NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Racial theories

Scientific racism refers to scientific theories of the 19th century, which drew on physical anthropology, anthropometry, craniometry, phrenology, physiognomy and other now-discredited disciplines, in order to provide a typology of different human races, based on a biological conception of the race. Such theories, which have been now discredited as pseudo-sciences or proto-sciences, have provided ideological justifications to racism, slavery and colonialism during the New Imperialism period in the second half of the 19th century. Unsurprisingly, their popularity coincide with this period of European expansion in the world. These scholarly theories sometimes worked in conjunction with racism, for example in the case of the "human zoos", during which various human beings were presented in cages during colonial exhibitions. They were strongly denounced after World War II and the Holocaust, in particular by the UNESCO 1950 statement, signed by internationally renowned scholars, and titled The Race Question. Image File history File links Please see the file description page for further information. ... Race science and racial science are phrases that refer to the scientific study of race from a biological, sociobiological, or evolutionary perspective. ... For the scientific journal named Science, see Science (journal). ... Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. ... Physical anthropology, often called biological anthropology, studies the mechanisms of biological evolution, genetic inheritance, human adaptability and variation, primatology, primate morphology, and the fossil record of human evolution. ... Illustration from The Speaking Portrait (Pearsons Magazine, Vol XI, January to June 1901) demonstrating the principles of Bertillons anthropometry. ... This article does not cite its references or sources. ... A 19th century Phrenology chart. ... Physiognomy (Gk. ... Typology in anthropology is the division of culture by races. ... Trinomial name Homo sapiens sapiens Linnaeus, 1758 Humans, or human beings, are bipedal primates belonging to the mammalian species Homo sapiens (Latin: wise man or knowing man) in the family Hominidae (the great apes). ... This article concerns the term race as used in reference to human beings. ... A pseudoscience is any body of knowledge purported to be scientific or supported by science but which fails to comply with the scientific method. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... Political Ideologies Part of the Politics series Politics Portal This box: An ideology is an organized collection of ideas. ... Manifestations Slavery Â· Racial profiling Â· Lynching Hate speech Â· Hate crime Â· Hate groups Genocide Â· The Holocaust Â· Armenian Genocide Â· Pogrom Ethnocide Â· Ethnic cleansing Â· Race war Religious persecution Â· Gay bashing Blood libel Â· Black Legend Pedophobia Â· Ephebiphobia Movements Discriminatory Aryanism Â· Neo-Nazism Â· Ku Klux Klan National Party (South Africa) American Nazi Party Kahanism Â· Supremacism Anti... Slave redirects here. ... It has been suggested that Benign colonialism be merged into this article or section. ... The term New Imperialism refers to the colonial expansion adopted by Europes powers and, later, Japan and the United States, during the late 19th and early 20th centuries; approximately from the Franco-Prussian War to World War I (c. ... Manifestations Slavery Â· Racial profiling Â· Lynching Hate speech Â· Hate crime Â· Hate groups Genocide Â· The Holocaust Â· Armenian Genocide Â· Pogrom Ethnocide Â· Ethnic cleansing Â· Race war Religious persecution Â· Gay bashing Blood libel Â· Black Legend Pedophobia Â· Ephebiphobia Movements Discriminatory Aryanism Â· Neo-Nazism Â· Ku Klux Klan National Party (South Africa) American Nazi Party Kahanism Â· Supremacism Anti... Human Zoo (VÃ¶lkerschau) in Stuttgart (Germany) in 1928 For other uses, see Human zoo (disambiguation). ... The Colonial Exhibitions were supposed to bolster popular support for the various colonial empires. ... Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki TÅjÅ Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000... ... UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) is a specialized agency of the United Nations established in 1945. ... The Race Question is a UNESCO statement issued on 18 July 1950 following World War II. Signed by some of the leading researchers of the time, in the field of psychology, biology, cultural anthropology and ethnology, it questioned the foundations of scientific racist theories which had became very popular at...

Along with eugenics, invented by Francis Galton and popularized at the turn of the 20th century, such theories, which often postulated a "master race", usually "Nordic" and "Aryan", were a main influence of the Nazi racial policies and their program of eugenics. However, this was not necessarily a continuous relationship, as several influential authors of Nazism were not anti-semitic. Quite to the contrary, Arthur de Gobineau (1816-82), for example, was a philo-semite who placed the "Jewish race" above all. Thus, although his racial theories largely influenced Nazi ideologies, they had to adapt him to suit their mindset. Apart of Gobineau's 1853 The Inequality of Human Races,^[1] other scientific racist works that largely influenced Nazism were Francis Galton’s 1870 Hereditary Genius: An Inquiry into Its Laws and Consequences,^[2] Madison Grant’s 1916/1924 The Passing of the Great Race^[3] and Lothrop T. Stoddard’s 1920 The Rising Tide of Color Against White World Supremacy^[4] Eugenics is the self-direction of human evolution: Logo from the Second International Congress of Eugenics, 1921, depicting it as a tree which unites a variety of different fields. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... The master race (German: die Herrenrasse, ) is a concept in Nazi ideology, which holds that the Germanic and Nordic people represent an ideal and pure race. It derives from nineteenth century racial theory, which posited a hierarchy of races placing African Bushmen and Indigenous Australians at the bottom of the... Nordic theory (or Nordicism) was a theory of race prevalent in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. ... Aryan (/eÉ™rjÉ™n/ or /É‘ËrjÉ™n/, Sanskrit: ) is a Sanskrit and Avestan word meaning noble/spiritual one. ... Nazis claimed to scientifically measure a strict hierarchy among races; at the top was the Aryan race (minus the Slavs, who were seen as below Aryan), then lesser races. ... The Racial Policy of Nazi Germany refers to the policies and laws implemented by Nazi Germany, asserting the superiority of the so-called Aryan race and based on a specific racist doctrine which claimed scientific legitimity. ... Nazi eugenics pertains to Nazi Germanys nazism and race social policies that placed the improvement of the race through eugenics at the centre of their concerns and targeted those humans they identified as Life Unworthy of Life, including but not limited to: criminal, degenerate, dissident, feeble-minded, homosexual, idle... National Socialism redirects here. ... Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Joseph Arthur Comte de Gobineau (July 14, 1816 - October 13, 1882) was a French aristocrat who became famous for advocating White Supremacy and developing the racialist theory of the Aryan master race in his book An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races (1853-1855). ... Philo-Semitism, Philosemitism, or Semitism is an interest in, respect for the Jewish people, as well as the love of everything Jewish, and the historical significance of Jewish culture and positive impact of Judaism in the history of the world. ... For other uses, see Jew (disambiguation). ... An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races (1853-1855) by Joseph Arthur Comte de Gobineau is a milestone of scientific racism (also called racialism) and White supremacy, and is generally considered to be the first formulation of biological racism, in contrast to Boulainvilliers theory of races. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Madison Grant in the early 1920s. ... The Passing of The Great Race was a racialist and Nordicist book written by the American eugenicist, lawyer, and amateur anthropologist Madison Grant in 1916. ... Lothrop Stoddard. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with The Rising Tide of Color Against White World Supremacy. ...

Beside this first acception of the term, scientific racism is a pejorative label sometimes given to modern theories or arguments that allege that scientific evidence shows significant evolutionary differences between races or ethnic groups. In this sense, the term is used to criticize modern studies of human genetics or studies claiming to show a link between race and intelligence, as well as hierarchically classifying races, hence asserting the superiority or inferiority of specific ones. Critics of such studies assert that both "race" and "intelligence" are fuzzy concepts. The scientific method or process is fundamental to the scientific investigation and acquisition of new knowledge based upon physical evidence. ... This article is about evolution in biology. ... A karyotype of a human male, showing 46 chromosomes including XY sex chromosomes. ... Race and intelligence are broad terms with many meanings that are often used to describe and measure human beings. ... A fuzzy concept is a concept of which the content or boundaries of application vary according to context or conditions. ...

Many subsequently disproven claims of scientific conclusions have been used to advocate racist policies. Proponents of controversial or taboo present-day research almost always deny the accusation of racism. Although the term is used by some who criticize the validity of race-related scientific research on the basis of its level of adherence to the scientific method, the term is also used by those who criticize such research only due to its distastefulness or to its potentially controversial nature. Scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena and acquiring new knowledge, as well as for correcting and integrating previous knowledge. ...

Earliest examples of scientific racism

Regular publications on race and other claimed differences between people of different geographical locations began at least as early as the eighteenth century. The 17nth and 18th century were marked by natural history, in which the concept of evolution had no sense. Early attempts at distinguishing various races had been made by Henri de Boulainvilliers (1658-1722), who divided the nation between two races, the aristocratic, "French" race, descendants of the Franks, a Nordic race, and the Gallo-Roman, indigenous race, which comprised the population of the Third Estate. According to Boulainvilliers, the descendants of the Franks dominated the Third Estate by a right of conquest. In the exact opposite of modern nationalism, the foreigners had a legitimate right of domination on indigenous peoples. But contrary to later, scientifically-justified theories of race, Boulainvilliers did not understand the concept of race as designing an eternal and immutable essence. His account was not, however, only a mythical tale: contrary to hagiographies and epics such as The Song of Roland, Boulainvilliers sought some kind of scientific legitimity by basing his distinction between a Nordic race and a Latin race on true, historical events. But his theory of races was completely distinct from the biological concept of race later used by nineteenth century's theories of scientific racism. To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Image File history File links A scientific demonstration from 1868 that the Negro is less evolved, by highlighting similarities to the young chimpanzee. ... Image File history File links A scientific demonstration from 1868 that the Negro is less evolved, by highlighting similarities to the young chimpanzee. ... Table of natural history, 1728 Cyclopaedia Natural history is an umbrella term for what are now often viewed as several distinct scientific disciplines of integrative organismal biology. ... This article is about biological evolution. ... Henri de Boulainvilliers (October 21, 1658, St. ... One of the most influential doctrines in history is that all humans are divided into groups called nations. ... Forms of government Part of the Politics series Politics Portal This box: The term aristocracy refers to a form of government where power is hereditary, and split between a small number of families. ... This article is about the Frankish people and society. ... Nordic theory (or Nordicism) was a theory of race prevalent in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. ... This article covers the culture of Romanized areas of Gaul. ... In France of the ancien régime and the age of the French Revolution, the term Third Estate (tiers état) indicated the generality of people which were not part of the clergy (the First Estate) nor of the nobility (the Second Estate). ... The right of conquest is the purported right of a conqueror to territory taken by force of arms. ... This article needs additional references or sources to facilitate its verification. ... Hagiography is the study of saints. ... The epic is a broadly defined genre of poetry, and one of the major forms of narrative literature. ... The Song of Roland (French: ) is the oldest major work of French literature. ...

Carolus Linnaeus (1707-78), a Swedish botanist, physician and zoologist, who laid the bases of binomial nomenclature (the method of naming species) and is known as the "father of modern taxonomy" (the science of describing, categorising and naming organisms) was also a pioneer in defining the concept of "race" as applied to humans. Within Homo sapiens he proposed four taxa of a lower (unnamed) rank. These categories are, Americanus, Asiaticus, Africanus, and Europeanus. They were based on place of origin at first, and later skin color. Each race had certain characteristics that were endemic to individuals belonging to it. Native Americans were reddish, stubborn, and angered easily. Africans were black, relaxed and negligent. Asians were sallow, avaricious, and easily distracted. Europeans were white, gentle, and inventive. Carolus Linnaeus, also known after his ennoblement as , (May 23, 1707[1] â€“ January 10, 1778), was a Swedish botanist, physician and zoologist[2] who laid the foundations for the modern scheme of nomenclature. ... In biology, binomial nomenclature is the formal method of naming species. ... Look up taxonomy in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

In addition, in Amoenitates academicae (1763), Carolus Linnaeus defined Homo anthropomorpha as a catch-all race for a variety of human-like mythological creatures, including the troglodyte, satyr, hydra, and phoenix. He claimed that not only did these creatures actually exist, but were in reality inaccurate descriptions of real-world ape-like creatures. Look up troglodyte in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Ancient Greek Satyr statuette In Greek mythology, satyrs (in Greek, Î£Î¬Ï„Ï…ÏÎ¿Î¹ â€” SÃ¡tyroi) are young humans, possibly with horse ears, that roamed the woods and mountains, and were the companions of Pan and Dionysus. ... The 16th-century German illustrator has been influenced by the Beast of Revelation in his depiction of the Hydra. ... The phoenix from the Aberdeen Bestiary. ...

He also defined in Systema Naturæ Homo ferus as "four-footed, mute, hairy." It included the subraces Juvenis lupinus hessensis (wolf boys), who he thought were raised by animals, and Juvenis hannoveranus (Peter of Hanover) and Puella campanica (Wild-girl of Champagne). He likewise defined Homo monstrosous as agile and fainthearted, and included in this race the Patagonian giant, the dwarf of the Alps, and the monorchid Hottentot. A feral child is a child who has lived isolated from human contact starting from a very young age. ... Peter the Wild Boy (fl. ... Marie-AngÃ©lique Memmie Le Blanc, also called the Wild Girl of Champagne, The Maid of ChÃ¢lons, and the Wild Girl of Songy, was one of the most famous feral children. ... The Patagones were a legendary tribe of native giants that Ferdinand Magellan and his crew claimed to have seen while exploring South America in the 1520s. ... This page is a candidate to be copied to Wiktionary. ... The Khoikhoi (men of men) or Khoi are a division of the Khoisan ethnic group of south-western Africa, closely related to the Bushmen (San). ...

Edward Long, a British colonial administrator, created a more simple classification of race in History of Jamaica (1774). The next year, Johann Blumenbach published his thesis, On the Natural Varieties of Mankind, one of the foundational work of scientific racism. Blumenbach, however, supported the monogenism thesis, according to which all mankind descended from the same, original authors, against Samuel von Sömmering and Christoph Meiners, who supported polygenism. Edward Long was a British Historian. ... Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (May 11, 1752 - January 22, 1840) was a German physiologist and anthropologist. ... monogenism (or monogenesis) is a word meaning single origin. It has been used in various contexts as an antonym for polygenism, or multiple origin. Race In the nineteenth century the term monogenesis was used to refer to the theory, supported by traditional interpretations of the Bible, that human beings all... Samuel Thomas von SÃ¶mmering Samuel Thomas von Soemmering (b. ... Christoph Meiners (1747-1810) was a German philosopher, and early anthropologist. ... Polygenism is a biblical theory of human origins positing that the human races are of different lineages. ...

19th century theories of race

The scientific classification proposed by Linnaeus was a prerequisite of any attempts at scientifically classifying humanity according to various races. Unilinealism depicting a progression from primitive human societies to industrialised civilisation became popular amongst philosophers including Friedrich Hegel, Immanuel Kant and Auguste Comte, and fitted well with the Christian belief of a divine Creation following which all of humanity descended from the same Adam and Eve. In contrast, polygenist theory alleged that there were different origins of mankind, thus making it possible to conceive of different, biological, human races, or to classify other humans as akin to animals without rights. Early scientific racist theories such as Arthur Gobineau's An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races (1853-1855) were mostly decadent in that they did not believe in the possibility of "improvement of the race." Scientific classification or biological classification is a method by which biologists group and categorize species of organisms. ... Unilineal evolution (also referred to as classical social evolution(ism)) is a 19th century social theory about the evolution of societies and cultures. ... Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel [] (August 27, 1770 â€“ November 14, 1831) was a German philosopher born in Stuttgart, WÃ¼rttemberg, in present-day southwest Germany. ... Immanuel Kant (22 April 1724 â€“ 12 February 1804) was a German philosopher from KÃ¶nigsberg in East Prussia (now Kaliningrad, Russia). ... Auguste Comte (full name: Isidore Marie Auguste FranÃ§ois Xavier Comte; January 17, 1798 - September 5, 1857) was a French thinker who coined the term sociology. ... Polygenism is a biblical theory of human origins positing that the human races are of different lineages. ... Joseph Arthur Comte de Gobineau (July 14, 1816 - October 13, 1882) was a French aristocrat who became famous for advocating White Supremacy and developing the theory of the Aryan master race in his book An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races (1853-1855). ... An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races by Joseph Arthur Comte de Gobineau is an early and significant work defining the concept of Scientific racism and White supremacy. ... Decadence was the name given, first by hostile critics, and then triumphantly adopted by some writers themselves, to a number of late nineteenth century fin de siècle writers associated with Symbolism or the Aesthetic movement. ...

Charles Darwin's 1859 On the Origin of Species was very influential, although it made no mention of humanity and when he published his views in his The Descent of Man of 1871 he was emphatic that there were no clear distinctive characteristics to categorise races as separate species, and that all shared very similar physical and mental characteristics indicating common ancestry.^[5] However with "Social Darwinism", a later name for ideas from earlier thinkers combined with concepts of evolution by natural selection, scientific racist theories could postulate a racist "survival of the fittest," an expression coined by Herbert Spencer in 1864. Ideas of improving human races were popularized by Francis Galton's "eugenics". Scientific racism theories, influenced by other discourses and events, became extremely popular towards the end of the 19th century. For other people of the same surname, and places and things named after Charles Darwin, see Darwin. ... The 1859 edition of On the Origin of Species First published in 1859, The Origin of Species (full title On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life) by British naturalist Charles Darwin is one of the pivotal... Title page of the first edition of Charles Darwins The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex. ... This article needs additional references or sources to facilitate its verification. ... This article is about evolution in biology. ... Darwins illustrations of beak variation in the finches of the GalÃ¡pagos Islands, which hold 13 closely related species that differ most markedly in the shape of their beaks. ... Herbert Spencer coined the phrase survival of the fittest Survival of the fittest is a phrase which is a shorthand for a concept relating to competition for survival or predominance. ... Herbert Spencer (27 April 1820 â€“ 8 December 1903) was an English philosopher and prominent classic-liberal political theorist. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Eugenics is the self-direction of human evolution: Logo from the Second International Congress of Eugenics, 1921, depicting it as a tree which unites a variety of different fields. ... Discourse is a term used in semantics as in discourse analysis, but it also refers to a social conception of discourse, often linked with the work of French philosopher Michel Foucault (1926-1984) and JÃ¼rgen Habermas The Theory of Communicative Action (1985). ...

Phrenology, which attempted to describe traits of character by outward appearance, including by the shape of skulls, measured via craniometry, and of skeletons, was put to use in racist ends. Thus, skulls and skeletons of Black people and other indigenous people were displayed between apes and white men. Thus, Ota Benga, a Pygmy, was displayed as the "Missing Link" in 1906 in the Bronx Zoo in New York, alongside apes and other animals. Some of the most influential theories included Vacher de Lapouge (1854-1936)'s "anthroposociology" and Herder (1744-1803), who applied "race" to nationalist theory to develop the first conception of ethnic nationalism. To the contrary, Ernest Renan famously argued in 1882 against Herder for a conception of nation based on the "will to live together," which was not founded on any ethnic or racial prerequisite. Scientific racist discourse posited the historical existence of "national races" such as German and French, branching from basal races supposed to have existed for millennia, such as the "Aryan race", and believed political boundaries should mirror these supposed racial ones. A 19th century Phrenology chart. ... This article does not cite its references or sources. ... Ota Benga in 1904, showing his sharpened teeth. ... Baka dancers in the East Province of Cameroon Pygmies (singular: Pygmy) refers to various peoples of central Africa whose adults have an average height of 150 centimetres (4 feet 11 inches) or shorter[1]. The term is also sometimes applied to the so-called Negrito peoples of Asia[2], and... This article is about the zoo, for the tv series see The Bronx Zoo (TV). ... Georges Vacher de Lapouge (1854-1936) was a French anthropologist and a theoretician of eugenics and pseudo-scientific racism. ... Johann Gottfried Herder Johann Gottfried von Herder (August 25, 1744 â€“ December 18, 1803), German poet, critic, theologian, and philosopher, is best known for his influence on authors such as Goethe and the role he played in the development of the larger cultural movement known as romanticism. ... Nationalism is an ideology that creates and sustains a nation as a concept of a common identity for groups of humans. ... Ethnic nationalism is the form of nationalism in which the state derives political legitimacy from historical cultural or hereditary groupings (ethnicities); the underlying assumption is that ethnicities should be politically distinct. ... Ernest Renan (February 28, 1823â€“October 12, 1892) was a French philosopher and writer. ... Aryan (/eÉ™rjÉ™n/ or /É‘ËrjÉ™n/, Sanskrit: ) is a Sanskrit and Avestan word meaning noble/spiritual one. ...

Craniometry and physical anthropology

Dutch scholar Pieter Camper (1722-89) was one of the first theorists of craniometry, the measure of skulls, which he used to justify racial differences. In 1770, he invented in one of his numerous memoirs the concept of the "facial angle", a measure meant to determine intelligence among various species. According to this technique, a "facial angle" was formed by drawing two lines: one horizontally from the nostril to the ear; and the other perpendicularly from the advancing part of the upper jawbone to the most prominent part of the forehead. Camper claimed that antique statues presented an angle of 90°, Europeans of 80°, Black people of 70° and the orangutan of 58°, thus displaying a hierarchic and racist view of mankind, based on a decadent conception of history. These scientific racist researchs were continued by Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1772-1844) and Paul Broca (1824-80). This article does not cite its references or sources. ... Physical anthropology, often called biological anthropology, studies the mechanisms of biological evolution, genetic inheritance, human adaptability and variation, primatology, primate morphology, and the fossil record of human evolution. ... Peter, Pieter, or usually Petrus Camper (May 11, 1722 in Leyden â€“ April 7, 1789 in The Hague) was a Dutch anatomist. ... See also Decadent movement Decadence refers to a personal trait and, much more commonly, to a state of society. ... An engraving of Ã‰tienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire. ... Paul Pierre Broca (June 28, 1824 - July 9, 1880) was a French physician, anatomist and anthropologist. ...

Samuel George Morton (1799-1851), one of the inspirator of physical anthropology, collected hundreds of human skulls from all over the world and started trying to find a way to classify them according to some logical criteria. Influenced by the common racist theories of his time, he claimed that he could judge the intellectual capacity of a race by the cranial capacity (the measure of the volume of the interior of the skull). A large skull meant a large brain and high intellectual capacity, and a small skull indicated a small brain and decreased intellectual capacity. By studying these skulls he decided at what point Caucasians stopped being Caucasians, and at what point Negroes began. Morton had many skulls from ancient Egypt, and concluded that the ancient Egyptians were not African, but were white. His two major monographs were the Crania Americana (1839), An Inquiry into the Distinctive Characteristics of the Aboriginal Race of America and Crania Aegyptiaca (1844). In Crania Americana, he claimed that the mean cranial capacity of the skulls of Whites was 87 in³ (1,425 cm³), while that of Blacks was 78 in³ (1,278 cm³). Based on the measurement of 144 skulls of Native Americans, he reported a figure of 82 in³ (1,344 cm³) ^[sic]. Samuel George Morton (1799-1851) An American physician and natural scientist. ... Physical anthropology, often called biological anthropology, studies the mechanisms of biological evolution, genetic inheritance, human adaptability and variation, primatology, primate morphology, and the fossil record of human evolution. ... Cranial capacity is a measure of the volume of the interior of the cranium (also called the braincase or brainpan) of those animals who have both a brain and a cranium. ... The 4th edition of Meyers Konversationslexikon (1885-1890) shows the Caucasian race (in blue) as comprising Aryans, Semites and Hamites. The Caucasian race (sometimes called the Caucasoid race) is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as, relating to a broad division of humankind covering peoples from Europe, the Middle East... Negro means the color black in both Spanish and Portuguese languages, being derived from the Latin word niger of the same meaning. ... Map of Ancient Egypt Ancient Egypt was the civilization of the Nile Valley between about 3000 BC and the conquest of Egypt by Alexander the Great in 332 BC. As a civilization based on irrigation it is the quintessential example of an hydraulic empire. ... World map showing location of Africa A satellite composite image of Africa Africa is the worlds second_largest continent in both area and population, after Asia. ... A white rose. ... 1839 (MDCCCXXXIX) was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... Olmec script These glyphs written in Epi-Olmec script, the earliest examples of writing in the Americas, give a calendar date of 7. ... This article or section needs additional references or sources to improve its verifiability. ...

Stephen Jay Gould (1941-2002), an American paleontologist, evolutionary biologist and historian of science, studied from a historical perspective these craniometric works in The Mismeasure of Man (1981). He showed that Samuel Morton had fudged data and "overpacked" the skulls with filler in order to justify his racist opinions. Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1000x836, 453 KB) Map by anthropologist/economist William Z. Ripley of the cephalic index of European populations. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1000x836, 453 KB) Map by anthropologist/economist William Z. Ripley of the cephalic index of European populations. ... William Z. Ripley was an economist who trained at the Massachussetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and at Columbia University. ... The Races of Europe is the title of two books related to the anthropology of Europeans. ... It has been suggested that Darwinian Fundamentalism be merged into this article or section. ... A paleontologist carefully chips rock from a column of dinosaur vertebrae. ... Science is a body of empirical and theoretical knowledge, produced by a global community of researchers, making use of specific techniques for the observation and explanation of real phenomena, this techne summed up under the banner of scientific method. ... First edition (1981) of The Mismeasure of Man The Mismeasure of Man is a controversial, best-selling 1981 book written by the Harvard paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould (1941-2002). ...

In 1873, Paul Broca (1824-1880), founder of the Anthropological Society of Paris in 1859, found the same pattern described by Samuel Morton's Crania Americana by weighing brains at autopsy. Other historical studies alleging a Black-White difference in brain size include Bean (1906), Mall, (1909), Pearl, (1934) and Vint (1934). 1873 (MDCCCLXXIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... Paul Pierre Broca (June 28, 1824 - July 9, 1880) was a French physician, anatomist and anthropologist. ... Post-mortem, postmortem and post mortem redirect here. ...

Monogenism and polygenism

Morton's followers, particularly Josiah C. Nott (1804-1873) and George Gliddon (1809-57) in their monumental tribute to Morton's work, Types of Mankind (1854), carried Morton's ideas further and claimed that his findings in fact supported the notion of polygenism, which claims that humanity originates from different lineages and is the ancestor of the multiregional hypothesis. Morton himself had been reluctant to explicitly espouse polygenism because it was a major challenge to the biblical account of creation. Charles Darwin opposed Nott and Glidon's polygenist — and creationists — arguments in his 1871 The Descent of Man, arguing for a monogenism of the species. Darwin conceived the common origin of all humans (aka single-origin hypothesis) as essential for evolutionary theory. monogenism (or monogenesis) is a word meaning single origin. It has been used in various contexts as an antonym for polygenism, or multiple origin. Race In the nineteenth century the term monogenesis was used to refer to the theory, supported by traditional interpretations of the Bible, that human beings all... Polygenism is a biblical theory of human origins positing that the human races are of different lineages. ... Josiah Clark Nott (31 March 1804â€“ 31 March 1873) was an American physician and surgeon; he was a writer on surgery, yellow fever, and race. ... George Robins Gliddon (1809-1857) was an American Egyptologist, born in Devonshire, England. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Creation (theology) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ... Creationism is generally the belief that the universe was created by a deity, or alternatively by one or more powerful and intelligent beings. ... The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex by British naturalist Charles Darwin was first published in 1871. ... In paleoanthropology, the single-origin hypothesis (or Out-of-Africa model) is one of two accounts of the origin of anatomically modern humans, Homo sapiens. ... This article is about biological evolution. ...

Furthermore, Josiah Nott was the translator of Arthur de Gobineau's An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races (1853-55), which is one of the founder of "biological racism", in contrast to Boulainvilliers (1658-1722)'s theory of races. Joseph Arthur Comte de Gobineau (July 14, 1816 - October 13, 1882) was a French aristocrat who became famous for advocating White Supremacy and developing the racialist theory of the Aryan master race in his book An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races (1853-1855). ... An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races by Joseph Arthur Comte de Gobineau is an early and significant work defining the concept of Scientific racism and White supremacy. ... Henri, Comte de Boulainvilliers (1658, St. ...

Philosophers of the Enlightenment and racial classifications

A few years later, Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), celebrated as the symbol of the Enlightenment's philosophy of progress and humanism, wrote his essay On the Different Races of Man (1775) in which he attempted a scientific classification of human races. Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831) would also include a strongly evolutionist account of history in Lectures on the Philosophy of History, describing the development of the Geist (Spirit or Reason) in history through a serie of incarnations in specific Volkgeists (Folk Spirit). Hegel's philosophy of history was explicitly biased in favor of Europe, and, in particular, of the Prussian state, conceived as the achievement of history (the "End of History"). In his chapter on the Geographical Foundings of Universal History, Hegel wrote that "each People represented a particular degree of the development of the Spirit," thus forming a "nation." Influenced, as many others, by Montesquieu's theory on the influence of climate on mores and laws, which the latter had developed in The Spirit of the Laws (1748), Hegel wrote that: This article or section contains information that has not been verified and thus might not be reliable. ... Immanuel Kant (22 April 1724 â€“ 12 February 1804) was a German philosopher from KÃ¶nigsberg in East Prussia (now Kaliningrad, Russia). ... Look up Enlightenment in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Humanism[1] is a broad category of ethical philosophies that affirm the dignity and worth of all people, based on the ability to determine right and wrong by appeal to universal human qualitiesâ€”particularly rationalism. ... Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel [] (August 27, 1770 â€“ November 14, 1831) was a German philosopher born in Stuttgart, WÃ¼rttemberg, in present-day southwest Germany. ... This article or section contains information that has not been verified and thus might not be reliable. ... Lectures on the Philosophy of History (also translated as Lectures on the Philosophy of World History) is the title of a major work by Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. ... Geist - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ... Philosophy of History is an area of philosophy concerning the eventual significance, if any, of human history. ... Motto: Suum cuique Latin: To each his own Prussia at its peak, as leading state of the German Empire Capital KÃ¶nigsberg, later Berlin Political structure Duchy, Kingdom, Republic Duke1 - 1525â€“68 Albert I - 1688â€“1701 Frederick III King1 - 1701â€“13 Frederick I - 1888â€“1918 William II Prime Minister1,2... The End of History and the Last Man is a 1992 book by Francis Fukuyama, expanding on his 1989 essay The End of History?, in which he argues the controversial thesis that the end of the Cold War signals the end of the progression of human history: What we may... Montesquieu can refer to: Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu Several communes of France: Montesquieu, in the Hérault département Montesquieu, in the Lot-et-Garonne département Montesquieu, in the Tarn-et-Garonne département This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages... The Spirit of Laws (French: De lesprit des lois) is a book on political theory by Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu, published in 1748. ...

Unsurprisingly, Hegel thus favorized the Geist in temperate zones. Hegel finally made an account of "universal history," which started with the Oriental World, then the Greek Antiquity, then the Roman and the Christian World, and, ultimately, the Prussian World^[7] It is true, however, that Hegel's philosophy, as Kant for that manner, can not be reduced to such evolutionist statements. In the same lessons, Hegel thus write that "America is the country of the future", but that "philosophy does not concerns itself with prophecies", but with history.^[8] Nevertheless, as great as Hegel's philosophy may be considered to be, it has provided justifications for Europe's imperialism until World War I. In the same way, the works of Montesquieu, one of the early founder of modern sociology, has provided various justifications over the age claiming to scientifically ground "Negroes' inferiority" on claims of the alleged influence of climate. Such racial and evolutionist statements would be echoed by Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) who attributed civilizational primacy, on naturalistic grounds, to the "white races" who gained their sensitivity and intelligence by refinement in the rigorous North: For Orientalist Architecture, see Moorish Revival. ... Classical antiquity is a broad term for a long period of cultural history centered on the Mediterranean Sea, which begins roughly with the earliest-recorded Greek poetry of Homer (7th century BC), and continues through the rise of Christianity and the fall of the Western Roman Empire (5th century AD... Motto Senatus Populusque Romanus (SPQR) The Roman Empire. ... Christianism may refer to: Christianity, or its theory and practice The term Christianist is referred to as early as 1992 in a book by RÃ©mi Brague. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... â€œThe Great War â€ redirects here. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Arthur Schopenhauer (February 22, 1788 â€“ September 21, 1860) was a German philosopher. ...

Various typologies

One of the first typology used to classify various human races was invented by Georges Vacher de Lapouge (1854-1936), a theoretician of eugenics, who published in 1899 L'Aryen et son rôle social (1899 - "The Aryan and his social role"). In this book, he classified humanity into various, hierarchized, races, spanning from the "Aryan white race, dolichocephalic", to the "brachycephalic" "mediocre and inert" race, best represented by the "Jew ^[sic]." Between these, Vacher de Lapouge identified the "Homo europaeus (Teutonic, Protestant, etc.), the "Homo alpinus" (Auvergnat, Turkish, etc.), and finally the "Homo mediterraneus" (Neapolitan, Andalus, etc.) Vacher de Lapouge became one of the leading inspiration of Nazi anti-semitism and Nazi racist ideology.^[10] To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Typology in anthropology is the division of culture by races. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Eugenics is the self-direction of human evolution: Logo from the Second International Congress of Eugenics, 1921, depicting it as a tree which unites a variety of different fields. ... Aryan (/eÉ™rjÉ™n/ or /É‘ËrjÉ™n/, Sanskrit: ) is a Sanskrit and Avestan word meaning noble/spiritual one. ... This article or section needs additional references or sources to improve its verifiability. ... A Nazi illustration of the Nordic master race. ... Madison Grants map, from 1916, charting the distribution of the European races. Nordic race is shown in bright red; green indicates the Alpine race; yellow, the Mediterranean race. ... Auvergne coat of arms Auvergne (Occitan: AuvÃ¨rnha) was the name of an historically independent county in the center of France, as well as later a province of France. ... The Mediterranean race was one of the three sub-categories into which the people of Europe were divided by anthropologists in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, following the publication of William Z. Ripleys book The Races of Europe (1899). ... â€œNapoliâ€ redirects here. ... Motto: AndalucÃa por sÃ, para EspaÃ±a y la humanidad (Andalusia by herself, for Spain, and for humankind) Capital Seville Official language(s) Spanish Area â€“ Total â€“ % of Spain Ranked 2nd 87,268 kmÂ² 17. ... National Socialism redirects here. ... The Eternal Jew: 1937 German poster. ... The Racial Policy of Nazi Germany refers to the policies and laws implemented by Nazi Germany, asserting the superiority of the so-called Aryan race and based on a specific racist doctrine which claimed scientific legitimity. ...

Vacher de Lapouge's classification was mirrored in William Z. Ripley in The Races of Europe (1899), a book which had a large influence on US white supremacism. Ripley even made a map of Europe according to the alleged cephalic index of its inhabitants. He was an important influence of the American eugenist Madison Grant William Z. Ripley was an economist who trained at the Massachussetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and at Columbia University. ... The Races of Europe is the title of two books related to the anthropology of Europeans. ... White supremacy is the variety of white nationalism that believes the white race should rule over other races. ... The cephalic index is the ratio of the maximum breadth of the head to its maximum length (i. ... Madison Grant in the early 1920s. ...

Deniker, Grant and the "Nordic race"

One of William Ripley's main opponent was Joseph Deniker (1852-1918). While Ripley maintained, as Vacher de Lapouge, that Europe was composed of three racial stocks, Joseph Deniker held that there were ten European races (six primary races with four subsidiary or sub-races). Deniker's most lasting contribution to the field of racial theory was the designation of one of his races as la race nordique (the Northern race). While this group had no special place in Deniker's racial model, it would be elevated by Madison Grant (1865-1937) in his Nordic theory to the engine of civilization. Grant adopted Ripley's three-race model for Europeans, but disliked Ripley's use of the "Teuton" for one of the races. Grant transliterated la race nordique into "Nordic", and promoted it to the top of his racial hierarchy in his own popular racial theory of the 1910s and 1920s. Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 800 Ã— 562 pixelsFull resolution (3062 Ã— 2150 pixel, file size: 2. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 800 Ã— 562 pixelsFull resolution (3062 Ã— 2150 pixel, file size: 2. ... Joseph Deniker (March 6, 1852–March 18, 1918) was a French naturalist and anthropologist, known primarily for his attempts to develop highly-detailed maps of race in Europe. ... Madison Grant in the early 1920s. ... A Nazi illustration of the Nordic master race. ...

Furthermore, Deniker proposed that the concept of "race" was too confusing, and instead proposed the use of the word "ethnic group" instead, which was later adopted prominently in the work of Julian Huxley and Alfred C. Haddon. Ripley argued that Deniker's idea of a "race" should be rather called a "type", since it was far less biologically rigid that most approaches to the question of race. Sir Julian Sorell Huxley, FRS (June 22, 1887 â€“ February 14, 1975) was a English biologist, author, Humanist and internationalist, known for his popularisations of science in books and lectures. ... Alfred Cort Haddon (May 24, 1855-April 20, 1940) was an influential British anthropologist. ...

Scientific racism in the Svecoman movement in 19th century Finland

A language strife developed in the Grand Duchy of Finland in the 19th century, supported by Finnish nationalists, the Fennomans, which aimed at raising the Finnish language from peasant-status to the position of a national language and status. These were opposed by other Finnish people, called Svecomans and best represented by the linguist Axel Olof Freudenthal (1836-1911), who defended the use of the Swedish language against Finnish. Svecomans were influenced by Herder, Gobineau, Blumenbach (1752-1840) and others racialist theorists, and thus considered that Finland was separated into two discrete "races," one speaking Finnish, and the other, superior one, assimilated to the "Germanic race," spoke Swedish. The language strife was one of the major conflicts of Finlands national history and domestic politics. ... The Swecomans, or Svekomans, was a political movement in the Grand Duchy of Finland, chiefly reactionary to the demands vigorously conveyed by the Fennomans for the substitution of Swedish in state administration, courts and schools with the Finnish language, then spoken by approximately 80 percent of the countrys population. ... The Fennomans were the most important political movement in the 19th century Grand Duchy of Finland. ... The language strife was one of the major conflicts of Finlands national history and domestic politics. ... The Grand Duchy of Finland was a state that existed 1809â€“1917 as part of the Russian Empire. ... The Fennomans were the most important political movement in the 19th century Grand Duchy of Finland. ... Finnish ( ) is the language spoken by the majority of the population in Finland (92%[1]) and by ethnic Finns outside Finland. ... The Swecomans, or Svekomans, was a political movement in the Grand Duchy of Finland, chiefly reactionary to the demands vigorously conveyed by the Fennomans for the substitution of Swedish in state administration, courts and schools with the Finnish language, then spoken by approximately 80 percent of the countrys population. ... Axel Olof Freudenthal Axel Olof Freudenthal (born 12 December 1836 in SjundeÃ¥, dead 2 June 1911, Helsinki) was a Finland Swedish philologist and politician. ... Swedish ( ), known since Esaias TegnÃ©r as the language of glory and heroes (Ã¤rans och hjÃ¤ltarnas sprÃ¥k), is a North Germanic language (also called Scandinavian languages) spoken predominantly in Sweden and in parts of Finland, especially along the coast and on the Ã…land islands, by more than nine... Johann Friedrich Blumenbach Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (May 11, 1752 - January 22, 1840) was a German physiologist and anthropologist. ...

Scientific racism and eugenics

Madison Grant's The Passing of the Great Race (1916) was described by Stephen Jay Gould as "the most influential tract of American scientific racism." Grant's Nordic theory was embraced in Germany by the racial hygiene movement in the 1920s-30s. The term itself of Rassenhygiene was coined by Alfred Ploetz (1860-1940) in Racial Hygiene Basics (1895). Ploetz founded the German Society for Racial Hygiene in 1905. The German Racial hygiene movement advocated selective breeding, compulsory sterilizations and a close alignment of public health with eugenics. Eugenics is the self-direction of human evolution: Logo from the Second International Congress of Eugenics, 1921, depicting it as a tree which unites a variety of different fields. ... Madison Grant in the early 1920s. ... The Passing of The Great Race was a racialist and Nordicist book written by the American eugenicist, lawyer, and amateur anthropologist Madison Grant in 1916. ... It has been suggested that Darwinian Fundamentalism be merged into this article or section. ... A Nazi illustration of the Nordic master race. ... Racial hygiene (often labeled a form of scientific racism) is the selection, by a government, of the most physical, intellectual and moral persons to raise the next generation (selective breeding) and a close alignment of public health with eugenics. ... Alfred Ploetz (March 22, 1860 â€“ March 20, 1940) was a German physician, biologist, eugenicist known for introducing the concept of racial hygiene (Rassenhygiene). ... The German Society for Racial Hygiene (German: Deutsche Gesellschaft fÃ¼r Rassenhygiene) was an organization founded on 22 June 1905 by the physician Alfred Ploetz (1860-1940) in Berlin. ... Selective breeding in domesticated animals is the process of developing a cultivated breed over time. ... Compulsory sterilization programs are government policies which attempt to force people to undergo surgical sterilization. ... Public health is concerned with threats to the overall health of a community based on population health analysis. ... Eugenics is the self-direction of human evolution: Logo from the Second International Congress of Eugenics, 1921, depicting it as a tree which unites a variety of different fields. ...

Racial hygiene was historically tied to traditional notions of public health, but usually with an enhanced emphasis on heredity — what philosopher and historian Michel Foucault has called state racism. The use of social measures to attempt to preserve or enhance biological characteristics was first proposed by Francis Galton (1822-1911) in his early work, starting in 1869. He then coined the term "eugenics." A statistician before all, Galton had created the statistical concepts of regression and correlation and discovered regression toward the mean, and was the first to apply statistical methods to the study of human differences and "inheritance of intelligence". He introduced the use of questionnaires and surveys for collecting data on sets of populations, which he needed for genealogical and biographical works and for his anthropometric studies. Galton also founded psychometrics (the science of measuring mental faculties) and differential psychology (the branch of psychology that concerns itself with psychological differences between people, rather than on common traits). Public health is concerned with threats to the overall health of a community based on population health analysis. ... Heredity (the adjective is hereditary) is the transfer of characteristics from parent to offspring through their genes, or the transfer of a title, style or social status through the social convention known as inheritance (for example, a Hereditary Title may be passed down according to relevant customs and/or laws). ... Michel Foucault (IPA pronunciation: ) (October 15, 1926 â€“ June 25, 1984) was a French philosopher and historian. ... State racism is a concept used by French philosopher Michel Foucault to designate the reappropriation of the historical and political discourse of race struggle, In the late seventeenth century. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... A graph of a Normal bell curve showing statistics used in educational assessment and comparing various grading methods. ... Positive linear correlations between 1000 pairs of numbers. ... In statistics regression toward the mean, sometimes called the regression effect in other disciplines, is a principle stating a relationship between a measurement that is used to split a population into groups, and a second measurement of the groups thereby created. ... The subject of the inheritance of intelligence is the genetics of mental abilities. ... A questionnaire is a type of survey handed out in paper form usually to a specific demographic to gather information in order to provider better service or goods. ... Statistical surveys are used to collect quantitative information about items in a population. ... Anthropometry literally means measurement of humans. ... Psychometrics is the field of study concerned with the theory and technique of psychological measurement, which includes the measurement of knowledge, abilities, attitudes, and personality traits. ... Differential psychology is concerned with the study of individual differences in humans. ...

As scientific racism, eugenics became very popular in the early 20th century, and both were main influence of the Nazi racial policies as well as their eugenics program. Galton, Karl Pearson (1857-1936) and Walter F. R. Weldon (1860-1906) founded in 1901 the Biometrika scientific journal, which promoted the study of biometrics and the statistical analysis of hereditary phenomena. Charles Davenport (1866-1944) was involved for a short time in the review. He published in 1929 Race Crossing in Jamaica, purported to give statistical evidence for biological and cultural degradation following interbreeding between white and black populations. Davenport had connections to Nazi Germany, before and during World War II. in 1939 he wrote a contribution to the festschrift for Otto Reche (1879-1966), who became an important figure within the plan to "remove" those populations considered "inferior" in eastern Germany.^[11] The Racial Policy of Nazi Germany refers to the policies and laws implemented by Nazi Germany, asserting the superiority of the so-called Aryan race and based on a specific racist doctrine which claimed scientific legitimity. ... Nazi eugenics pertains to Nazi Germanys nazism and race social policies that placed the improvement of the race through eugenics at the centre of their concerns and targeted those humans they identified as Life Unworthy of Life, including but not limited to: criminal, degenerate, dissident, feeble-minded, homosexual, idle... Karl Pearson FRS (March 27, 1857 â€“ April 27, 1936) established the discipline of mathematical statistics. ... Walter Frank Raphael Weldon (15 March 1860 — 13 April 1906) was an English evolutionary zoologist and biometrician. ... Biometrika is a scientific journal established in 1901 by Francis Galton, Karl Pearson and W. F. R. Weldon to promote the study of biometrics, the statistical analysis of hereditary phenomena. ... At Walt Disney World, biometric measurements are taken from the fingers of guests to ensure that the persons ticket is used by the same person from day to day. ... For the scientific journal Heredity see Heredity (journal) Heredity (the adjective is hereditary) is the transfer of characters from parent to offspring, either through their genes or through the social institution called inheritance (for example, a title of nobility is passed from individual to individual according to relevant customs and... Charles B. Davenport at a 1921 eugenics conference. ... It has been suggested that Anti-miscegenation laws be merged into this article or section. ... Nazi Germany, or the Third Reich, commonly refers to Germany in the years 1933–1945, when it was under the firm control of the totalitarian and fascist ideology of the Nazi Party, with the Führer Adolf Hitler as dictator. ...

Scientific racism and popular racist ideology

Human zoos were an important means of bolstering "popular racism", while being at the same time an object of anthropology and anthropometry; they were sometimes called "ethnographic exhibitions" or "Negro villages." Starting in the 1870s, they were common until World War II, and the concept has even survived until the 21st century. Ethnographic zoos were often predicated on unilinealism and a version of Social Darwinism. A number of them placed indigenous people (particularly Africans) in a continuum somewhere between the great apes and human beings of European descent. Human Zoo (VÃ¶lkerschau) in Stuttgart (Germany) in 1928 For other uses, see Human zoo (disambiguation). ... Saartje Baartman This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Saartje Baartman This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... A caricature of Baartman drawn in the early 19th century Last resting place of Saartjie Baartman. ... Khoisan (increasingly commonly spelled Khoesan or Khoe-San) is the name for two major ethnic groups of southern Africa. ... Georges Cuvier Baron Georges LÃ©opold ChrÃ©tien FrÃ©dÃ©ric Dagobert Cuvier (August 23, 1769â€“May 13, 1832) was a French naturalist and zoologist. ... The MusÃ©e de lHomme (French for Museum of Man) was created in 1937 by Paul Rivet, for the event of the Worlds Fair. ... Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela (IPA pronunciation: //) (born July 18, 1918) was the first President of South Africa to be elected in fully-representative democratic elections. ... Human Zoo (VÃ¶lkerschau) in Stuttgart (Germany) in 1928 For other uses, see Human zoo (disambiguation). ... Anthropology (from Greek: á¼€Î½Î¸ÏÏ‰Ï€Î¿Ï‚, anthropos, human being; and Î»ÏŒÎ³Î¿Ï‚, logos, knowledge) is the comparative study of the physical and social characteristics of humanity through the examination of historical and present geographical distribution, cultural history, acculturation, and cultural relationships. ... Illustration from The Speaking Portrait (Pearsons Magazine, Vol XI, January to June 1901) demonstrating the principles of Bertillons anthropometry. ... Ethnography (from the Greek ethnos = nation and graphe = writing) refers to the qualitative description of human social phenomena, based on months or years of fieldwork. ... This article or section contains information that has not been verified and thus might not be reliable. ... This article needs additional references or sources to facilitate its verification. ... The term indigenous peoples has no universal, standard or fixed definition, but can be used about any ethnic group who inhabit the geographic region with which they have the earliest historical connection. ...

Fundamental to any scientific racist theory and white supremacist views, theories of unilineal evolution claimed that Western culture was the contemporary pinnacle of social evolution. It was upheld by famous thinkers such as August Comte (1798-1857), Edward Burnett Tylor (1832-1917), Lewis Henry Morgan (1818-1881), and Herbert Spencer (1820-1903). Social evolutionism represented an attempt to formalize social thinking along scientific lines, later influenced by the biological theory of evolution. White supremacy is the variety of white nationalism that believes the white race should rule over other races. ... Social theory refers to the use of abstract and often complex theoretical frameworks to explain and analyze social patterns and large-scale social structures. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Western World. ... Social evolution is a subdiscipline of evolutionary biology that is concerned with social behaviours, i. ... Auguste Comte Auguste Comte (full name Isidore Marie Auguste François Xavier Comte) (January 17 (recorded January 19), 1798 _ September 5, 1857) was a positivist thinker and a founder of the discipline of sociology. ... Edward Burnett Tylor. ... Lewis Henry Morgan (1818-1881) was an American lawyer and amateur scholar best known for his work on cultural evolution and Native Americans. ... Herbert Spencer (27 April 1820 â€“ 8 December 1903) was an English philosopher and prominent classic-liberal political theorist. ... Social Evolutionism is a athropological and sociological social theory that holds that societies progress through stages of increasing development, i. ... This article is about biological evolution. ...

The display of human beings in cages, in an attempt to demonstrate scientific racist theories, became common in the second half of the 19th century. The 1889 World Fair in Paris had as major attraction a "Negro village" where 400 indigenous people were displayed. Carl Hagenbeck, a German merchant in wild animals, exhibited in 1874 Samoans and Sami people described as "purely natural" populations. Two years later, he sent an emissary to Sudan to capture wild beasts for his circus attractions, along with Nubians. Geoffroy de Saint-Hilaire, son of Edouard Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and owner of the Parisian Jardin d'acclimatation, presented Nubians and Inuit in 1877. The Exposition Universelle of 1889 was a Worlds Fair held in Paris, France from May 5, to October 31, 1889. ... Carl Hagenbeck Carl Hagenbeck (1844-1913) was a merchant in wild animals and future entrepreneur of many European zoos. ... The Sami people (also SÃ¡mi, Saami, Lapps, sometimes also Laplanders) are the indigenous people of SÃ¡pmi, which today encompasses parts of northern Sweden, Norway, Finland and the Kola Peninsula of Russia. ... The Big Top of Billy Smarts Circus Cambridge 2004. ... For the Star Wars planet, see Nubia (Star Wars). ... For other uses, see Inuit (disambiguation). ...

In 1906, Madison Grant, head of the New York Zoological Society, had Congolese pygmy Ota Benga put on display at the Bronx Zoo in New York City alongside apes and other animals. At the behest of Grant, a prominent eugenicist, the zoo director placed Ota Benga in a cage with an orangutan and labeled him The Missing Link, illustrating that in evolutionary terms Africans like Ota Benga were closer to apes than were Europeans. Madison Grant in the early 1920s. ... This article is about the zoo, for the tv series see The Bronx Zoo (TV). ... This does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Ota Benga in 1904, showing his sharpened teeth. ... This article is about the zoo, for the tv series see The Bronx Zoo (TV). ... Families Hylobatidae Hominidae Apes are the members of the Hominoidea superfamily of primates, which includes humans. ... Eugenics is the self-direction of human evolution: Logo from the Second International Congress of Eugenics, 1921, depicting it as a tree which unites a variety of different fields. ...

Justification of slavery in the nineteenth century

Because the Atlantic slave trade raised moral questions from its inception scientific theories were provided to justify the enslavement of Africans, in particular in the United States. According to Alexander Thomas and Samuell Sillen during this time period the Black man was described as uniquely fitted for bondage because of what researches at the time called "his primitive psychological organization."^[13] Hence, a well-known physician of the ante-bellum South, Samuel A. Cartwright (1793-1851) of Louisiana, had a psychiatric explanation for runaway slaves. He diagnosed their attempts to gain freedom as a treatable mental illness and coined the term "drapetomania" in 1851 to describe it. His feeling was that with "proper medical advice, strictly followed, this troublesome practice that many Negroes have of running away can be almost entirely prevented."^[14] Cartwright also described dysaethesia aethiopica, "called by overseers 'rascality'". Image File history File links Morton_drawing. ... Image File history File links Morton_drawing. ... Samuel George Morton (1799-1851) An American physician and natural scientist. ... The Atlantic slave trade, started by the Portuguese[1], but soon dominated by the English, was the sale and exploitation of African slaves by Europeans that occurred in and around the Atlantic Ocean from the 15th century to the 19th century. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Drapetomania was a psychiatric diagnosis proposed in 1851 by Louisiana physician Samuel A. Cartwright to explain the tendency of black slaves to flee captivity. ...

The attention focused on race leading up to, during, and after the American Civil War led to a proliferation of works looking at the physiological differences between Caucasians and Negroes, with a large amount of attention paid to the question of "miscegenation." Work by early anthropologists such as Josiah Clark Nott, George Robins Gliddon, Robert Knox, and Samuel George Morton attempted to prove scientifically that Negroes were not the same species as white people, and alleged that the rulers of Ancient Egypt were not actually Africans, and that racial mixture provided infertile or weak offspring. In the years after the Civil War, Southern physicians wrote text after text outlining different scientific studies which sought to prove that the Negro was dying out as a race under the conditions of freedom, implying that the system of slavery had been beneficial. This article is becoming very long. ... The 4th edition of Meyers Konversationslexikon (1885-1890) shows the Caucasian race (in blue) as comprising Aryans, Semites and Hamites. The Caucasian race (sometimes called the Caucasoid race) is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as, relating to a broad division of humankind covering peoples from Europe, the Middle East... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... It has been suggested that Anti-miscegenation laws be merged into this article or section. ... Anthropology (from Greek: á¼€Î½Î¸ÏÏ‰Ï€Î¿Ï‚, anthropos, human being; and Î»ÏŒÎ³Î¿Ï‚, logos, knowledge) is the comparative study of the physical and social characteristics of humanity through the examination of historical and present geographical distribution, cultural history, acculturation, and cultural relationships. ... This page is a candidate for speedy deletion, because: POV essay about the Vedic race - no mention of Josiah Clark Nott anywhere If you disagree with its speedy deletion, please explain why on its talk page or at Wikipedia:Speedy deletions. ... George Robins Gliddon (1809-1857) was a British Egyptologist born in Devonshire in 1809. ... Robert Knox (4 September 1791 â€” 20 December 1862) was a doctor, natural scientist and traveller. ... Samuel George Morton (1799-1851) An American physician and natural scientist. ... The term white people (also whites or white race) has been defined as being a member of a group or race characterized by light pigmentation of the skin and to a human group having light-colored skin, especially of European ancestry. ... Khafres Pyramid (4th dynasty) and Great Sphinx of Giza (c. ... A world map showing the continent of Africa Africa is the worlds second-largest and second most-populous continent, after Asia. ... Slave redirects here. ...

In the twentieth and twenty first centuries

This sort of work continued through the early twentieth century, but soon intelligence testing became a new source for comparisons between races. Poorly designed studies appeared to justify the claim that "Negroes," as well as Eastern Europeans and Jews, were physically and mentally inferior to whites from Northern Europe. In the United States, eugenicists such as Harry H. Laughlin and Madison Grant sought to justify policies such as compulsory sterilization and immigration restriction by using scientific research to show that certain populations of people were physically or mentally inadequate. Compulsory sterilization programs were active until the 1960s and even further on. In France, Nobel prize winner Alexis Carrel, who founded the ancestor of the present INED demographic institute, followed a similar discourse, in particular under the Vichy regime. However, Vichy didn't implement any eugenics programs. ... Eastern Europe is, by convention, a region defined geographically as that part of Europe covering the eastern part of the continent. ... Eugenics is the self-direction of human evolution: Logo from the Second International Congress of Eugenics, 1921, depicting it as a tree which unites a variety of different fields. ... Harry H. Laughlin Harry Hamilton Laughlin (March 11, 1880 â€“ January 26, 1943) was a leading American eugenicist in the first half of the 20th century. ... Madison Grant in the early 1920s. ... Compulsory sterilization programs are government policies which attempt to force people to undergo surgical sterilization. ... President Coolidge signs the immigration act on the White House South Lawn along with appropriation bills for the Veterans Bureau. ... List of Nobel Prize laureates in Physiology or Medicine from 1901 to the present day. ... Alexis Carrel Alexis Carrel (June 28, 1873 â€“ November 5, 1944) was a French surgeon and biologist. ... INED is a shortcut for: Institut National Etudes DÃ©mographiques - National Institute for Demografic Research [1] International Network of Economic Developers [2] Instituto de EducaciÃ³n a Distancia [3] INed Editor for AIX The royal titulary of Ined of the 13th Dynasty of Ancient Egypt This article consisting of a... Vichy France (French: now called Régime de Vichy or Vichy; called itself at the time État Français, or French State) was the French state of 1940-1944 which was a puppet government under Nazi influence, as opposed to the Free French Forces, based first in London and later...

In the 1960s George Lincoln Rockwell, founder of the American Nazi Party gave an interview to Alex Haley for Playboy magazine (April 1966 issue) In the interview, Rockwell explained why he believed black people were inferior to whites. He cited a study by G.O. Ferguson that showed that black people who were part white did better on a test than the "pure-black niggers" (Rockwell's words); Rockwell's use of these statistics is a textbook example of a statistical fallacy used to propagate scientific racism.^[15] George Lincoln Rockwell (March 9, 1918 - August 25, 1967) was a U.S. Naval Commander and founder of the American Nazi Party. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... Alexander Palmer Haley (August 11, 1921 â€“ February 10, 1992) was an American writer. ... The first issue of Playboy. ... A misuse of statistics occurs when a statistical argument asserts a falsehood. ...

Criticism of IQ tests and intelligence research

Much of the actual science used in certain early physical anthropological studies on race has been discredited as highly flawed, usually from methodological standpoints. The early IQ tests used during intelligence testing of soldiers during World War I, for example, were found later to have measured acculturation to the USA more than they did any latent intelligence.^{[citation needed]} Multiple-choice questions included such highly context-based questions as: "Crisco is a: patent medicine, disinfectant, toothpaste, food product" and "Christy Mathewson is famous as a: writer, artist, baseball player, comedian." Not surprisingly, recent immigrants to the USA did poorly on such questions, and the intelligence scores correlated most significantly with the number of years spent immersed in American culture. However, modern studies on race and intelligence have overcome many of these concerns, and the subject remains one of intense interest because they continue to show differences between races. Dorthy Roberts writes that the history of the eugenics movement in America was strongly tied to the older scientific racism used to justify slavery. Roberts writes that paralleling the development of eugenic theory was the acceptance of intelligence as the primary indicator of human value. Eugenicists claimed that the IQ test could quantify innate human ability in a single measurement, despite the objections of the creator of the test, Alfred Binet.^[16] Race and intelligence are broad terms with many meanings that are often used to describe and measure human beings. ... Methodology is defined as the analysis of the // == Headline text == principles of methods, rules, and postulates employed by a discipline or the development of methods, to be applied within a discipline a particular procedure or set of procedures. [1]. It should be noted that methodology is frequently used when method... ... â€œThe Great War â€ redirects here. ... Pocahontas, in England, as Mrs John Rolfe, 1616: engraving after Simon Van de Passe Acculturation is the obtainment of culture by an individual or a group of people. ... Cover of original Crisco cookbook, 1912 Crisco, a popular brand of shortening, was first produced in 1911 by Procter & Gamble and was the first shortening to be made entirely of vegetable oil. ... Christopher Christy Mathewson (August 12, 1880 - October 7, 1925), nicknamed Big Six, The Christian Gentleman, or Matty, was a right-handed pitcher in Major League Baseball. ... This article very generally discusses the customs and culture of the United States; for the culture of the United States, see arts and entertainment in the United States. ... Race and intelligence are broad terms with many meanings that are often used to describe and measure human beings. ... Alfred Binet Alfred Binet (July 8, 1857 â€“ October 18, 1911), French psychologist and inventor of the first usable intelligence test, the basis of todays IQ test. ...

Until the 1920s such work was regarded as science and faced little criticism. But soon, new work by the cultural anthropologist Franz Boas and Ruth Benedict began to slowly, point out methodological errors and to allege that political and ideological bias was affecting the conclusions more than the observations made. Through the 1920s and 1930s, the Boasian school of cultural anthropology began to compete with and even replace the school of physical anthropology, in a bitter institutional battle. Eventually the Boasians were defeated. This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Franz Boas Franz Boas (July 9, 1858 â€“ December 21, 1942[1]) was one of the pioneers of modern anthropology and is often called the Father of American Anthropology. Born in Germany, Boas worked for most of his life in North America. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... The 1920s is a decade that is sometimes referred to as the Jazz Age or the Roaring Twenties, usually applied to America. ... Face The 1930s (years from 1930â€“1939) were described as an abrupt shift to more radical and conservative lifestyles, as countries were struggling to find a solution to the Great Depression, also known in Europe as the World Depression. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Physical anthropology, often called biological anthropology, studies the mechanisms of biological evolution, genetic inheritance, human adaptability and variation, primatology, primate morphology, and the fossil record of human evolution. ...

In the early 1930s, the government of Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler utilized highly racialized scientific rhetoric based on social Darwinism for pushing its restrictive and discriminatory social policies. When World War II broke out, the Nazi approach to race became anathema in the United States, and Boasians such as Ruth Benedict were able to consolidate their institutional power. In the years after the war, the discovery of the Holocaust and the Nazi abuses of scientific research (such as the ethical violations of Josef Mengele and other war crimes which were revealed at the Nuremberg Trials) led to a widespread repudiation of the use of science to support racist causes within the scientific community. Nazi Germany, or the Third Reich, commonly refers to Germany in the years 1933–1945, when it was under the firm control of the totalitarian and fascist ideology of the Nazi Party, with the Führer Adolf Hitler as dictator. ... Hitler redirects here. ... This article needs additional references or sources to facilitate its verification. ... Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki TÅjÅ Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... â€œShoahâ€ redirects here. ... Josef Mengele Dr. Josef Mengele (March 16, 1911 â€“ February 7, 1979), was a German SS officer and a physician in the Nazi concentration camp Auschwitz-Birkenau. ... In the context of war, a war crime is a punishable offense under International Law, for violations of the laws of war by any person or persons, military or civilian. ... The SÃ¼ddeutsche Zeitung announces The Verdict in Nuremberg. ...

In response to the German racial propaganda, many geneticists, especially Julian Huxley and Alfred C. Haddon, along with certain anthropologists, published works denouncing the Nazi views on race and the studies they purported to be based on. Some of the anthropologist's works were even made into anti-racist propaganda and distributed widely in the form of pamphlets. Many began to identify Nazi Germany specifically with many racist attitudes which had previously been accepted (indeed, Nazi Germany did not develop them in a bubble, and many like-minded scientists had institutional support in the U.S. and UK as well), and after the war this had a great effect on how the public and scientists viewed research which made strong statements about the superiority or inferiority of races, even to the point that any scientific studies of racial differences, were viewed as being beyond the pale. Sir Julian Sorell Huxley, FRS (June 22, 1887 â€“ February 14, 1975) was a English biologist, author, Humanist and internationalist, known for his popularisations of science in books and lectures. ... Alfred Cort Haddon (May 24, 1855-April 20, 1940) was an influential British anthropologist. ...

In the decades after the Civil Rights Movement in the United States, increased attention was paid to those who attempted to use science to justify purportedly racist viewpoints. Many scientists who had previously published works relating to racial differences moved into other fields. Robert Yerkes, for example, had previously worked on the World War I Army intelligence testing, but in the years that followed moved instead into the field of primatology. This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... Robert Mearns Yerkes, PhD, (b. ... Primatology is the study of non-human primates. ...

Also symptomatic of this change in conditions were effort of international bodies such as UNESCO to draft resolutions that attempted to summarize the state of scientific knowledge about race and issue calls for the resolution of racial conflicts. In its 1950 The Race Question [1] UNESCO declared that "A race, from the biological standpoint, may therefore be defined as one of the group of populations constituting the species Homo sapiens", which were broadly defined as the Mongoloid, Negroid, and the Caucasoid "divisions" but stated that "It is now generally recognized that intelligence tests do not in themselves enable us to differentiate safely between what is due to innate capacity and what is the result of environmental influences, training and education." To this day, the 1950 UNESCO Statement is controversial among some scientists because of its message (some, such as R. A. Fisher, vehemently disagreed with it) and its purpose (some objected to what was perceived as a political declaration about what science did or did not "say"). It clearly did not subscribe to the denial of the reality of race point of view. UNESCO logo UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) is a specialized agency of the United Nations established in 1945. ... Year 1950 (MCML) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Typical Mongoloid Skull A portrait of the Mongol ruler Genghis Khan; the Mongolians, for which the term Mongoloid was named after, are an example of the prototype Northern Mongoloid. ... Negroid is a largely-archaic term used to describe one of the three races of man, a view now mostly regarded as an over-simplification of the spectrum of human diversity. ... Typical Caucasoid skull Caucasoid is a racial classification usually used as part of a phenotypal system, also including other classifications such as Australoid, Mongoloid, Negroid, and sometimes others such as Capoid. ... Sir Ronald Fisher Sir Ronald Aylmer Fisher, FRS (February 17, 1890 – July 29, 1962) was an evolutionary biologist, geneticist and statistician. ... This article concerns the term race as used in reference to human beings. ...

In 1978, a similar sort of declaration UNESCO Declaration on Race and Racial Prejudice [2]. This Statement proclaimed that no race was superior to any other, but in contrast to the 1950 statement, hardly mentioned science but rather relied more on "moral and ethical principles of humanity." The corresponding 2001 statement by UNESCO, Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity [3] does not mention race at all, nor does it use "science" as the underpinning justification for its views on cultural diversity. Views, or at least the language, of racial discourse, have clearly evolved over the half-century. Year 2001 (MMI) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Modern usage

The labeling of a work today as being "scientific racism" is generally meant to imply that the research has been politically motivated and is attempting to justify racist ideology through the use of a veneer of science. This labeling is challenged by those who have conducted this research, who claim that their work was indeed objective and that the attempts to denounce it are acts of political correctness or censorship. Some have compared the attacks on their work as akin to Lysenkoism. Political correctness is the alteration of language to redress real or alleged injustices and discrimination or to avoid offense. ... Censorship is the removal and withholding of information from the public by a controlling group or body. ... Please wikify (format) this article as suggested in the Guide to layout and the Manual of Style. ...

Some of the work of such scientists of the 19th century, such as the naturalist Charles Darwin, contain statements and ideas which would be considered racist in the current cultural context, but in their time were either typical for their Victorian context or even less racist than many other contemporary scientific views. For example, Darwin believed in a hierarchy of the human races (with Europeans at the top and Native Americans at or near the bottom), as did most Victorian scientists. However, Darwin can be considered far less racist in this belief than much of the anthropological community of his time, who argued that other races were not even of the same species as Europeans, an idea Darwin vehemently opposed. For other people of the same surname, and places and things named after Charles Darwin, see Darwin. ... Queen Victoria (shown here on the morning of her Ascension to the Throne, 20 June 1837) gave her name to the historic era The Victorian era of the United Kingdom marked the height of the British Industrial Revolution and the apex of the British Empire. ... Native Americans can refer to Native Americans in the United States, natives of the United States only; equivalent to American Indians in some contexts. ... In biology, a species is one of the basic units of biodiversity. ...

Few scientists today argue about the superiority or inferiority of races, but many are interested in, and publish on, the various differences between and among ethnic groups. For example, the very large collaborative study known as the HapMap project, which is an outgrowth of the huge Human Genome Project, has exhaustively made available to all the Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) frequency differences between four groups or populations, Han Chinese, Tokyo Japanese, Northern Europeans, and Nigerian Yoruba. It is well known today that many diseases are influenced by genes, that it is important and beneficial to understand the links between genes and disease, and how the frequencies of both differ between races. Using powerful new laboratory techniques such as PCR, DNA microarrays, and bioinformatics together with modern statistical methods, these connections are being intensively studied around the world by the medical community. The goal of the International HapMap Project is to develop a haplotype map of the human genome, also referred to as the HapMap, which will describe the common patterns of human genetic variation. ... // The Human Genome Project (HGP) is a project to de-code (i. ... A Single Nucleotide Polymorphism or S.N.P. (pronounced snip) is a DNA sequence variation occurring when a single nucleotide - A, T, C, or G - in the genome (or other shared sequence) differs between members of a species (or between paired chromosomes in an individual). ... Languages Chinese languages, Indian languages, Hebrew Religions Predominantly Taoism, Mahayana Buddhism, traditional Chinese religions, and atheism. ... The term Caucasian race has in time acquired somewhat different meanings in different contexts. ... The Yoruba (YorÃ¹bÃ¡ in Yoruba orthography) are a large ethno-linguistic group or ethnic nation in Africa; the majority of them speak the Yoruba language (ede YorÃ¹bÃ¡). The Yoruba constitute approximately 21 percent of Nigerias total population,[1] and around 30 million individuals throughout the region of... Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ... A DNA microarray (also DNA chip or gene chip in common speech) is a piece of glass or plastic on which pieces of DNA have been affixed in a microscopic array. ... Map of the human X chromosome (from the NCBI website). ...

The attacks on scientific research into racial differences on these studies are much less frequent and muted than those directed at researchers who study behavioral, and, especially, intelligence differences between the races^{[citation needed]}. These latter differences, while 'comparatively easy' to demonstrate, have cause(s) that are much more difficult to determine because of the many confounding effects, partly rooted in historical and economic circumstances. These studies are also relatively value laden, which tends to increase the emotional temperature of the debate somewhat.^{[citation needed]}

Among those most prominently attacked as scientific racists in the late 20th century have been Arthur Jensen (The g Factor: The Science of Mental Ability), J. Philippe Rushton, president of the Pioneer Fund (Race, Evolution, and Behavior), Richard Lynn (IQ and the Wealth of Nations), and Richard Herrnstein (The Bell Curve), among others. Many critics of these authors, such as Stephen Jay Gould and Richard Lewontin, said that their refusal to renounce their work indicated racist motivations. In turn, Gould has been accused by a number of scientists of misrepresenting their work and of being motivated in these attacks by his political views. Jensen published a rebuttal of Gould's accusations in The Debunking of Scientific Fossils and Straw Persons [4]. Both Gould and Lewontin have given a course titled Biology as a Social Weapon, which, Gould explained, was intended to foster "a powerful political and moral vision of how science, properly interpreted and used to empower all the people, might truly help us to be free." Arthur Jensen Arthur Jensen is a Professor Emeritus of educational psychology at the University of California, Berkeley. ... Professor J. Philippe Rushton John Philippe (Phil) Rushton (born December 3, 1943) is a psychology professor at the University of Western Ontario, Canada, who is most widely known for his work on intelligence and racial differences, particularly his book Race, Evolution And Behavior. ... The Pioneer Fund is a foundation that claims to have played a significant role in research on heredity and human personality differences since its 1937 founding, particularly in intelligence. ... Richard Lynn (born 1930) is a British Professor Emeritus of Psychology and a leading scholar of racial and ethnic differences,[1] known for his work on intelligence and differential psychology. ... IQ and the Wealth of Nations IQ and the Wealth of Nations is a controversial 2002 book by Dr. Richard Lynn, Professor Emeritus of Psychology at the University of Ulster, Northern Ireland, and Dr. Tatu Vanhanen, Professor Emeritus of Political Science at the University of Tampere, Tampere, Finland. ... Richard Herrnstein (1930-1994) was a prominent researcher in comparative psychology who did pioneering work on pigeon intelligence employing the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. ... The Bell Curve is a controversial, best-selling 1994 book by Richard J. Herrnstein and Charles Murray exploring the role of genes in American life. ... It has been suggested that Darwinian Fundamentalism be merged into this article or section. ... Richard Lewontin Richard Charles Dick Lewontin (born March 29, 1929) is an American evolutionary biologist, geneticist and social commentator. ...

As another example, Edinburgh University psychologist Chris Brand, whose work involves IQ, broke with convention in 1996 by indicating that he was a 'race realist.' He was fired after a sixteen-month battle with his university (though later compensated financially for 'unfair dismissal')[5][6]. The University of Edinburgh was founded in 1583 as a renowned centre for teaching in Edinburgh, Scotland. ... Christopher Richard Brand (born 1 June 1943) is a British author and psychology researcher who is famous for his controversial views on race and intelligence. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Scientific racism. ...

The question of who is being more political — either those to whom the term is applied or those who apply the term — is itself a source of much dispute. Some critics have argued that the entire attempt to compare races using science is impossibly fraught with methodological problems, and that even if it were not, nothing good could come from the research. Those who support such work generally appeal to the more idealistic goals of scientific knowledge, and many have implied that social policy should be tailored around accurate scientific knowledge of such differences, if they exist. Social policy is the study of the welfare state, and the range of responses to social need. ...

As a result of this historical evolution of the idea of race, the pejorative term "scientific racism" or simply "racism" is still sometimes incorrectly applied even to those activities of scientists who seek to understand the nature of the differences between races or geographically separated populations for medical, anthropological, or even genealogical purposes. Recently, the discovery of many Ancestry-informative markers in the human genome has provided powerful new tools for distinguishing populations, and can serve as replacements for the historical, more subjective variables which sometimes vary little between races. An ancestry-informative marker (AIM) is a gene, generally of humans, which have several polymorphisms that exhibit substantially different frequencies between races. ... A graphical representation of the normal human karyotype. ...

Contents

Earliest examples of scientific racism

19th century theories of race

Craniometry and physical anthropology

Monogenism and polygenism

Philosophers of the Enlightenment and racial classifications

Various typologies

Deniker, Grant and the "Nordic race"

Scientific racism in the Svecoman movement in 19th century Finland

Scientific racism and eugenics

Scientific racism and popular racist ideology

Justification of slavery in the nineteenth century

In the twentieth and twenty first centuries

Criticism of IQ tests and intelligence research

Modern usage

See also

References

Bibliography

External links

Contents

Earliest examples of scientific racism GA_googleFillSlot("encyclopedia_square");

19th century theories of race

Craniometry and physical anthropology

Monogenism and polygenism

Philosophers of the Enlightenment and racial classifications

Various typologies

Deniker, Grant and the "Nordic race"

Scientific racism in the Svecoman movement in 19th century Finland

Scientific racism and eugenics

Scientific racism and popular racist ideology

Justification of slavery in the nineteenth century

In the twentieth and twenty first centuries

Criticism of IQ tests and intelligence research

Modern usage

See also

References

Bibliography

External links

Earliest examples of scientific racism