Social Construction of Race." by Audrey Smedley and Brian D. Smedley[1]
^ Thirty Years of Research on Race Differences In Cognitive Ability. p. 240
^ Black-White-East Asian IQ differences at least 50% genetic, major law review journal concludes
^ Ceci, S. J. (1990). On intelligence more or less: A bioecological treatise on intellectual development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall
^ Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns
^ There are no public-policy implications: A reply to Rushton and Jensen (2005) Robert Sternberg
^ Entman, Robert M. and Andrew Rojecki The Black Image in the White Mind: Media and Race in America 2001
^ Darwin's Athletes: how sport has damaged Black America and preserved the myth of race By John Milton Hoberman. ISBN 0395822920
^ Social Darwinism, Scientific Racism, and the Metaphysics of Race Rutledge M. Dennis The Journal of Negro Education, Vol. 64, No. 3, Myths and Realities: African Americans and the Measurement of Human Abilities (Summer, 1995), pp. 243-252
^ A History of Race/ism Produced By: Tim McCaskell Toronto District School Board
^ Jalata, Asafa 1954- "Race and Ethnicity in East Africa (review)" Africa Today - Volume 48, Number 4, Winter 2001, pp. 134-136 Indiana University Press
^ The Invention of the White Race By Chantal Mouffe, Theodore (Theodore W.) Allen
^ Media, Stereotypes and the Perpetuation of Racism in Canada by James Crawford

Indians were seen as a homogeneous group of savages despite the fact that individual groups varied extensively and had several well developed social systems. Black people were also portrayed as savage, uncivilized and having low intelligence. By creating these social constructs, expansion into North America was justified. John Milton Hoberman is American author. ... Social Darwinism is the idea that Charles Darwins theory can be extended and applied to the social realm, i. ... Scientific racism is a term that describes either obsolete scientific theories of the 19th century or historical and contemporary racist propaganda disguised as scientific research. ...
^ Alexander Thomas and Samuell Sillen (1972). Racism and Psychiatry. New York: Carol Publishing Group.
^ Samual A. Cartwright, "Diseases and Peculiarities of the Negro Race", DeBow's Review—Southern and Western States, Volume XI, New Orleans, 1851
^ Eugenics: America's Darkest Days
^ Francis Galton:British Psychologist
^ Social Darwinism, Scientific Racism, and the Metaphysics of Race Rutledge M. Dennis The Journal of Negro Education, Vol. 64, No. 3, Myths and Realities: African Americans and the Measurement of Human Abilities (Summer, 1995), pp. 243-252
^ Broca 1873, Bean 1906, Mall 1909, Morton 1839, Pearl 1934, Vint 1934
^ Outcome-Based Tyranny: Teaching Compliance While Testing Like A State IQ tests administered to the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) in World War I. Anthropological Quarterly - Volume 76, Number 4, Fall 2003, pp. 715-730
^ Killing the Black Body: Race, Reproduction, and the Meaning of Liberty by Dorothy Roberts. Page 63. December 1998 ISBN 0679758690
^ According to historian of psychology Graham Richards there was widespread critical debate within psychology about the conceptual underpinnings of this early race difference research (Richards 1997). These include Estabrooks (1928) two papers on the limitations of methodology used in the research; Dearborn and Long’s (1934) overview of the criticisms by several psychologists (Garth, Thompson, Peterson, Pinter, Herskovits, Daniel, Price, Wilkerson, Freeman, Rosenthal and C.E. Smith) in a collection they edited and Klineburg, who wrote three major critiques, one in 1928, and two in 1935. Richards also notes that with over a 1000 publications within psychology during the interwar years there had been a large internal debate. Towards the end of the time period almost all those publishing, including most of those who began with a pro-race differences stance, were firmly arguing against race differences research. Richards regards the scientific controversy to be dead at this point, although he also suggests reasons for its re-emergence in the late nineteen sixties.
^ Boas 1938
^ Garrett 1961; Lynn 2001, pp. 45–54
^ Jensen 1969
^ ^a ^b Explaining Race Differences in IQ: The Logic, the Methodology, and the Evidence American Psychologist, November 1984, Brian Mackenzie. Mackenzie writes of Jensen's hereditarian position as a "genetic model", in contrast to a "jointly genetic/environmental" model. Jensen often uses the term "partly-genetic" to describe his position, even though his views aren't seen as congruent with the "jointly genetic/environmental" model described by Mackenzie.
^ George Bush: The Unauthorized Biography by Webster Griffin Tarpley and Anton Chaitkin, 1992 Executive Intelligence Review, Chapter 11
^ George Bush: The Unauthorized Biography by Webster Griffin Tarpley and Anton Chaitkin, 1992 Executive Intelligence Review, Chapter 11
^ {{This paragraph includes excerpts from William Shockley; however editors of this page have expressed concern over the lack of citations at that article. A request for citation has been placed there. Please refer to discussion page before further editing etc}}
^ Gould 1996
^ A Genetic and Cultural Odyssey: The Life and Work of L. Luca Cavalli-Sforza by Linda Stone, pages 76, 168 ISBN 0231133960.
^

"What of the latest currents of thought? Are they likely to lead to, or at least encourage, further distortions of social policy? The indications are not all encouraging. Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray published a book in 1994 clearly directed at policy, just as Jensen and others had in the 1960s and 1970s. The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (New York: Free Press, 1994) teamed a psychologist with a conservative policy advocate to try to prove that both the class structure and the racial divide in the United States result from genetically determined differences in intelligence and ability."

"Their general assertions about genes and IQ were not very controversial, but their speculations on race were something else again."

"Also in the 1990s, Phillipe Rushton has tried to couch racial differences in IQ in a theory drawn from evolutionary biology. This theory takes the concepts of r and K selection, crudely useful when applied to a vast range of living creatures considered on a continuum, and apply it to subtle differences in skull form, mental test results, and sexual behavior within our one species. This theory has no academic legitimacy and little relationship to real evolutionary theory, but it taints the whole Darwinian enterprise, strongly recalling the “scientific anthropology” of the era of slavery."

"The reality is quite different. As argued by George Armelagos in his Presidential Address to the American Association of Physical Anthropologists (“Race, Reason and Rationale,” Evolutionary Anthropology 4, 1995, pp. 103–109) race itself is a dubious concept for the human species. Obviously it is sociologically meaningful, but even in the social realm it is a constantly moving target with little or no core biological legitimacy."The Tangled Wing Biological Constraints on the Human Spirit Times Books Pub: 2002 ISBN 0-7167-4602-6
^ The Tangled Wing: Biological Constraints on the Human Spirit Times Books, Pub Date: Jan. 2002. ISBN 0-7167-4602-6 By Kevin Konner
^ Statement on "Race" and Intelligence American Anthropological Association
^ ^a ^b 2 Scholarly Articles Diverge On Role of Race in Medicine By NICHOLAS WADE Published: March 20, 2003] New York Times
^ See for example Morton Hunt's The New Know-Nothings: The Political Foes of the Scientific Study of Human Nature (1999; pp. 63-104) which argues that recent years "have witnessed a dramatic upsurge in efforts to impose limits on the freedom of social scientists to explore controversial research questions, particularly questions that could yield answers distasteful to those with certain sociopolitical or ideological agendas" (Lilienfeld 2002).
^ Gould, 1981
^ Hunt, M. M. (1998). The New Know-Nothings: The Political Foes of the Scientific Study of Human Nature. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction. ISBN 1-56000-393-6.
^ Wilson et al. 2001, Cooper et al. 2003 (given in Bamshad et al. 2004's summary, p.599)
^ Schwartz 2001, Stephens 2003 (given in Bamshad et al. 2004's summary, p. 599)
^ It is well established that within-population genetic diversity is greatest within Sub-Saharan Africa, and decreases with distance from Africa. One study estimates that only 6.3% of the total human genetic diversity is explained by race. (See: The Biological Meaning of “Race” by Matt Riese) This value is comparable to other reports which find that on average approximately 85% of genetic variation occurs within populations. In a hypothetical situation with two populations and a single gene with two alleles, this is equivalent to allele frequencies of 30% + 70% in one population and 70% + 30% in the other. Thus, using this single gene to classify individuals into populations would result in a 30% misclassification rate.
^ Sternberg et al. 2005, Suzuki and Aronson 2005, Smedley and Smedley 2005, Helms et al. 2005, The concept and measurement of race and their relationship to public health: a review focused on Brazil and the United States
^ (Diamond 1997/99, p.21).
^ Risch et al. 2002, Bamshad 2005. Neil Risch argues: "One could make the same arguments about sex and age! . . you can undermine any definitional system. . . In a recent study. . . we actually had a higher discordance rate between self-reported sex and markers on the X chromosome [than] between genetic structure [based on microsatellite markers] versus [racial] self-description, [which had a] 99.9% concordance. . . So you could argue that sex is also a problematic category. And there are differences between sex and gender; self-identification may not be correlated with biology perfectly. And there is sexism. And you can talk about age the same way. A person's chronological age does not correspond perfectly with his biological age for a variety of reasons, both inherited and non-inherited. Perhaps just using someone's actual birth year is not a very good way of measuring age. Does that mean we should throw it out? . . . Any category you come up with is going to be imperfect, but that doesn't preclude you from using it or the fact that it has utility" (Gitschier 2005).
^ Harpending and Rogers 2000, Bamshad et al. 2003, Edwards 2003, Bamshad et al. 2004, Tang et al. 2005, Rosenberg et al. 2005: "If enough markers are used... individuals can be partitioned into genetic clusters that match major geographic subdivisions of the globe".
^ Mountain and Risch 2004
^ Bindon, Jim. University of Alabama. "Post World War II". 2005. August 28, 2006
^ How "Caucasoids" Got Such Big Crania and Why They Shrank
^ Intelligence, Race, and Genetics Robert J. Sternberg, Elena L. Grigorenko, and Kenneth K. Kidd Yale University
^ 'Beyond the Bell Curve: Toward a Model of Talent and Character Development Serge Madhere The Journal of Negro Education, Vol. 64, No. 3, Myths and Realities: African Americans and the Measurement of Human Abilities (Summer, 1995), pp. 326-339
^ J Clin Psychol. 1991 Sep;47(5):698-702.
^ Predictive validity of two short-forms of the WPPSI: a 3-year follow-up study.
^ The Predictive Value of IQ Sternberg, Robert J. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly - Volume 47, Number 1, January 2001, pp. 1-41
^ Text of the APA Task Force Report, "Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns"
^ See Neisser et al. 1996.
^ Carraher, Carraher, and Schliemann (1985) studied a group of Brazilian street children. The investigation found that the same children who are able to do the mathematics needed to run their street businesses were often unable to do mathematics in a formal setting. See: Street Mathematics and School Mathematics By Terezinha Nunes, David William Carraher, Analucia Dias Schliemann ISBN 0521388139
^ Mind in Context: Interactionist Perspectives on Human Intelligence By Robert J. Sternberg, Richard K. Wagner
^ Standardization of the Panga Munthu Test-A Nonverbal Cognitive Test Developed in Zambia Ravinder Kathuria, Robert Serpell The Journal of Negro Education, Vol. 67, No. 3, Assessment in the Context of Culture and Pedagogy (Summer, 1998), pp. 228-241
^ For consensus statements see Gottfredson 1997a and Neisser et al. 1996.
^ Herrnstein and Murray in The Bell Curve
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Neisser et al. 1996
^ Racial equality in intelligence: Predictions from a theory of intelligence as processing Joseph F. Fagan and Cynthia R. Holland. Intelligence Volume 35, Issue 4, July-August 2007, Pages 319-334
^ Racial Differences on a Black Intelligence Test Journal of Negro Education, 43, 4, 429-436, F 74
^ IQ Tests and the Black Culture McNiel, Nathaniel D.
^ Dove, A. The "Chitling" Test. From Lewis R. Aiken, Jr. (1971). Psychological and educational testings. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
^ Special Issue on Advances in Testing Methodology from an International Perspective Applied Psychology. 53(2):215-236, April 2004.
^ Tatum, Beverly Daniel (1997). Why are all the black kids sitting together in the cafeteria? And other conversations about race. New York: BasicBooks. ISBN 9780465091270.
^ Joel Wiesen, "An Annotated List of Many Possible Reasons for the Black-White Mean Score Differences Seen With Many Cognitive Ability Tests: Notes to File," Applied Personnel Research, March 18, 2005.
^ Boykin 1994
^ Ogbu JU, Davis A (2003). Black American Students in an Affluent Suburb: A Study of Academic Disengagement. Lawrence Erlbaum Publishers. ISBN 0-8058-4515-1
^ Ogbu
^ Early life predictors of childhood intelligence: findings from the Mater-University study of pregnancy and its outcomes Debbie A. Lawlor, Jake M. Najman, G. David Batty, Michael J. O'Callaghan, Gail M. Williams, William Bor (2006) Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology
^ PBS Jencks Interview "If we change the names of the tests, they still measure the same thing but it wouldn't convey this idea that somehow you've gotten the potential of somebody when you measured their IQ. And I think that creates a big bias, because the people who do badly on the tests are labeled as people with low potential in many people's minds and they sometimes even believe that about themselves."
^ Jencks and Phillips 1998 "... we find it hard to see how anyone reading these studies with an open mind could conclude that innate ability played a large role in the black-white gap."
^ Black Americans reduce the racial IQ gap: Evidence from standardization samples William T. Dickens and James R. Flynn. Oct. 2006
^ Flynn 1987, Flynn 1987b, Flynn 1999, Flynn 1999b
^ Colom et al. 2005
^ Flynn 1999
^ Rushton and Jensen 2005a
^ [2]
^ [3]
^ Black Americans reduce the racial IQ gap: Evidence from standardization samples William T. Dickens and James R. Flynn. Oct. 2006
^ Race, Categorisation and Educational Achievement British Journal of Sociology of Education, Vol. 10, No. 2 (1989), pp. 195-214
^ Fitting into Categories or Falling Between Them? Rethinking ethnic classification Alastair Bonnett, Bruce Carrington. British Journal of Sociology of Education Volume 21, Number 4 / December 1, 2000 Pages:487 - 500
^ The Effects of Stereotype Threat on the Standardized Test Performance of College Students J Aronson, CM Steele, MF Salinas, MJ Lustina - Readings About the Social Animal, 8th edition, E. Aronson
^ Steele, C. M. and Aronson, J. (Nov 1995). "Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 69 (5): 797-811.
^ Racial Identity and Academic Achievement
^ Review of Evidence Relating to Effects of Desegregation on the Intellectual Performance of Negroes I Katz - American Psychologist, 1964
^ Race and IQ TIME. Monday, Sep. 07, 1970
^ Sackett, P. R., Hardison, C. M. and Cullen, M. J. (Apr 2005). "On Interpreting Research on Stereotype Threat and Test Performance". American Psychologist 60 (3): 271-272. DOI:10.1037/0003-066x.60.3.271.
^ Reducing the Racial Achievement Gap: A Social-Psychological Intervention Science 1 September 2006: Vol. 313. no. 5791, pp. 1307 - 1310
^ Ogbu, J. U., The Consequences of the American Caste System, In U. Neisser (Ed.), The School Achievement of Minority Children: New Perspectives, 1986
^ ^a ^b Inequality by Design: Cracking the Bell Curve Myth by Claude S. Fischer, Michael Hout, Martín Sánchez Jankowski, Samuel R. Lucas, Ann Swidler, and Kim Vos. Page 192. (The footnotes given are also from this book.)
^ The Bell Curve and many other places.
^ Church Academic Achievement
^ Richard Lynn discussed in Benson Ireland's 'Low' IQ
^ Lynn et al. Home Background
^ Klich Aboriginal Cognition and Psychological Science; Clark and Halford, Does Cognitive Style Account for Cultural Differences?
^ Ogbu, Minority Education and Caste
^ Verster and Prinsloo, The Diminishing Test Performance Gap
^ Raven, The Raven Progressive Matrices esp fig. 2
^ Kugelmass et al., Patterns of Intellectual Ability
^ Das and Khurana, Catse and Cognitive Processes
^ Adamovic, Intellectual Development and Level of Knowledge in Gypsy Pupils
^ Shimahara, Social Mobility and Education
^ SAGE, School Psychology
^ Reading level attenuates differences in neuropsychological test performance between African American and White elders JENNIFER J. MANLY, DIANE M. JACOBS, PEGAH TOURADJI, SCOTT A. SMALL and YAAKOV STERN
^ Acculturation, Reading Level, and Neuropsychological Test Performance Among African American Elders Jennifer J. Manly‌, Desiree A. Byrd‌, Pegah Touradji‌, Yaakov Stern‌
^ Cancellation test performance in African American, Hispanic, and White elderly DESIREE A. BYRD, PEGAH TOURADJI, MING-XIN TANG and JENNIFER J. MANLY
^ School Quality and the Black-White Achievement Gap Eric A. Hanushek and Steven G. Rivkin 2006
^ Cross-cultural Effects on IQ Test Performance: A Review and Preliminary Normative Indications on WAIS-III Test Performance Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology Volume 26, Number 7 / October 2004
^ When Are Racial Disparities in Education the Result of Racial Discrimination? A Social Science Perspective by Roslyn Arlin Mickelson University of North Carolina at Charlotte
^ Effect of Children's Ethnicity on Teachers' Referral and Recommendation Decisions in Gifted and Talented Programs Journal article by Negmeldin Alsheikh, Hala Elhoweris, Pauline Holloway, Kagendo Mutua; Remedial and Special Education, Vol. 26, 2005
^ (Salend, Garrick Duhaney, & Montgomery, 2002; Townsend, 2002)
^ Racial Inequity in Special Education. Losen, Daniel J., Ed.; Orfield, Gary, Ed. Harvard Education Publishing Group.
^ (Gay, 2000; Irvine & Armento, 2001; Ladson-Billings, 1994, 2001)
^ The Effects of African American Movement Styles on Teachers' Perceptions and Reactions Journal article by Scott T. Bridgest, Audrey Davis Mccray, La Vonne I. Neal, Gwendolyn Webb-Johnson; Journal of Special Education, Vol. 37, 2003
^ Color-Blind Ellis Cose. Page 50
^ Convergent Trends in Black-White Test-Score Differentials in the U.S.: A Correction of Richard Lynn Min-Hsiung Huang and Robert M. Hauser 2000
^ Ethnic Differences in Children's Intelligence Test Scores: Role of Economic Deprivation, Home Environment, and Maternal Characteristics, Jeanne Brooks-Gunn; Pamela K. Klebanov; Greg J. Duncan Child Development, Vol. 67, No. 2. (Apr., 1996), pp. 396-408.]
^ Low-Level Lead Exposure, Intelligence and Academic Achievement: A Long-term Follow-up Study David C. Bellinger PhD, MSc1, Karen M. Stiles PhD, MN1, and Herbert L. Needleman MD1. PEDIATRICS Vol. 90 No. 6 December 1992, pp. 855-861
^ Blood Lead Levels --- United States, 1999--2002 CDC.
^ Health
^ Blood Lead Levels --- United States, 1999--2002 CDC.
^ Racial and Socioeconomic Disparities in Breastfeeding --- United States, 2004 CDC
^ "Fat, Fitness And Performance," Peak Performance; I.B. Helland et al., "Maternal supplementation with very-long-chain n-3 fatty acids during pregnancy and lactation augments children's IQ at 4 years of age," Pediatrics 111, no. 1 (January 2003): 39–44.
^ ^a ^b ^c Violence Exposure, Trauma, and IQ and/or Reading Deficits Among Urban Children Virginia Delaney-Black, MD, MPH; Chandice Covington, PhD, RN, CPNP; Steven J. Ondersma, PhD; Beth Nordstrom-Klee, PhD; Thomas Templin, PhD; Joel Ager, PhD; James Janisse, PhD; Robert J. Sokol, MD Vol. 156 No. 3, March 2002
^ ^a ^b IQ and Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms in Children Exposed to Interpersonal Violence
^ Family, peer, and neighborhood influences on academic achievement among African-American adolescents: One-year prospective effects
^ CLOSING THE GAP: Blacks and whites still show unequal academic achievement
^ Ogbu 1978; Ogbu 2002; Ogbu 2003
^ TOEFL to the Test: Are Monodialectal AAL-Speakes Similar to ESL Students?
^ “Unequal partnership: Sociolinguistics and the African American speech community” John Russel Rickford. Language and Society 26/2 (1997), pp.161-97
^ Geneva Smitherman, Talkin and Testifyin: The Language of Black America (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977), 2.
^ Familiarity With School English in African American Children and Its Relation to Early Reading Achievement Child Development 75 (5), 1340–1356. 2004
^ Teachers, Race, and Student Achievement in a Randomized Experiment Thomas S. Dee. The Review of Economics and Statistics. February 2004
^ An Estimate of Race and Gender Role-Model Effects in Teaching High School Mark O. Evans The Journal of Economic Education, Vol. 23, No. 3 (Summer, 1992), pp. 209-217 doi:10.2307/1183223
^ Is There A Place for Me? Role Models and Academic Identity among White Students and Students of Color Sabrina Zirkel Teachers College Record. Volume 104 Issue 2 Page 357 - March 2002
^ http://homepage.mac.com/harpend/.Public/AshkenaziIQ.jbiosocsci.pdf
^ [4]
^ http://www.astarshop.com/j_dis.pdf
^ [5]
^ How Heritability Misleads about Race
^ Jensen 1998b
^ For example, see Rushton and Jensen 2003; see also Spearman's hypothesis
^ for example, inbreeding depression scores measured in Japan predict the magnitude of the Black-White gap in the United States. (Rushton 1989a)
^ reviewed by Jensen 1998b
^ Plomin et al. 2001
^ for example, the children of wealthy, high IQ Black parents score lower than the children of poor, low IQ White parents (Jensen 1998b, p. 358); and for Black and White children with an IQ of 120, the siblings of the Black children average an IQ of 100 whereas the siblings of the White children average an IQ of 110; in comparison, for Black and White children with an IQ of 70, the siblings of the Black children average an IQ of 78 whereas the siblings of the White children average an IQ of 85 (Jensen 1973, pp. 107–119))
^ http://www.lrainc.com/swtaboo/taboos/cmurraybga0799.pdf
^ Jensen 1980
^ Rushton and Jensen 2005a, cited in "Black-White-East Asian IQ differences at least 50% genetic, scientists conclude in major law journal", and Murray 2005
^ Reviewed by Rushton and Jensen 2005.
^ For example: Nisbett 2005, Suzuki and Aronson 2005, Sternberg 2005, Dickens 2005
^ Dolan and Hamaker 2001 reanalyzed the data from several earlier studies and concluded that Spearman's hypothesis is not an "empirically established fact" (i.e., that Black-White IQ differences may be due to differences in common factors other than g) due to insufficient power in the data to choose between alternative models. "This leaves the validity of Spearman's hypothesis, considered a central justification for the genetic explanation, an unresolved question." However, they did confirm that the Black-White IQ gap is not due to measurement artifacts, and is instead due to some measured factor that varies both within and between groups.
^ Race and IQ: Molecular Genetics as Deus ex Machina, Richard S. Cooper
^ http://www.ssc.uwo.ca/psychology/faculty/rushtonpdfs/PPPL1.pdf
^ http://taxa.epi.umn.edu/~mbmiller/journals/pppl/200504/2/302-2.html
^ THE PORTRAYALS OF MINORITY CHARACTERS IN ENTERTAINING ANIMATED CHILDREN’S PROGRAMS
^ Media Portrayals of Major League Baseball Pitchers
^ Patricia J. Williams: Racial Ventriloquism. The Nation (June 17, 1999). Retrieved on June 11, 2006.
^ Entman, Robert M. and Andrew Rojecki The Black Image in the White Mind: Media and Race in America. 2001
^ America's Mishandling of the Donovan McNabb-Rush Limbaugh Controversy
^ The Portrayal of Race, Ethnicity and Nationality in Televised International Athletic Events
^ Jackson Assails Press On Portrayal of Blacks (NYT)
^ Spike Lee discusses racial stereotypes
^ Darwin's Athletes: how sport has damaged Black America and preserved the myth of race By John Milton Hoberman ISBN 0395822920
^ "White Men Can't Jump": Evidence for the Perceptual Confirmation of Racial Stereotypes Following a Basketball Game Jeff Stone, ‌W. Perry, ‌John M. Darley. Basic and Applied Social Psychology 1997, Vol. 19, No. 3, Pages 291-306
^ The Ball Curve: Calculated Racism and the Stereotype of African American Men Ronald E. Hall Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 32, No. 1 (Sep., 2001), pp. 104-119
^ e.g., Sternberg, 2003, pp. 386-387
^ e.g., Sternberg, 2003, pp. 386-387
^ Hunt & Carlson, in press
^ Achieving Equitable Education in Calhoun County
^ Educational Studies: A Jrnl of the American Educ. Studies Assoc.
^ For example, the policy recommendations of The Bell Curve were denounced by many.^{[citation needed]} Herrnstein and Murray 1994 wrote: "We can imagine no recommendation for using the government to manipulate fertility that does not have dangers. But this highlights the problem: The United States already has policies that inadvertently social-engineer who has babies, and it is encouraging the wrong women. If the United States did as much to encourage high-IQ women to have babies as it now does to encourage low-IQ women, it would rightly be described as engaging in aggressive manipulation of fertility. The technically precise description of America's fertility policy is that it subsidizes births among poor women, who are also disproportionately at the low end of the intelligence distribution. We urge generally that these policies, represented by the extensive network of cash and services for low-income women who have babies, be ended. (p. 548)" Two year later the 1996 U.S. welfare reform substantially cut these programs. In a discussion of the future political outcomes of an intellectually stratified society, they stated that they: "fear that a new kind of conservatism is becoming the dominant ideology of the affluent - not in the social tradition of an Edmund Burke or in the economic tradition of an Adam Smith but ’conservatism’ along Latin American lines, where to be conservative has often meant doing whatever is necessary to preserve the mansions on the hills from the menace of the slums below. (p. 518)"Moreover, they fear that an increasing welfare will create a "custodial state": "a high-tech and more lavish version of the Indian reservation of some substantial minority of the nation’s population. They also predict increasing totalitarianism: It is difficult to imagine the United States preserving its heritage of individualism, equal rights before the law, free people running their own lives, once it is accepted that a significant part of the population must be made permanent wards of the states. (p. 526)"
^ Gottfredson 2005b
^ Gottfredson 1997a
^ Gregory Stock argues "current debates about whether some of the differences among ethnic and racial groups are cultural or biological will soon become irrelevant, given the coming [malleability of biological traits]" (Stock 2002, p. 194; race and intelligence discussed on pp. 44-47).

DeBows Review was a highly influential and widely circulated magazine of agricultural, commercial, Social Darwinism is the idea that Charles Darwins theory can be extended and applied to the social realm, i. ... Scientific racism is a term that describes either obsolete scientific theories of the 19th century or historical and contemporary racist propaganda Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z William Bradford Shockley (February 13, 1910 â€“ August 12, 1989) was a British-born American physicist and inventor. ... Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z is the 79th day of the year (80th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z For other uses, see Gene (disambiguation). ... For the hard rock band, see Allele (band). ... Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies is a 1997 book by Jared Diamond, professor of geography and physiology at UCLA. In 1998 it won Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Neil Risch Neil Risch is a the Lamond Distinguished Professor in Human Genetics and Director of the Center for Human Genetics at the University Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z is the 240th day of the year (241st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Robert J. Sternberg (8 December 1949-) is the IBM Professor of Psychology and Education at Yale University. ... Robert Serpell Robert Serpell is vice chancellor at the University of Zambia. ... Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z The Bell Curve is a controversial, best-selling 1994 book by Richard J. Herrnstein and Charles Murray exploring the role of genes in American life. Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Beverly Daniel Tatum is the the current president of Spelman College. ... Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Claude Mason Steele is an American psychology professor known for his work on stereotype threat. ... Pegah Touradji is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation at Johns Hopkins Medicine in Baltimore, Maryland, Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z The English psychologist Charles Spearman, in his 1904 book, General Intelligence - Objectively Determined and Measured, described his two-factor It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into inbreeding. ... Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z is the 162nd day of the year (163rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Dr. John Hoberman is a Professor of Germanic languages and the current chair of the Department of Germanic Studies at the University of Texas at The Bell Curve is a controversial, best-selling 1994 book by Richard J. Herrnstein and Charles Murray exploring the role of genes in American life. Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 (PRWORA, Pub. ... Edmund Burke (January 12, 1729[1] â€“ July 9, 1797) was an Anglo-Irish statesman, author, orator, political theorist, and philosopher, For other persons named Adam Smith, see Adam Smith (disambiguation). ... This article is about Native Americans. ... Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Gregory Stock is a scientist and writer with doctorate in biophysics from John Hopkins University. ... Full bibliography for the race and intelligence article series: Contents: Top - 0â€“9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z and industrial progress and resource in the American South during the middle of the 19th century. ... disguised as scientific research. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... a Pulitzer Prize and the Aventis Prize for Best Science Book. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... USA. Dr. Touradji has a Doctorate degree in Counseling Psychology from Columbia University and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation at John... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... theory of intelligence, using his strong background in statistics. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... Austin. ... ... A American Anthropological Association. ... who served for many years in the British House of Commons as a member of the Whig party. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ... A American Anthropological Association. ...

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American Anthropological Association (AAA) was founded in 1902 and claims to be, the worlds largest professional organization of individuals interested in anthropology. Although there were several other American anthropological societies in existence at the turn of the 20th century, this new, national organization was formed to promote the science...

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