In the history of the United States, Reconstruction was the period after the American Civil War when the southern states of the breakaway Confederacy were reintegrated into the United States of America. Pre-Colonial America For details, see the main Pre-Colonial America article. ... The American Civil War was fought in the United States from 1861 until 1865 between the United States – forces coming mostly from the 23 northern states of the Union – and the newly-formed Confederate States of America, which consisted of 11 southern states that had declared their secession. ... National Motto Deo Vindice (Latin: Under God our Vindicator) Official language English de facto nationwide Various European and Native American languages regionally Capital Montgomery, Alabama February 4, 1861–May 29, 1861 Richmond, Virginia May 29, 1861–April 9, 1865 Danville, Virginia April 3–April 10, 1865 Largest city New Orleans...

Laws and legislation

Abraham Lincoln had endorsed a lenient plan for reconstruction, which neither aided the recently freed slaves, nor imposed a Northern agenda on the restoration of the Southern economy. However, a powerful group of Radical Republicans within the U.S. Congress resisted readmitting the rebel states without first imposing preconditions. A series of laws, passed by the Federal government, established the conditions and procedures for reintegrating the southern states. Abraham Lincoln (February 12, 1809 – April 15, 1865), sometimes called Abe Lincoln and nicknamed Honest Abe, the Rail Splitter, and the Great Emancipator, was the 16th (1861–1865) President of the United States, and the first president from the Republican Party. ... Radical Republicans were certain Republicans in Congress and other federal and state leaders during the American Civil War and Reconstruction eras in U.S. history. ... Seal of the Congress. ...

Much of the impetus for Reconstruction involved the social and political status of freed slaves in the southern states. In response to efforts by southern states to deny civil rights to the freed slaves, Congress enacted a Civil Rights Act in 1866 (and again in 1875). This led to conflict with President Andrew Johnson, who vetoed the Civil Rights Act of 1866; however, his veto was overridden. The word slave has at least two meanings: People who are owned by others, and live to serve them without pay. ... Several United States laws have been called the Civil Rights Act: Civil Rights Act of 1866 aimed to buttress Civil Rights Laws to protect freedmen and to grant full citizenship to those born on U.S. soil except Indians. ... 1866 is a common year starting on Monday. ... 1875 was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... Andrew Johnson ( December 29, 1808 – July 31, 1875) was the sixteenth Vice President ( 1865) and the seventeenth President of the United States ( 1865– 1869), succeeding to the presidency upon the assassination of Abraham Lincoln. ... In March 1866, the Republican United States Congress passed the Civil Rights Act, which gave further rights to the freed slaves after the end of the American Civil War. ...

After solid Republican gains in the midterm elections, the first Reconstruction Act was passed on March 2, 1867; the last on March 11, 1868. The first Reconstruction Act divided ten Confederate states (all except Tennessee, which had been readmitted on July 24, 1866) into five military districts. The Republican Party, often called the GOP (for Grand Old Party, although one early citation described it as the Gallant Old Party) [1], is one of the two major political parties in the United States. ... Following the Civil War, the United States Congress passed four pieces of legislation known as Reconstruction Acts. ... March 2 is the 61st day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (62nd in leap years). ... 1867 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... March 11 is the 70th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (71st in Leap year). ... 1868 was a leap year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... State nickname: Volunteer State Other U.S. States Capital Nashville Largest city Memphis Governor Phil Bredesen Official languages English Area 109,247 km² (36th)  - Land 106,846 km²  - Water 2,400 km² (2. ... July 24 is the 205th day (206th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 160 days remaining. ... 1866 is a common year starting on Monday. ...

Culture clashes

During the period of Reconstruction there was considerable upheaval in Southern society. Northerners, known as carpetbaggers, moved south to participate in southern governments. Republicans assumed control of all state governments and began to pass numerous civil rights laws legalizing interracial marriage and ensuring black schools, and a variety of other ambitious proposals. In many cases former slaves were given very prominent ranks in the government, usually as state senators or state legislators. There were also numerous black judges, mayors, sheriffs, and deputy governors installed. Louisiana even had a black governor for a brief period. Most political "firsts" for African-Americans occurred during this period. American usage In the United States, the negative term carpetbagger was used to refer to a Northerner ( Yankees) who traveled to the South after the American Civil War, through the late 1860s and the 1870s, during Reconstruction. ... State nickname: Pelican State Other U.S. States Capital Baton Rouge Largest city New Orleans Governor Kathleen Blanco Official languages None; English and French de facto Area 134,382 km² (31st)  - Land 112,927 km²  - Water 21,455 km² (16%) Population (2000)  - Population 4,468,976 (22nd)  - Density 39. ... African Americans, also known as Afro-Americans or Black Americans, are an ethnic group in the United States of America whose ancestors, usually in predominant part, were indigenous to Sub-Saharan Africa. ...

This upheaval resulted in new manifestations of racial tension. White southerners who joined the Republican party were derisively called scalawags. Disgruntled Southerners denounced what they called the "black mob rule" and formed militant organizations like the Ku Klux Klan. The Republicans attempted to assist newly freed slaves by the establishment of the Freedmen's Bureau. Whites (or White) is a broad term used to describe people of ethnic European, Middle Eastern and North African descent, especially those with fair skin. ... An insult is a statement or action which affronts or demeans someone. ... The term scalawag or scallywag traces its origin to the post-Civil War era in the South of the United States. ... Members of the second Ku Klux Klan at a rally during the 1920s. ... The Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen and Abandoned Lands, popularly known as the Freedmens Bureau or (mistakenly) the Freedmans Bureau, was an agency of the government of the United States that was formed to aid distressed refugees of the United States Civil War, including former slaves and poor white...

The constitutional amendments

Three constitutional amendments were passed in the wake of the Civil War: the Thirteenth, which abolished slavery; the Fourteenth, which granted civil rights to Negroes; and the Fifteenth, which granted the right to vote. The fourteenth amendment was opposed by the southern states, and as a precondition of readmission to the Union, they were required to accept it (or the fifteenth after passage of the fourteenth). All Southern states were readmitted by 1870 (Georgia was the last on July 15), and all but 500 Confederate sympathizers were pardoned when President Ulysses S. Grant signed the Amnesty Act on May 22, 1872. Reconstruction nevertheless continued until 1877, when the contentious Presidential election was decided in favor of Rutherford B. Hayes, supported by Northern states, over his opponent, Samuel J. Tilden. Some historians have argued that the election was handed to Hayes in exchange for an end to Reconstruction; this theory characterizes the settlement of that election as the Compromise of 1877. Not all historians agree with this theory; some see the election coinciding with a decreased desire for inter-elite conflict, an increased will to integrate the Southern social hierarchy with the larger American society, and a drive to redirect the military to campaigns against Native Americans. In any case, Reconstruction came to an end with Hayes. Amendment XIII (the Thirteenth Amendment) of the United States Constitution states: Section 1 Section 2 Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. ... Amendment XIV (the Fourteenth Amendment) of the United States Constitution is one of the post-Civil War amendments and includes the due process and equal protection clauses (Section 1). ... Civil rights or positive rights are those legal rights retained by citizens and protected by the government. ... Negro means the color black in both Spanish and Portuguese languages, being derived from the Latin word niger of the same meaning. ... Categories: U.S. Constitution | U.S. civil rights history | Reconstruction | Law stubs ... 1870 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... July 15 is the 196th day (197th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 169 days remaining. ... Ulysses Simpson Grant (April 27, 1822 – July 23, 1885) was an American Civil War general and the 18th (1869–1877) president of the United States. ... The Amnesty Act of 1872 removed voting restrictions and office-holding disqualification against most whites who rebelled in the United States Civil War, except for very high positions. ... May 22 is the 142nd day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (143rd in leap years). ... 1872 was a leap year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... 1877 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... Rutherford Birchard Hayes (October 4, 1822 – January 17, 1893) was the 19th (1877 – 1881) President of the United States. ... Samuel Jones Tilden (February 9, 1814 - August 4, 1886) was the Democratic candidate for the US presidency in the disputed election of 1876, the most controversial American election of the 19th century. ... In United States politics, the Compromise of 1877 was a compromise made necessary by the disputed Election of 1876. ...

Military reconstruction

Reconstruction-era military districts in the South

First Military District: Virginia, under Gen. John Schofield

Second Military District: The Carolinas, under Gen. Daniel Sickles

Third Military District: Georgia, Alabama and Florida, under Gen. John Pope

Fourth Military District: Arkansas and Mississippi, under Gen. Edward Ord

Fifth Military District: Texas and Louisiana, under Gen. Philip Sheridan and several others.

Tens of thousands of U.S. military personnel were stationed in the U.S. Southern states to oversee the process of Reconstruction. From Wikibooks History File links The following pages link to this file: Reconstruction era (United States) History of the U.S. South Categories: GFDL images | U.S. history images ... From Wikibooks History File links The following pages link to this file: Reconstruction era (United States) History of the U.S. South Categories: GFDL images | U.S. history images ... For John Schofield, the recipient of a Victoria Cross see John Schofield (VC). ... The Second Military District existed in the American South during the Reconstruction era that followed the American Civil War. ... Portrait of Daniel Sickles during the Civil War Daniel Edgar Sickles (October 20, 1825–May 3, 1914) was an American soldier, statesman and diplomat. ... Major General John Pope John Pope (March 18, 1822 – September 23, 1892) was a career Army officer and general in the American Civil War. ... Edward Otho Cresap Ord (1818-1883) was the designer of Fort Sam Houston, and a United States army officer who saw action in the Seminole War, the Indian Wars, and the Civil War. ... The 5th Military District was a temporary administrative unit set up during the Reconstruction period following the American Civil War. ... Philip Sheridan Philip Henry Sheridan (March 6, 1831 – August 5, 1888), a military man and one of the great generals in the American Civil War. ... The U.S. Southern states or the South, also known colloquially as Dixie, constitute a distinctive region covering a large portion of the United States, with its own unique heritage, historical perspective, customs, musical styles, and cuisine. ...

Governments that had been established under Abraham Lincoln's plan were abolished; the first Reconstruction Act stated that "no legal State governments or adequate protection for life or property now exist in the rebel States".

The failure of Reconstruction

Reconstruction officially ended in 1877 when the South agreed to accept Rutherford B. Hayes's victory if the North withdrew federal troops from the South. The end of Reconstruction marked the demise of most civil, political, and economic rights and opportunities for African Americans. These would not see the light of day until the rise of the civil rights movement of the mid-twentieth century. The end of Reconstruction also marked the end of the nascent interracial working peoples' alliances that had tentatively begun to form in the South. In exchange for its acceptance of reintegration into the Union, the South was allowed to reestablish a segregated, race-discriminatory society, and Congress was reorganized to give elite Southern legislators extraordinary power, lasting into the mid-twentieth century. By reestablishing a firm racial hierarchy, the one-party Southern elites maintained much more effective control of working people and working conditions; and non-elite whites received the satisfaction of knowing that their own lives would at least have more value than those of their dehumanized African-American neighbors. The initial flurry of Reconstruction civil rights measures was eroded and converted into laws that expanded racial dictatorship throughout American institutions and everyday life. The resurrection and expansion of the racist society provided a solid basis for both the pronounced limitations of the American labor movement and the associated paucity and frailty of democratic social entitlements in the U.S. Segregation means separation. ...

In response to Reconstruction, the South also swayed Congress to pass the Posse Comitatus Act, which prohibited federal military authorities from exercising localized civilian police powers, and which was eventually made moot by the turn of the 21st century campaign to militarize and network local police forces. This article is about a United States statute prohibiting the use of the armed forces for law enforcement. ...

In the demise of Reconstruction, much of the civil rights legislation was overturned by the United States Supreme Court. Most notably, the court suggested in the "Slaughterhouse Case" 83 US 36 (1873), then held in the Civil Rights Cases 109 US 3 (1883), that the Fourteenth Amendment only gave Congress the power to outlaw public, rather than private discrimination. Plessy v. Ferguson 163 US 537 (1896) went even further, announcing that state-mandated segregation was legal as long as the statute or ordinance provided for "separate but equal" facilities. By 1905, in Lochner v. New York, 198 U.S. 45, the Supreme Court had retooled the fourteenth amendment into a law protecting the autonomy of corporations, rather than protecting the citizenship of African-Americans or similarly-oppressed people born or naturalized into the United States. The Supreme Court Building, Washington, D.C. The Supreme Court of the United States, located in Washington, D.C., is the highest court (see supreme court) in the United States; that is, it has ultimate judicial authority within the United States to interpret and decide questions of federal law, including... John A. Campbell, attorney for the butchers The Slaughter-House Cases, 83 U.S. 36 (1872) represented a block appeal to the United States Supreme Court testing the relatively new Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution. ... 1873 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... The Civil Rights Cases, 109 U.S. 3 (1883) was an important United States Supreme Court decision that held that Congress lacked the constitutional authority under the enforcement provisions of the Fourteenth Amendment to outlaw racial discrimination by private individuals and organizations, rather than state and local governments. ... 1883 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... Plessy v. ... 1896 was a leap year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... A statute is a formal, written law of a country or state, written and enacted by its legislative authority, perhaps to then be ratified by the highest executive in the government, and finally published. ... Ordinance can mean: That which is ordained or decreed by fate or a deity such as Dharma of Buddism A law made by a non-sovereign body such as a city council or a colony. ... Separate but equal was a policy enacted into law throughout the U.S. Southern states during the period of segregation, in which African Americans and Americans of European descent would receive the same services (schools, hospitals, water fountains, bathrooms, etc. ...

The Supreme Court maintained "separate but equal" for almost sixty years until finally admitting that its implementation was almost always highly unequal. The Court abandoned it, reversing Plessy in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka 347 US 483 (1954). It was not until the mid 1960s that the civil rights movement grew strong enough to win political reforms which weakened the system of private racial discrimination entrenched in the shadow of state Jim Crow laws. The government finally passed the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which outlawed discrimination in "public accommodations," i.e., restaurants, hotels and businesses open to the public, as well as in private schools and workplaces. Separate but equal was a policy enacted into law throughout the U.S. Southern states during the period of segregation, in which African Americans and Americans of European descent would receive the same services (schools, hospitals, water fountains, bathrooms, etc. ... Holding Racial segregation in public education violates the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment; separate facilities are “inherently unequal. ... This article is about the state capital of Kansas. ... 1954 was a common year starting on Friday (link will take you to calendar). ... 1960 was a leap year starting on Friday (link will take you to calendar). ... A depiction of T.D. Rices Jim Crow In the United States, the so-called Jim Crow laws were made to enforce racial segregation, and included laws that would prevent African Americans from doing things that a white person could do. ... President Johnson signs the Civil Rights Act of 1964. ...

Significant dates

State nickname: Palmetto State Other U.S. States Capital Columbia Largest city Columbia Governor Mark Sanford Official languages English Area 82,965 km² (40th)  - Land 78,051 km²  - Water 4,915 km² (6%) Population (2000)  - Population 4,012,012 (26th)  - Density 51. ... December 20 is the 354th day of the year (355th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1860 is the leap year starting on Sunday. ... February 4 is the 35th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1861 is a common year starting on Tuesday. ... July 9 is the 190th day of the year (191st in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 175 days remaining. ... 1868 was a leap year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... November 28 is the 332nd day (333rd on leap years) of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1876 is a leap year starting on Saturday. ... State nickname: Magnolia State Other U.S. States Capital Jackson Largest city Jackson Governor Haley Barbour Official languages English Area 125,546 km² (32nd)  - Land 121,606 km²  - Water 3,940 km² (3%) Population (2000)  - Population 2,697,243 (31st)  - Density 23. ... January 9 is the 9th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1861 is a common year starting on Tuesday. ... February 4 is the 35th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1861 is a common year starting on Tuesday. ... February 23 is the 54th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1870 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... January 4 is the 4th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1876 is a leap year starting on Saturday. ... State nickname: Everglade State, Sunshine State Other U.S. States Capital Tallahassee Largest city Jacksonville Governor Jeb Bush Official languages English Area 170,451 km² (22nd)  - Land 137,374 km²  - Water 30,486 km² (17. ... January 10 is the 10th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1861 is a common year starting on Tuesday. ... February 4 is the 35th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1861 is a common year starting on Tuesday. ... June 25 is the 176th day of the year (177th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 189 days remaining. ... 1868 was a leap year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... January 2 is the 2nd day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1877 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... Alabama is a state located in the southern United States; the population of Alabama is 4,447,100 as of 2000. ... January 11 is the 11th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1861 is a common year starting on Tuesday. ... February 4 is the 35th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1861 is a common year starting on Tuesday. ... July 14 is the 195th day (196th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 170 days remaining. ... 1868 was a leap year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... November 16 is the 320th day of the year (321st in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 45 days remaining. ... Events January - April January 1 - New York City annexes The Bronx January 23 - Marriage of the Duke of Edinburgh, second son of Queen Victoria, to Grand Duchess Marie Alexandrovna of Russia, only daughter of Emperor Alexander III of Russia. ... January 19 is the 19th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1861 is a common year starting on Tuesday. ... February 4 is the 35th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1861 is a common year starting on Tuesday. ... July 15 is the 196th day (197th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 169 days remaining. ... 1870 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... November 1 is the 305th day of the year (306th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 60 days remaining. ... 1871 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... State nickname: Pelican State Other U.S. States Capital Baton Rouge Largest city New Orleans Governor Kathleen Blanco Official languages None; English and French de facto Area 134,382 km² (31st)  - Land 112,927 km²  - Water 21,455 km² (16%) Population (2000)  - Population 4,468,976 (22nd)  - Density 39. ... January 26 is the 26th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1861 is a common year starting on Tuesday. ... February 4 is the 35th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1861 is a common year starting on Tuesday. ... June 25 is the 176th day of the year (177th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 189 days remaining. ... July 9 is the 190th day of the year (191st in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 175 days remaining. ... 1868 was a leap year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... January 2 is the 2nd day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1877 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... State nickname: Lone Star State Other U.S. States Capital Austin Largest city Houston Governor Rick Perry Official languages None Area 696,241 km² (2nd)  - Land 678,907 km²  - Water 17,333 km² (2. ... February 1 is the 32nd day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1861 is a common year starting on Tuesday. ... March 2 is the 61st day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (62nd in leap years). ... 1861 is a common year starting on Tuesday. ... March 30 is the 89th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (90th in Leap years). ... 1870 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... January 14 is the 14th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1873 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... State nickname: Old Dominion Other U.S. States Capital Richmond Largest city Virginia Beach Governor Mark R. Warner Official languages English Area 110,862 km² (35th)  - Land 102,642 km²  - Water 8,220 km² (7. ... April 17 is the 107th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (108th in leap years). ... 1861 is a common year starting on Tuesday. ... May 7 is the 127th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (128th in leap years). ... 1861 is a common year starting on Tuesday. ... January 26 is the 26th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1870 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... October 5 is the 278th day of the year (279th in Leap years). ... 1869 is a common year starting on Friday (link will take you to calendar). ... State nickname: The Natural State Other U.S. States Capital Little Rock Largest city Little Rock Governor Mike Huckabee Official languages English Area 137,732 km² (29th)  - Land 134,856 km²  - Water 2,876 km² (2. ... May 6 is the 126th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (127th in leap years). ... 1861 is a common year starting on Tuesday. ... May 18 is the 138th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (139th in leap years). ... 1861 is a common year starting on Tuesday. ... June 22 is the 173rd day of the year (174th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 192 days remaining. ... 1868 was a leap year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... November 10 is the 314th day of the year (315th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 51 days remaining. ... Events January - April January 1 - New York City annexes The Bronx January 23 - Marriage of the Duke of Edinburgh, second son of Queen Victoria, to Grand Duchess Marie Alexandrovna of Russia, only daughter of Emperor Alexander III of Russia. ... State nickname: Volunteer State Other U.S. States Capital Nashville Largest city Memphis Governor Phil Bredesen Official languages English Area 109,247 km² (36th)  - Land 106,846 km²  - Water 2,400 km² (2. ... May 6 is the 126th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (127th in leap years). ... 1861 is a common year starting on Tuesday. ... May 16 is the 136th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (137th in leap years). ... 1861 is a common year starting on Tuesday. ... July 24 is the 205th day (206th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 160 days remaining. ... 1866 is a common year starting on Monday. ... October 4 is the 277th day of the year (278th in Leap years). ... 1869 is a common year starting on Friday (link will take you to calendar). ... State nickname: Tar Heel State Other U.S. States Capital Raleigh Largest city Charlotte Governor Michael Easley Official languages English Area 139,509 km² (28th)  - Land 126,256 km²  - Water 13,227 km² (9. ... May 21 is the 141st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (142nd in leap years). ... 1861 is a common year starting on Tuesday. ... May 16 is the 136th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (137th in leap years). ... 1861 is a common year starting on Tuesday. ... July 4 is the 185th day of the year (186th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 180 days remaining. ... 1868 was a leap year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... November 28 is the 332nd day (333rd on leap years) of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1876 is a leap year starting on Saturday. ...

Reference

• This article incorporates public domain text from Twenty Years of Congress: From Lincoln to Garfield. With a review of the events which led to the political revolution of 1860, by James Blaine.

James G. Blaine James Gillespie Blaine (January 31, 1830–January 27, 1893) was a U.S. Representative, U.S. Senator from Maine and a two-time United States Secretary of State. ...

External links

• Wikibooks: Reconstruction (1865-1877) (http://wikibooks.org/wiki/US_History:Reconstruction)
• Reconstruction Act March 2, 1867 (http://www.ncrepublic.org/recon1.html)
• Reconstruction Act March 23, 1867 (http://www.ncrepublic.org/recon2.html)
• Reconstruction Act July 19, 1867 (http://www.ncrepublic.org/recon3.html)
• Reconstruction Act March 11, 1868 (http://www.ncrepublic.org/recon4.html)
• "Reconstructing the Poetry of John Willis Menard" by Gilbert Wesley Purdy. (http://www.catalyzerjournal.com/art/indexr.php?page=EplkAkpZpAjQlOvQwJ) Book review/essay with considerable historical information about the Reconstruction South.
• Explore an in-depth timeline of Reconstruction (http://www.blackhistory.harpweek.com/8Timelines/TimelinesLevelOne.htm)