NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Red Army invasion of Georgia

The Red Army invasion of Georgia also known as the Soviet-Georgian War^[2] (February 15 – March 17, 1921) was a military campaign by the Soviet Russian (RSFSR) Red Army against the Democratic Republic of Georgia (DRG) aimed at overthrowing the local Social-Democratic (Menshevik) government and installing the Bolshevik regime in the country. The conflict was a result of expansionist policy by the Soviets, who aimed at control of the same territories, which had been part of Imperial Russia^[3]^[4] until the turbulent events of the World War I, as well as the revolutionary strive of mostly Russia-based Georgian Bolshevik elite who did not enjoy sufficient support in their native country to seize power without foreign intervention.^[5]^[6] The short forms Red Army and RKKA refer to the Workers and Peasants Red Army, (in Russian: Ð Ð°Ð±Ð¾Ñ‡Ðµ-ÐšÑ€ÐµÑÑ‚ÑŒÑÐ½ÑÐºÐ°Ñ ÐšÑ€Ð°ÑÐ½Ð°Ñ ÐÑ€Ð¼Ð¸Ñ - Raboche-Krestyanskaya Krasnaya Armiya), the armed forces first organized by the Bolsheviks during the Russian Civil War in 1918. ... February 15 is the 46th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... March 17 is the 76th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (77th in Leap years). ... 1921 (MCMXXI) was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... State motto (Russian): ÐŸÑ€Ð¾Ð»ÐµÑ‚Ð°Ñ€Ð¸Ð¸ Ð²ÑÐµÑ… ÑÑ‚Ñ€Ð°Ð½, ÑÐ¾ÐµÐ´Ð¸Ð½ÑÐ¹Ñ‚ÐµÑÑŒ! (Transliterated: Proletarii vsekh stran, soedinyaytes!) (Translated: Workers of the world, unite!) Capital Moscow Official language None; Russian (de facto) Government Federation of Socialist republics/ Communist state Last Chairman of the Supreme Council Boris Yeltsin Area - Total - % water 1st in former Soviet Union 17,075,200 kmÂ² 0. ... The short forms Red Army and RKKA refer to the Workers and Peasants Red Army, (in Russian: Ð Ð°Ð±Ð¾Ñ‡Ðµ-ÐšÑ€ÐµÑÑ‚ÑŒÑÐ½ÑÐºÐ°Ñ ÐšÑ€Ð°ÑÐ½Ð°Ñ ÐÑ€Ð¼Ð¸Ñ - Raboche-Krestyanskaya Krasnaya Armiya), the armed forces first organized by the Bolsheviks during the Russian Civil War in 1918. ... Motto: None Anthem: Dideba Zetsit Kurtheuls (Praise Be To The Heavenly Bestower of Blessings) Capital Tbilisi Largest city Tbilisi Official language(s) Georgian Government Chairman of the Government Parliamentary democracy Noe Zhordania Independence - Declared - Formerly From the Russian Empire May 26, 1918 Transcaucasian Federation Population c. ... Menshevik Flag of Georgia, created by Iakob Nikoladze The Social Democratic Party of Georgia was a leading political party in pre-Soviet Georgia. ... Leaders of the Menshevik Party at Norra Bantorget in Stockholm, Sweden, May 1917. ... Leaders of the Bolshevik Party and the Communist International, a painting by Malcolm McAllister on the Pathfinder Mural in New York City and on the cover of the book Leninâ€™s Final Fight published by Pathfinder. ... Imperial Russia is the term used to cover the period of history from the expansion of Russia under Peter the Great, through the expansion of the Russian Empire from the Baltic Sea to the Pacific Ocean, to the deposal of Nicholas II of Russia, the last tsar, at the start... Combatants Allied Powers: France Italy Russia Serbia United Kingdom United States Central Powers: Austria-Hungary Bulgaria Germany Ottoman Empire Commanders Ferdinand Foch Georges Clemenceau Victor Emmanuel III Luigi Cadorna Nicholas II Aleksei Brusilov Herbert Henry Asquith Douglas Haig John Jellicoe Woodrow Wilson John Pershing Wilhelm II Paul von Hindenburg Reinhard...

Independence of the DRG had been recognized by Russia in the May 7, 1920 treaty and the invasion of Georgia was not universally agreed upon in Moscow. It was largely engineered by two influential Georgia-born Soviet officials – Joseph Stalin and Grigoriy (Sergo) Ordzhonikidze – who obtained, on February 14, 1921, a consent of the Soviet leader, Vladimir Lenin, to advance into Georgia on the pretext of supporting the "peasants and workers rebellion" in the country. The Soviet forces took the Georgian capital Tbilisi (then known as Tiflis to most non-Georgian speakers) after heavy fighting and declared the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic on February 25, 1921. The rest of the country was overrun within three weeks, but it was not until September 1924 that the Soviet rule was firmly established. Almost simultaneous occupation of a large portion of southwest Georgia by Turkey (February-March 1921) threatened to develop into a crisis between Moscow and Ankara and led to significant territorial concessions by the Soviets to the Turkish National Government in the Treaty of Kars. May 7 is the 127th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (128th in leap years). ... 1920 (MCMXX) was a leap year starting on Thursday (link will take you to calendar) // Events January January 3 - Babe Ruth is traded by the Boston Red Sox to the New York Yankees for $125,000, the largest sum ever paid for a player at that time. ... The Democratic Republic of Georgia The Treaty of Moscow (Russian: , Georgian: , Moskovis khelshekruleba), signed between Soviet Russia (RSFSR) and the Democratic Republic of Georgia (DRG) in Moscow on May 7, 1920, granted Georgia de jure recognition of independence in exchange of the promise not to grant asylum on Georgian soil... Location Position of Moscow in Europe Government Country District Subdivision Russia Central Federal District Federal City Mayor Yuriy Luzhkov Geographical characteristics Area - City 1,081 kmÂ² Population - City (2005) - Density 10,415,400 8537. ... Stalin redirects here. ... Grigoriy Konstantinovich Ordzhonikidze (Russian:Ð“Ñ€Ð¸Ð³Ð¾Ñ€Ð¸Ð¹ ÐšÐ¾Ð½ÑÑ‚Ð°Ð½Ñ‚Ð¸Ð½Ð¾Ð²Ð¸Ñ‡ ÐžÑ€Ð´Ð¶Ð¾Ð½Ð¸ÐºÐ¸Ð´Ð·Ðµ), generally known as Sergo Ordzhonikidze (Ð¡ÐµÑ€Ð³Ð¾) (October 12, 1886 - February 18, 1937) was a member of the Politburo, and close friend to Stalin. ... February 14 is the 45th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1921 (MCMXXI) was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, better known by the name (b. ... Tbilisi (Georgian áƒ—áƒ‘áƒ˜áƒšáƒ˜áƒ¡áƒ˜ ) is the capital city of the country of Georgia, lying on the banks of the Kura (Mtkvari) river, at . ... State motto: áƒžáƒ áƒáƒšáƒ”áƒ¢áƒáƒ áƒ§áƒ•áƒ”áƒšáƒ áƒ¥áƒ•áƒ”áƒ§áƒœáƒ˜áƒ¡áƒ, áƒ¨áƒ”áƒ”áƒ áƒ—áƒ“áƒ˜áƒ—! Official language Georgian since 1978 Capital Tbilisi Chairman of the Supreme Council Zviad Gamsakhurdia (at independence) Established In the USSR: - Since - Until February 25, 1921 December 30, 1922 April 9, 1991 Area - Total - % water Ranked 10th in former Soviet Union 69,700 kmÂ² -- Population - Total (1989) - Density Ranked... February 25 is the 56th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1924 (MCMXXIV) was a leap year starting on Tuesday (link will take you to calendar). ... Ankara (Greek: ÃÎ³ÎºÏ…ÏÎ±) is the capital of Turkey and the countrys second largest city after Ä°stanbul. ... Turkey Soviet-Turkish border as per treaty The Treaty of Kars was a friendship treaty between Turkey and the Soviet governments of the Transcaucasian Republics. ...

Background

Georgia effectively wrested out of Russian control in the chaotic aftermath of the February Revolution in Russia in 1917. After an abortive attempt to unite with Armenia and Azerbaijan into a federative state, Georgian leaders proclaimed the country’s independence as the Democratic Republic of Georgia on May 26, 1918. Through sporadic conflicts with its neighbors and occasional outbreaks of civil strife, Georgia managed to maintain its precarious independence and achieved more or less firm control over its newly established borders in the troubled years of the Russian Civil War. Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (2261x2785, 682 KB)The Democratic Republic of Georgia, c. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (2261x2785, 682 KB)The Democratic Republic of Georgia, c. ... Motto: None Anthem: Dideba Zetsit Kurtheuls (Praise Be To The Heavenly Bestower of Blessings) Capital Tbilisi Largest city Tbilisi Official language(s) Georgian Government Chairman of the Government Parliamentary democracy Noe Zhordania Independence - Declared - Formerly From the Russian Empire May 26, 1918 Transcaucasian Federation Population c. ... The February Revolution (N.S.: March Revolution) of 1917 in Russia was the first stage of the Russian Revolution of 1917. ... 1917 (MCMXVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar (see link for calendar) or a common year starting on Tuesday of the 13-day slower Julian calendar. ... Flag of the Transcaucasian Federation. ... May 26 is the 146th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (147th in leap years). ... 1918 (MCMXVIII) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar (see link for calendar) or a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar. ... Combatants Red Army (Bolsheviks) German Empire? White Army (Monarchists, SRs, Anti-Communists) Commanders Leon Trotsky, Mikhail Tukhachevsky, Semyon Budyonny Lavr Kornilov, Alexander Kolchak, Anton Denikin, Pyotr Wrangel The Russian Civil War was fought from 1917 to 1922. ...

Despite relatively high public support and some successful reforms, the Social Democratic leadership of Georgia failed to create a stable economy and build a strong and disciplined army that could be able to oppose the easily predictable Bolshevik advent. Although there were a significant number of highly qualified officers who had served in the Imperial Russian military, the army was underfed and poorly equipped. A parallel military structure, the People’s Guard of Georgia, was recruited from the members of the Menshevik Party, and was hence more honored and disciplined, but dominated by party functionaries and highly politicized.

Prelude to the war

Since early 1920, the local Bolsheviks were actively fomenting political unrest in Georgia, capitalizing on agrarian disturbances in rural areas and inter-ethnic tensions within the country. The operational centre of the Soviet military-political forces in the Caucasus was the Kavburo (Caucasian Bureau), attached to the 11th Red Army stationed in the region. Set up in February 1920, this body was presided by the Georgian Bolshevik Grigoriy Ordzhonikidze, with Sergei Kirov as his deputy. While the Allied powers were preoccupied with the Turkish War of Independence, the Sovietization of the Caucasus appeared to the Bolshevik leaders an easier task.^[7] Furthermore, the Ankara-based Turkish national government led by Kemal Pasha expressed its full commitment to a close co-operation with Moscow, promising to compel "Georgia… and Azerbaijan… to enter into union with Soviet Russia… and… to undertake military operations against the expansionist Armenia."^[7] The Soviet leadership successfully exploited the situation and send in its army to occupy Baku, the capital of the Democratic Republic of Azerbaijan. Image File history File links Headquarter_of_Caucasus_Army. ... Image File history File links Headquarter_of_Caucasus_Army. ... 1920 (MCMXX) was a leap year starting on Thursday (link will take you to calendar) // Events January January 3 - Babe Ruth is traded by the Boston Red Sox to the New York Yankees for $125,000, the largest sum ever paid for a player at that time. ... The Entholinguistic patchwork of the modern Caucasus - CIA map The Caucasus, a region bordering Asia Minor, is located between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea which includes the Caucasus Mountains and surrounding lowlands. ... The 11th Soviet Red Army was a contingent of the then newly created Russian Red Army improvised by the Bolsheviks. ... Grigoriy Konstantinovich Ordzhonikidze (Russian:Ð“Ñ€Ð¸Ð³Ð¾Ñ€Ð¸Ð¹ ÐšÐ¾Ð½ÑÑ‚Ð°Ð½Ñ‚Ð¸Ð½Ð¾Ð²Ð¸Ñ‡ ÐžÑ€Ð´Ð¶Ð¾Ð½Ð¸ÐºÐ¸Ð´Ð·Ðµ), generally known as Sergo Ordzhonikidze (Ð¡ÐµÑ€Ð³Ð¾) (October 12, 1886 - February 18, 1937) was a member of the Politburo, and close friend to Stalin. ... Sergei Mironovich Kirov (Серге́й Миро́нович Ки́ров) (March 15 O.S. = March 27 N.S., 1886 - December 1, 1934) was a Bolshevik revolutionary and Soviet communist. ... European military alliances in 1915. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article may require cleanup. ... This article is about the political term. ... Ankara (Greek: ÃÎ³ÎºÏ…ÏÎ±) is the capital of Turkey and the countrys second largest city after Ä°stanbul. ... Mustafa Kemal AtatÃ¼rk (1881â€“November 10, 1938), until 1934 Gazi Mustafa Kemal Pasha, Turkish army officer and revolutionary statesman, was the founder and the first President of the Republic of Turkey. ... Municipality: Baku Area: 1000 kmÂ² Altitude: -28 m Population: 2,074,300 census 2003 Population density: 1280 persons/kmÂ² Postal Code: +99450 Area code: 012 Municipality code: BA Latitude: 41Â° 01 52 N Longitude: 21Â° 20 25 E Weather types: 9 of 11 Mayor: Hajibala Abutalybov The Baku region. ... Azerbaijan (Azerbaijani: AzÉ™rbaycan) is a country in the Caucasus, at the crossroads of Europe and Southwest Asia, with an eastern coast on the Caspian Sea. ...

Following the establishment of Soviet rule in Baku in April 1920, Ordzhonikidze, acting most probably on his own initiative, advanced on Georgia to support a planned Bolshevik coup in Tbilisi. The coup failed, however, allowing the government to concentrate all forces on successfully blocking the advance of Russian troops on the Georgian-Azerbaijani border. Facing an uneasy war with Poland, the Soviet Russian leader, Vladimir Lenin, ordered to start negotiations with Georgia. In the Treaty of Moscow signed on May 7, 1920, Soviet Russia recognized Georgia’s independence and concluded a non-aggression pact. The treaty de jure established the existing borders between the two nations and obliged Georgia to surrender all third-party elements considered hostile by Moscow. In a secret supplement, Georgia promised to legalize the local Bolshevik party.^[8] Image File history File links Headquarter_of_Civil_Guard_1549. ... Image File history File links Headquarter_of_Civil_Guard_1549. ... Combatants Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic Second Polish Republic Commanders Mikhail Tukhachevsky Semyon Budyonny Joseph Stalin JÃ³zef PiÅ‚sudski Edward Rydz-ÅšmigÅ‚y Strength 950,000 including reserves 5 million 360,000 including reserves 738,000 Casualties Unknown, dead estimated at 100,000 - 150,000 Unknown, dead estimated at... Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, better known by the name (b. ... The Democratic Republic of Georgia The Treaty of Moscow (Russian: , Georgian: , Moskovis khelshekruleba), signed between Soviet Russia (RSFSR) and the Democratic Republic of Georgia (DRG) in Moscow on May 7, 1920, granted Georgia de jure recognition of independence in exchange of the promise not to grant asylum on Georgian soil... May 7 is the 127th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (128th in leap years). ... 1920 (MCMXX) was a leap year starting on Thursday (link will take you to calendar) // Events January January 3 - Babe Ruth is traded by the Boston Red Sox to the New York Yankees for $125,000, the largest sum ever paid for a player at that time. ... Look up De jure in Wiktionary, the free dictionary The terms de jure and de facto are used instead of in principle and in practice, respectively, when one is describing political situations. ... Location Position of Moscow in Europe Government Country District Subdivision Russia Central Federal District Federal City Mayor Yuriy Luzhkov Geographical characteristics Area - City 1,081 kmÂ² Population - City (2005) - Density 10,415,400 8537. ...

Despite the peace treaty, an eventual overthrow of the Menshevik-dominated government of Georgia was both intended and planned.^[9]^[10] With its well-established diplomatic ties with several European nations and its control of strategic transit routes from the Black Sea to the Caspian, Georgia was viewed by the Soviet leadership as “an advance post of the Entente”. Another reason why it was thought impossible to allow the Georgian government to stay in power was the Bolsheviks’ desire to take revenge on the Russian Mensheviks in European exile whose anti-Soviet propaganda could not so easily be silenced.^[11]^[3] World map showing Europe Political map (neighbouring countries in Asia and Africa also shown) Europe is one of the seven traditional continents of the Earth. ... European military alliances in 1915. ... Anti-Soviet refers to persons and activities actually or allegedly aimed against the Soviet Union or the Soviet power within the Soviet Union. ...

The cessation of Red Army operations against Poland, the defeat of the White Russian leader Wrangel and the fall of the Democratic Republic of Armenia provided a favorable situation to suppress the last independent nation in the Caucasus to resist Soviet control.^[12] By that time, the British expeditionary corps had completely evacuated the Caucasus and the West was reluctant to intervene in support of Georgia. The White movement, whose military arm is known as the White Army (Ð‘ÐµÐ»Ð°Ñ ÐÑ€Ð¼Ð¸Ñ) or White Guard (Ð‘ÐµÐ»Ð°Ñ Ð“Ð²Ð°Ñ€Ð´Ð¸Ñ, Ð±ÐµÐ»Ð¾Ð³Ð²Ð°Ñ€Ð´ÐµÐ¹Ñ†Ñ‹) and whose members are known as Whites (Ð‘ÐµÐ»Ñ‹Ðµ, or the derogatory Ð‘ÐµÐ»ÑÐºÐ¸) or White Russians (a term which has other meanings) comprised some of the Russian forces, both political and military, which opposed the Bolsheviks after the... Baron Wrangel At a prayer vigil upon accepting command. ... National motto: n/a Language Armenian (official) Capital Yerevan Independence From Imperial Russia, 1918 Currency Armenian dram National anthem Mer Hayrenik The Democratic Republic of Armenia (DRA; Armenian: Ô´Õ¥Õ´Õ¸Õ¯Ö€Õ¡Õ¿Õ¡Õ¯Õ¡Õ¶ Õ€Õ¡ÕµÕ¡Õ½Õ¿Õ¡Õ¶Õ« Õ€Õ¡Õ¶Ö€Õ¡ÕºÕ¥Õ¿Õ¸Ö‚Õ©ÕµÕ¸Ö‚Õ¶, Demokratakan Hayastani Hanrapetutyun; also known as the First Republic of Armenia), 1918â€“1922, was the first modern establishment of a Republic of... The Entholinguistic patchwork of the modern Caucasus - CIA map The Caucasus, a region bordering Asia Minor, is located between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea which includes the Caucasus Mountains and surrounding lowlands. ... See Occident (movement) for the French political movement. ...

However, Russian military intervention was not universally agreed upon in Moscow and there was considerable disagreement among the Bolshevik leaders on how to deal with the southern neighbor. The People's Commissar of Nationalities Affairs, Joseph Stalin, who had, by the end of the Civil War, already accumulated a remarkable amount of bureaucratic power in his own hands, took a particularly hard line with his native Georgia,^[13] strongly supporting a military overthrow of the Georgian government and continuously urging Lenin to give his consent to advance into Georgia. The People's Commissar of War, Leon Trotsky, strongly disagreed with what he described as a “premature intervention” explaining that the population would be able to carry the revolution. Pursuant to his national policy on the right of nations to self-determination, Lenin had initially rejected use of force, calling for extreme caution in order to ensure that the Russian factor would help and not dominate the Georgian revolution.^[14] However, as victory in the Civil War drew ever closer, Moscow’s actions became less restrained and, for many Bolsheviks, self-determination was increasingly "a diplomatic game which has to be played in certain cases".^[15] It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with: :Sovnarkom. ... Stalin redirects here. ... (Russian: Ð›ÐµÐ² Ð”Ð°Ð²Ð¸Ð´Ð¾Ð²Ð¸Ñ‡ Ð¢Ñ€Ð¾Ñ†ÐºÐ¸Ð¹) (Latinized: Lev DavidoviÄ Trokij; also transliterated Leo, Lev, Trotskii, Trotski, Trotskij, Trockij and Trotzky) (November 7, 1879 [O.S. October 26] â€“ August 21, 1940), born Lev Davidovich Bronstein (Ð›ÐµÐ² Ð”Ð°Ð²Ð¸Ð´Ð¾Ð²Ð¸Ñ‡ Ð‘Ñ€Ð¾Ð½ÑˆÑ‚ÐµÐ¹Ð½), was a Bolshevik revolutionary and Marxist theorist. ... Self-determination is a principle in international law that a people ought to be able to determine their own governmental forms and structure free from outside influence. ...

According to Moscow, relations with Georgia deteriorated over alleged violations of the peace treaty, re-arrests of Georgian Bolsheviks, obstruction of the passage of convoys passing through to Armenia, and a suspicion that Georgia was aiding armed rebels in the North Caucasus.^[16] The North Caucasus, also called Ciscaucasus, Forecaucasus, or Front Caucasus (Russian: ), is the northern part of the Caucasus region. ...

Red Army invasion

The tactics used by the Soviets to gain control of Georgia were similar to those applied in Azerbaijan and Armenia in 1920, i.e., to send in the Red Army while encouraging local Bolsheviks to stage unrest. However, this policy was rather difficult to implement in Georgia,^[17] where the Communist party did not enjoy popular support and remained an isolated political force.

On the night of 11 to 12 February 1921, with the instigation of Ordzhonikidze, the Bolsheviks attacked local Georgian military posts in the ethnic Armenian district of Lorri and the nearby village of Shulaveri, near the Armenian and Azerbaijani borders. The Armenia-based Red Army units quickly came to an aid of the insurrection, though without Moscow's formal approval.^[18] When the Georgian government protested to the Soviet envoy in Tbilisi, Aron Sheinman, about the incidents, he denied any Russian involvement and declared that any disturbances which might be taking place must be a spontaneous revolt by the Armenian communists.^[19] Meanwhile, the Bolsheviks had already set up a Georgian Revolutionary Committee (Revkom) in Shulaveri, a body that would soon acquire the functions of a rival government. Chaired by a Georgian Bolshevik Filipp Makharadze, the Revkom formally applied to Moscow for help. February 11 is the 42nd day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... February 12 is the 43rd day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... Categories: Stub | Provinces of Armenia ... Prime Minister of Georgian SSR: 1923-1928 President of Georgian SSR: 1938-1941 Categories: Georgia (country) geography stubs | Soviet Union stubs ...

Disturbances erupted also in the town of Dusheti and among Ossetians in northeast Georgia who resented the Georgian government’s refusal to grant them autonomy. Georgian forces managed to contain the disorders in some areas, but the preparations for a Soviet intervention were already being set in train. When the Georgian army moved to Lorri to crush the revolt, Lenin finally gave in to the repeated requests of Stalin and Ordzhonikidze^[20] to allow the Red Army to invade Georgia, on the pretext of aiding a staged uprising, and establish Bolshevik power. An ultimate decision was made on the February 14 meeting of the Central Committee of the Communist Party: Dusheti is a small town in the Mtskheta-Mtianeti province in central Georgia. ... Official language Ossetian Capital Tskhinvali President Eduard Djabeevich Kokoity Prime Minister Igor Viktorovich Sanakoyev Area â€“ Total â€“ % water 3,900 kmÂ² n/a Population â€“ Total â€“ Density (2004) 70,000 (approx) 18/kmÂ² Independence â€“ Declared â€“ Recognition From Georgia â€“ November 28, 1991 â€“ none Currency Russian ruble, Georgian lari Time zone UTC +3 Detailed... February 14 is the 45th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... The Central Committee, abbreviated in Russian as Ð¦Ðš, Tseka, was the highest body of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU). ...

Yet, the decision to support the invasion was not unanimous. It was opposed by Karl Radek and was held secret from Trotsky who was in the Ural area at that time.^[21] The latter was so upset by the news of the Central Committee decision and Ordzhonikidze’s role in engineering it that on his return to Moscow he demanded, though fruitlessly, the set up of a special party commission to investigate the affair.^[16] Later Trotsky would reconcile himself to the accomplished fact and even defended the invasion in a special pamphlet.^[22] Image File history File links Cquote1. ... Image File history File links Cquote2. ... Karl Bernhardovich Radek (October 31, 1885 - May 19, 1939) was a Bolshevik and an international Communist leader. ... Ural (Russian: ) is a geographical region in Russia, around Ural Mountains. ...

Battle for Tbilisi

At dawn on February 16, the main 11th Red Army troops under Anatoli Gekker crossed into Georgia and started the Tiflis Operation^[23] aimed at capturing the capital of Georgia. At the battle on the Khrami River, the Georgian border forces under General Stephan Akhmeteli were overwhelmed and suffered a defeat. Retreating westward, the Georgian commander General Tsulukidze blew up railway bridges and demolished roads in an effort to delay the enemy’s advance. Simultaneously, Red Army units marched to Georgia from the north through the Daryal and Mamisoni passes and along the Black Sea coast towards Sukhumi. While these events were proceeding, the Soviet Commissar for Foreign Affairs issued a series of statements disclaiming all knowledge of military actions between Georgia and the Red Army, and professing willingness to mediate in any disputes which have arisen within Georgia.^[19] Image File history File links TiflisOperation1921. ... Image File history File links TiflisOperation1921. ... February 16 is the 47th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... Anatoli Ilyich Gekker (Russian: ) (August 25, 1888 â€“ July 1, 1937) was a Soviet military commander involved in the Russian Civil War. ... The Darial Gorge is found in the Caucasus in modern day Georgia near the border with Russia. ... Map of the Black Sea. ... View of Sukhumi Sukhumi (Georgian: , Sokhumi; Abkhaz: , Aqwa; Russian: , Sukhumi) is the capital of Abkhazia, a de facto independent republic, which is internationally recognized as being an autonomous republic within Georgia. ...

By February 17, the Soviet infantry and cavalry divisions supported by aviation had significantly advanced to the Georgian capital, less than 15 kilometers southwest. The Georgian army put up a stubborn fight in defense of the approaches to Tbilisi, which they held for a week in the face of overwhelming forces of the Red Army. The strategic heights of Kojori and Tabakhmela passed from hands to hands from February 18 to February 20, when the Georgian forces under General Giorgi Mazniashvili rolled back the Red Army units which suffered heavy losses and started regrouping in an attempt to squeeze the circle around Tbilisi. By February 23, the railway bridges had been restored and Soviet tanks and armored trains joined the main Red Army troops into a renewed assault on the capital. While the armored trains laid down suppressing fire, the tanks and infantry penetrated the Georgian positions on the Kojori heights.^[24] On February 24, the Georgian commander-in-chief, Giorgi Kvinitadze, in an untenable position, bowed to the inevitable and ordered a withdrawal to save his army form complete encirclement and the city from destruction. The Georgian government and Constituent Assembly evacuated for Kutaisi, western Georgia. Image File history File links Red_Army_in_Tiflis;_Feb_25_1921. ... Image File history File links Red_Army_in_Tiflis;_Feb_25_1921. ... February 17 is the 48th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... February 18 is the 49th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... February 20 is the 51st day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... Giorgi Mazniashvili (in Georgian: გიორგი მაზნიაშვილი) (1872-1937) was a Georgian general and one of the most prominent military figures in the Democratic Republic of Georgia. ... February 23 is the 54th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... Armoured train is a train protected with armour. ... February 24 is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... Giorgi Kvinitadze (in Georgian: გიორგი კვინიტაძე) (1874_1970) was a Georgian general and one of the most prominent military leaders of the Democratic Republic of Georgia. ...

On February 25, the triumphant Red Army entered Tbilisi. The Bolshevik soldiers engaged in wide-spread looting.^[19]^[25] Mass executions also took place in which approximately 5,000 people were killed in and around the city.^[26] The Revkom headed by Mamia Orakhelashvili and Shalva Eliava ventured into the capital and proclaimed the overthrow of the Menshevik government, the dissolution of the Georgian National Army and People’s Guard, and the formation of a Georgian Soviet Republic. On the same day, in Moscow, Lenin received the congratulations of his commissars – "The red banner blows over Tbilisi. Long live Soviet Georgia!" February 25 is the 56th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... State motto: áƒžáƒ áƒáƒšáƒ”áƒ¢áƒáƒ áƒ§áƒ•áƒ”áƒšáƒ áƒ¥áƒ•áƒ”áƒ§áƒœáƒ˜áƒ¡áƒ, áƒ¨áƒ”áƒ”áƒ áƒ—áƒ“áƒ˜áƒ—! Official language Georgian since 1978 Capital Tbilisi Chairman of the Supreme Council Zviad Gamsakhurdia (at independence) Established In the USSR: - Since - Until February 25, 1921 December 30, 1922 April 9, 1991 Area - Total - % water Ranked 10th in former Soviet Union 69,700 kmÂ² -- Population - Total (1989) - Density Ranked...

Kutaisi Operation

The Georgian commanders planned to concentrate their forces at the town of Mtskheta, northwest to Tbilisi, and to continue battle on the new lines of defense. The fall of the capital, however, heavily demoralized the Georgian troops who had finally to abandon their positions at Mtskheta. The army was gradually disintegrating as it continued its retreat westward, offering largely unorganized, but sometimes fierce resistance to the advancing Russian troops. It took another two weeks to the Soviets to take hold of major cities and towns of eastern Georgia. Image File history File linksMetadata British_Mark_V-star_Tank. ... Image File history File linksMetadata British_Mark_V-star_Tank. ... A Mark I tank on 26 September 1916 (moving left to right). ... Mtskheta is one of oldest cities of the republic of Georgia (in Kartli province of Eastern Georgia), near Tbilisi. ...

The Mensheviks entertained hopes of aid from a French naval squadron cruising in the Black Sea off the Georgian coast.^[19] On February 28, The French even opened fire on the 31st Rifle Division of the 9th Red Army under V. Chernishev operating at the coast, but did not land troops. Yet the Georgians managed to regain control of the coastal town of Gagra. Their success was temporary, however, and the Soviet forces joined by the Abkhaz peasant militias, Kyaraz, succeeded in taking Gagra on March 1, New Athos on March 3 and Sukhumi on March 4, and advanced eastward to occupy Zugdidi on March 9 and Poti on March 14. The French Navy (Marine Nationale) is the maritime arm of the French military and the largest Western European navy in terms of personnel. ... February 28 is the 59th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Gagra, View from the Black Sea Gagra is a city in the Abkhazia region of western Georgia, sprawling for 5 km on the northeast coast of the Black Sea, at the foot of the Caucasus Mountains. ... The Abkhaz or Abkhazians are a caucasian ethnic group, mainly living in Abkhazia, and distinct from Georgians. ... March 1 is the 60th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (61st in leap years). ... The New Athos Monastery New Athos (Russian: ) is a town in Gudauta raion of Abkhazia, Georgia some 22 km from Sukhumi by the shores of the Black Sea. ... March 3 is the 62nd day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (63rd in leap years). ... March 4 is the 63rd day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (64th in leap years). ... Zugdidi is a city in the Western Georgian historical province of Mingrelia (Samegrelo). ... March 9 is the 68th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (69th in Leap years). ... Poti is a city in the Samegrelo province in the west of the Republic of Georgia. ... March 14 is the 73rd day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (74th in leap years) with 292 days remaining in the year. ...

The Georgians’ attempt of holding out near Kutaisi was further dashed by the surprise advance of a Red Army detachment from North Caucasia which traversed the virtually impermeable Mamisoni Pass through deep snow drifts and advanced down the Rioni Valley. After a bloody clash at Surami on March 5 1921, the 11th Red Army also crossed the Likhi Range into the western part of the country. On March 10, the Soviet forces entered Kutaisi, which had been abandoned by the Georgian leadership, army and People’s Guard to the key Black Sea port city of Batumi in southwest Georgia. Part of the Georgian forces withdrew into the mountains and continued to fight. Kutaisi (Georgian: ; ancient names: Aea/Aia, Kutatisi, KutaÃ¯ssi ) is Georgias second largest city in the western province of Imereti. ... The Rioni River (Georgian áƒ áƒ˜áƒáƒœáƒ˜) is the principal river of western Georgia. ... March 5 is the 64th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (65th in leap years). ... Likhi Range or Surami Range is a mountain range in Georgia, a part of the Caucasus mountains. ... March 10 is the 69th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (70th in leap years). ... A general view of Batumi Batumi (Georgian: , formerly Batum or Batoum) is a seaside city on the Black Sea coast and capital of Adjara, an autonomous republic in southwest Georgia. ...

Crisis with Turkey

On February 23, ten days after the Red Army began its march on Tbilisi, Kazim Karabekir, the Turkish commander in Western Armenia, issued an ultimatum demanding the evacuation of Ardahan and Artvin by Georgia. The Mensheviks, under fire from both sides, had to accede and the Turkish forces advanced into Georgia, occupying the frontier areas. This brought the Turkish army within a short distance of still Georgian-held Batumi and as the Red Army’s 18th Cavalry Division under Dmitri Zhloba approached the city, created the circumstances for a possible armed clash. The Mensheviks hoped to use these circumstances and reached, on March 7, a verbal agreement with Karabekir, permitting the Turkish army to enter the city while leaving the government of Georgia in control of its civil administration.^[28] On March 8, Turkish troops under Colonel Kizim-Bey took up defensive positions surrounding the city, leading to a crisis with Soviet Russia. Georgy Chicherin, Soviet People's Commissar of Foreign Affairs, submitted a protest note to Ali Fuat Pasha, the Turkish representative in Moscow. In response Ali Fuat handed two notes to the Soviet government. The Turkish notes claimed that the Turkish armies were just providing security to the local Muslim elements which were put under threat by the Soviet military operations in the region.^[7] Image File history File links 03_149. ... Image File history File links 03_149. ... February 23 is the 54th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... This article needs copyediting (checking for proper English spelling, grammar, usage, tone, style, and voice). ... now. ... Ardahan ( ArdÄ± han in old Turkish, Ô±Ö€Õ¤Õ¡Õ°Õ¡Õ¶ in Armenian) is the capital of Ardahan Province in north-eastern Turkey. ... Artvin is a city in north-eastern Turkey. ... Dmitri Petrovich Zhloba (Russian: ) (June 3, 1887 â€“ June 10, 1938) was a Soviet military commander involved in the Russian Civil War. ... Georgy Vasilyevich Chicherin (Russian: Ð“ÐµÐ¾Ñ€Ð³Ð¸Ð¹ Ð§Ð¸Ñ‡ÐµÑ€Ð¸Ð½) (1872â€“1936) was Peoples Commissar of Foreign Affairs in the Soviet government from 1918 to 1930. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with: :Sovnarkom. ... A Muslim (Arabic: Ù…Ø³Ù„Ù…, Turkish: MÃ¼slÃ¼man, Persian and Urdu: Ù…Ø³Ù„Ù…Ø§Ù†, Bosnian: Musliman) is an adherent of Islam. ...

By that time, despite Moscow’s military successes, the situation in the Caucasus front became very precarious. Armenians, aided by the Red Army involvement in Georgia, had revolted, retaking Yerevan on February 18, 1921. In the North Caucasus, Dagestani rebels continued to fight the Soviets. The Turkish occupation of Georgia’s territories implied the near certainty of a Soviet-Turkish confrontation and the Georgians repeatedly refused to capitulate. Lenin, who feared an unfavourable outcome of the Georgian campaign, sent, on March 2, his "warm greetings to Soviet Georgia" but clearly revealed his desire to bring hostilities to an end as quickly as possible. He emphasized the "tremendous importance of devising an acceptable compromise for a bloc" with the Georgian Mensheviks. On March 8, the Georgian Revkom reluctantly proposed a coalition government, but the Mensheviks refused.^[28] Yerevan (Armenian: ÔµÖ€Õ¥Ö‚Õ¡Õ¶ or ÔµÖ€Ö‡Õ¡Õ¶; sometimes written as Erevan; former names include Erebuni and Erivan) (population: 1,088,300 (2004 estimate) [1]) is the largest city and capital of Armenia. ... The North Caucasus, also called Ciscaucasus, Forecaucasus, or Front Caucasus (Russian: ), is the northern part of the Caucasus region. ... The Republic of Dagestan IPA: (Russian: ), older spelling Daghestan, is a federal subject of the Russian Federation (a republic). ...

However, when the Turkish authorities proclaimed the annexation of Batumi on March 16, the Georgian government was forced to make a choice. Their hopes for French or British intervention had already vanished as France never considered sending an expeditionary force and the United Kingdom ordered the Royal Navy not to intervene. Furthermore, on March 16, the British and Soviet governments signed a trade agreement, in which Prime Minister Lloyd George effectively promised to refrain from anti-Soviet activities in all territories of the former Russian Empire. Simultaneously, a treaty of friendship was signed in Moscow between Soviet Russia and the Grand National Assembly of Turkey, whereby Ardahan and Artvin were awarded to Turkey, which renounced its claims to Batumi. The Royal Navy of the United Kingdom is the oldest of the British armed services (and is therefore the Senior Service). ... The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is in practice the most important political office in the UK. He acts as the head of Her Majestys Government and like other Prime Ministers in Westminster Systems is (along with his Cabinet) the de facto... David Lloyd George, 1st Earl Lloyd George of Dwyfor, OM (January 17, 1863–March 26, 1945) was a British statesman and the last Liberal to be Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. ... The Treaty of Moscow was a friendship treaty between Grand National Assembly of Turkey (TBMM) and the Bolshevik government of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. ... The Grand National Assembly (TÃ¼rkiye BÃ¼yÃ¼k Millet Meclisi in Turkish) is the unicameral parliament of Turkey which carries out legislative functions. ...

The Turks were reluctant to evacuate Batumi and continued its occupation, however. The Georgian leaders quite ready, rather than have the Turks take Batumi, to see it occupied by the Bolsheviks agreed on talks with the Revkom to prevent Georgia's permanent loss of the city. In Kutaisi, the Georgian Defense Minister Grigol Lordkipanidze and the Soviet plenipotentiary Avel Enukidze arranged an armistice on March 17 and then, on March 18, an agreement which allowed the Red Army to advance in force to Batumi. Grigol Lordkipanidze (Georgian: ) (1881-1937) was a Georgian politician and author. ... Avel Safronovich Enukidze (May 19, 1877 [O.S. May 7] â€“ October 30, 1937), a prominent Old Bolshevik and, at one point, a member of the Soviet Central Committee in Moscow. ...

Amid the ongoing Turkish-Soviet consultations in Moscow, the armistice with the Mensheviks allowed the Bolsheviks to act indirectly from behind the scene, through several thousand soldiers of the Georgian National Army mobilized at the outskirts of Batumi and inclined to fight for the city. On March 18, the Georgians under General Mazniashvili engaged in a heavy street fighting with the Turkish garrison. While the battle raged, the Menshevik government boarded an Italian vessel and sailed into exile escorted by French warships. Fighting ended on March 19 with the port and most of the city in the Georgian hands. On the same day, Mazniashvili surrendered the city to the Revkom and Zhloba’s cavalry entered Batumi to reinforce the Bolshevik authority there. Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (662x851, 144 KB)Treaty of Kars as of 1920. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (662x851, 144 KB)Treaty of Kars as of 1920. ... Turkey Soviet-Turkish border as per treaty The Treaty of Kars was a friendship treaty between Turkey and the Soviet governments of the Transcaucasian Republics. ... The Italian Regia Marina (literally: Royal Navy) dates from the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861 after Italian unification. ...

The sanguinary events in Batumi halted the Russian-Turkish negotiations, and it was not until September 26 when the talks between Turkey and the Soviets, nominally including also the representatives of the Armenian, Azerbaijani and Georgian SSRs, finally reopened in Kars. The Treaty of Kars, signed on October 13, contained the provisions agreed upon in March and some other new territorial settlements just reached. In exchange for Artvin, Ardahan, and Kars, Turkey abandoned its claims to Batumi, whose largely Muslim Georgian population was to be granted autonomy within the Georgian SSR.^[28] September 26 is the 269th day of the year (270th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 96 days remaining. ... Kars (Armenian: Ô¿Õ¡Ö€Õ½) is a city in northeast Turkey and the capital of the Kars Province, formerly at the head of a sanjak in the Turkish vilayet of Erzurum. ... Turkey Soviet-Turkish border as per treaty The Treaty of Kars was a friendship treaty between Turkey and the Soviet governments of the Transcaucasian Republics. ... October 13 is the 286th day of the year (287th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... The Adjar ASSR, Adzhar ASSR or Adjarian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was an autonomous republic of the Soviet Union within the Georgian SSR, established on 16 July 1921. ...

Aftermath

Despite the Georgian government’s emigration and the demobilization of the National Army, pockets of guerilla resistance still remained in the mountains and some rural areas. The invasion of Georgia brought about serious controversies among the Bolsheviks themselves. The newly established Communist government initially offered unexpectedly mild terms to their former opponents who still remained in the country. Lenin also favored a policy of conciliation in Georgia, where a pro-Bolshevik revolt did not enjoy the popular backing claimed for it,^[29] and the population was solidly anti-Bolshevik.^[30] In 1922, a strong public resentment over the forcible Sovietization indirectly reflected in the opposition of Soviet Georgian authorities to Moscow’s centralizing policies promoted by Dzerzhinsky, Stalin and Ordzhonikidze. The problem, known in modern history writing as the Georgian Affair, was to become one of the major points at issue between Stalin and Trotsky in the last years of Lenin's leadership^[29] and found its reflection in "Lenin's Political Testament".^[31] 1922 (MCMXXII) was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... Felix Edmundovich Dzerzhinsky Felix Edmundovich Dzerzhinsky (Polish: Feliks DzierÅ¼yÅ„ski, Russian: Ð¤ÐµÐ»Ð¸ÐºÑ ÐÐ´Ð¼ÑƒÐ½Ð´Ð¾Ð²Ð¸Ñ‡ Ð”Ð·ÐµÑ€Ð¶Ð¸Ð½ÑÐºÐ¸Ð¹, Belarusian language Ð¤ÐµÐ»Ñ–ÐºÑ ÐÐ´Ð¼ÑƒÐ½Ð´Ð°Ð²Ñ–Ñ‡ Ð”Ð·ÑÑ€Ð¶Ñ‹Ð½ÑÐºÑ–; September 11 [O.S. August 30] 1877 â€“July 20, 1926) was a Communist revolutionary, famous as the founder of the Bolshevik secret police, the Cheka, later known by many names during the history of the Soviet... Lenins Testament is the name given to a document written by Vladimir Lenin in the last weeks of 1922 and the first week of 1923. ...

In Georgia, an intellectual resistance to the Bolshevik regime and occasional outbreaks of guerilla warfare evolved into a major rebellion in August 1924. Its failure and the ensuing wave of large-scale repressions orchestrated by the emerging Soviet security officer, Lavrentiy Beria, heavily demoralized the Georgian society and exterminated its most active pro-independence part. Within a week, from August 29 to September 5, 1924, 12,578 people, chiefly nobles and intellectuals, were executed^[32] and over 20,000 exiled to Siberia.^[19] From that tome, no major overt attempt was made to challenge Soviet authority in the country until a new generation of anti-Soviet movements emerged in the late 1970s. August Uprising in Georgia was an unsuccessful popular uprising against the Bolshevik occupation in the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic in August 1924. ... Lavrenty Beria Lavrentiy Pavlovich Beria (Georgian: áƒšáƒáƒ•áƒ áƒ”áƒœáƒ¢áƒ˜ áƒ‘áƒ”áƒ áƒ˜áƒ; Russian: Ð›Ð°Ð²Ñ€ÐµÐ½Ñ‚Ð¸Ð¹ ÐŸÐ°Ð²Ð»Ð¾Ð²Ð¸Ñ‡ Ð‘ÐµÑ€Ð¸Ñ; (29 March 1899 â€“ 23 December 1953), was a Soviet politician and chief of the Soviet security and police apparatus. ... August 29 is the 241st day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (242nd in leap years), with 124 days remaining. ... September 5 is the 248th day of the year (249th in leap years). ... Siberian Federal District (dark red) and the broadest definition of Siberia (red) Udachnaya pipe Siberia (Russian: , Sibir; Tatar: ) is a vast region of Russia constituting almost all of Northern Asia. ... The 1970s decade refers to the years from 1970 to 1979, inclusive. ...

Assessment

Soviet historians considered the Soviet-Georgian conflict a part of the Civil War and Foreign Intervention. The Red Army invasion, according to an official Soviet version, was in response to a plea for help that followed an armed rebellion by Georgia’s peasants and workers. Using its control over education and the media, the Soviet Union successfully created an image of a popular socialist revolution. Most Georgian historians were not allowed to consult Spetskhran, special restricted access library collections and archival reserves that also covered the "unacceptable" events in Soviet history, particularly those that could be interpreted imperialist or contradicted a concept of a popular uprising against the Menshevik government.^[8] Combatants Red Army (Bolsheviks) German Empire? White Army (Monarchists, SRs, Anti-Communists) Commanders Leon Trotsky, Mikhail Tukhachevsky, Semyon Budyonny Lavr Kornilov, Alexander Kolchak, Anton Denikin, Pyotr Wrangel The Russian Civil War was fought from 1917 to 1922. ... Britain, France, Canada and the United States, along with other World War I Allied countries, conducted a military intervention into the Russian Civil War during the period of 1918 through 1920. ... Spetskhran (Russian: for special storage area) was special limited access library collections and archival reserves in the Soviet Union. ...

The 1980s wave of Gorbachev's Glasnost ("publicity") policy refuted an old Soviet version of the 1921-4 events. The first Soviet historian, who attempted, in 1988, to revise the hitherto commonly accepted interpretation of the Soviet-Georgian war, was a notable Georgian scholar, Akaki Surguladze, ironically the same historian whose 1982 monograph described the alleged Georgian worker revolt as a truly historical event.^[8] The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view. ... Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev (Russian: ; Pronunciation: mih-kha-ILL ser-GHE-ye-vich gor-bah-CHOFF) (born March 2, 1931), was leader of the Soviet Union from 1985 until 1991. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... 1988 (MCMLXXXVIII) was a leap year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Akaki Surguladze (Georgian: ) (1913-1991) was a Georgian historian. ... 1982 (MCMLXXXII) was a common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Under strong public pressure, the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Georgian SSR set up, on June 20, 1989, a special commission for investigation of legal aspects of the 1921 events. The commission came to the conclusion^[33] that "the [Soviet Russian] deployment of troops in Georgia and seizure of its territory was, from a legal point of view, a military interference (intervention) and occupation aimed at changing the existing political regime."^[34] At an extraordinary session of the Supreme Soviet of the Georgian SSR convened on May 26, 1990, the Sovietization of Georgia was officially denounced as "an occupation and effective annexation of Georgia by Soviet Russia." The Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR (ÐŸÑ€ÐµÐ·Ð¸Ð´Ð¸ÑƒÐ¼ Ð’ÐµÑ€Ñ…Ð¾Ð²Ð½Ð¾Ð³Ð¾ Ð¡Ð¾Ð²ÐµÑ‚Ð° Ð¡Ð¡Ð¡Ð in Russian, or Prezidium Verkhovnogo Soveta) was a Soviet governmental body. ... June 20 is the 171st day of the year (172nd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 194 days remaining. ... 1989 (MCMLXXXIX) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... The Supreme Soviet (Russian: , Verhovniy Sovet, literally the Supreme Council) comprised the highest legislative body in the Soviet Union in the interim of the sessions of the Congress of Soviets, and the only one with the power to pass constitutional amendments. ... May 26 is the 146th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (147th in leap years). ... This article is about the year. ...

References

^ According to a Russian statistician and Soviet-era dissident, Professor I.A. Kurganov, the 1921-2 military operations against Georgia took lives of about 20,000 people. [1]
^ (Russian) Советско-грузинская война 1921 г. (Soviet-Georgian war of 1921). Хронос ("Hronos"). Retrieved on 2006-11-02.
^ ^a ^b Kort, M (2001), The Soviet Colossus, p.154. M.E. Sharpe, ISBN 0765603969
^ "Russia". (2006). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved October 27, 2006, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: [2]
^ Suny, RG (1994), The Making of the Georgian Nation: 2nd edition, p. 207. Indiana University Press, ISBN 0253209153
^ Sicker, M. (2001), The Middle East in the Twentieth Century, p. 124. Praeger/Greenwood, ISBN 0275968936
^ ^a ^b ^c Kedourie, S., editor (1998), Turkey: Identity, Democracy, Politics, p. 65. Routledge (UK), ISBN 0714647187
^ ^a ^b ^c Beichman, A. (1991). The Long Pretense: Soviet Treaty Diplomacy from Lenin to Gorbachev, p. 165. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 0887383602.
^ Erickson, J., editor (2001). The Soviet High Command: A Military-Political History, 1918-1941, p. 123. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0714651788.
^ "Russian Civil War". (2006). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved October 27, 2006, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: [3]
^ Pethybridge, RW (1990), One Step Backwards, Two Steps Forward: Soviet Society and Politics in the New Economic Policy, p. 254. Oxford University Press, ISBN 019821927X
^ Dench, G (2002), Minorities in the Open Society, p. 87. Transaction Publishers, ISBN 0765809796
^ Wood, A (1990), Stalin and Stalinism, p. 22. Routledge (UK), ISBN 0415037212
^ Glossary of Events: Georgian Affair-1921. Encyclopedia of Marxism. Retrieved on 2006-11-02.
^ ^a ^b Kowalski, RI (1997), The Russian Revolution, p. 175. Routledge (UK), ISBN 0415124379
^ ^a ^b Jeremy Smith (May 1998). "The Georgian Affair of 1922. Policy Failure, Personality Clash or Power Struggle?". Europe-Asia Studies 50, No. 3: 519-544.
^ Phillips, S (2000), Lenin and the Russian Revolution, p. 49. ca-print-harcourt_heinemann, ISBN 0435327194
^ Арутюнов, Аким Александрович (Arutyunov, Akim Aleksandrovich) (1999), Досье Ленина без ретуши. Документы. Факты. Свидетельства. (Lenin’ Dossier without Retouching. Documents, Facts, and Evidences). Moscow: Вече (Veche). ISBN 5-7838-0530-0 (in Russian). See also an abridged online version of the book.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Lang, DM (1962). A Modern History of Georgia, pp. 234-6. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
^ For further details on the role of Stalin and Ordzhonikidze in the establishment of Soviet rule in the Caucasus, see
- (Russian) Счастье на штыках (Happiness upon Bayonets). Исторический альманах “Лабиринт времен” (Historic almanac The Labyrinth of Times). Retrieved on 2006-10-29.
- Арутюнов, Аким Александрович (Arutyunov, Akim Aleksandrovich) (1999), Досье Ленина без ретуши. Документы. Факты. Свидетельства. (Lenin’ Dossier without Retouching. Documents, Facts, and Evidences). Moscow: Вече (Veche). ISBN 5-7838-0530-0 (in Russian). See also an abridged online version of the book.
^ Brackman, R (2000), The Secret File of Joseph Stalin: A Hidden Life, p. 163. Routledge (UK), ISBN 0714650501
^ Deutscher, I. (2003), The Prophet Unarmed: Trotsky: 1921-1929, p. 41. Verso, ISBN 1859844464
^ (Russian) "Тифлисская операция 1921 (Tiflis Operation of 1921)". Большая советская энциклопедия (БСЭ) (Great Soviet Encyclopedia) (3). (1969-1978).
^ For further details on the involvement of the Red Army armored trains in the Tiflis Operation, see Дроговоз И. Г. (Drogovoz, IG) (2002), Крепости на колесах: История бронепоездов (Fortresses on wheels: History of armored trains). Минск (Minsk): Харвест (Harvest), ISBN 985-13-0744-0 (in Russian)
^ Melgunov, SP (1925), The Red Terror in Russia. JM Dent and Sons, London and Toronto. Russian translation: С. П. Мельгунов (2005). Красный террор в России. 1918-1923. Айрис-пресс, ISBN 5-8112-1715-3. Online version: [4]
^ Шамбаров, В. Г. (Shambarov, VG) (2001). Государство и революции (State and Revolutions). Moscow: Алгоритм (Algorithm). ISBN 5-9265-0003-6 (in Russian)
^ Aksenov, A., Bullok, D (2006), Armored Units of the Russian Civil War: Red Army, p. Osprey Publishing, ISBN 1841765457
^ ^a ^b ^c Debo, R. (1992). Survival and Consolidation: The Foreign Policy of Soviet Russia, 1918-1921, pp. 182, 364. McGill-Queen's Press. ISBN 0773508287.
^ ^a ^b Deutscher, I. (2003), The Prophet Armed: Trotsky: 1879-1921 , p. 393. Verso, ISBN 1859844413
^ Conquest, R (1991), The Great Terror: Reassessment, p. 4. Oxford University Press, ISBN 0195071328
^ V.I. Lenin. The Question of Nationalities or "Autonomisation". Encyclopedia of Marxism. Retrieved on 2006-11-02.
^ (Russian) ШЕСТАЯ ГЛАВА ИЗ "ЧЕРНОЙ КНИГИ КОММУНИЗМА". Retrieved on 2006-05-21.. A Russian translation of the Chapter 6 from Nicolas Werth, Karel Bartošek, Jean-Louis Panne, Jean-Louis Margolin, Andrzej Paczkowski, Stéphane Courtois, The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression, Harvard University Press, 1999, hardcover, 858 pages, ISBN 0-674-07608-7
^ largely based upon extensive studies conducted in the "Georgian Archive" of Houghton Library, Harvard University, which has been opened for researchers since September 1988. [5]
^ Ментешашвили, А (Menteshashvili, A) (2002), Из истории взаимоотнашений Грузинской Демократическои республики с советской Россией и Антантой. 1918-1921 гг. (History of the Relations of the Democratic Republic of Georgia with Soviet Russia and the Entente of 1918-21)

id="Further_reading"> A dissident, broadly defined, is a person who actively opposes an established opinion, policy, or structure. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... November 2 is the 306th day of the year (307th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 59 days remaining. ... 2001: A Space Odyssey. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... 1913 advertisement for the 11th edition of EncyclopÃ¦dia Britannica, with the slogan When in doubtâ€”look it up in the EncyclopÃ¦dia Britannica The EncyclopÃ¦dia Britannica (properly spelled with Ã¦, the ae-ligature) was first published in 1768â€“1771 as The Britannica was an important early English-language general... October 27 is the 300th day of the year (301st in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 65 days remaining. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... 1994 (MCMXCIV) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar, and was designated as the International Year of the Family and the International Year of the Sport and the Olympic Ideal by United Nations. ... Indiana University, founded in 1820, is a nine-campus university system in the state of Indiana. ... 2001: A Space Odyssey. ... 1998 (MCMXCVIII) was a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar, and was designated the International Year of the Ocean. ... Routledge is an imprint for books in the humanities part of the Taylor & Francis Group, which also has Brunner-Routledge, RoutledgeCurzon and RoutledgeFalmer divisions. ... 1991 (MCMXCI) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... 2001: A Space Odyssey. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... 1913 advertisement for the 11th edition of EncyclopÃ¦dia Britannica, with the slogan When in doubtâ€”look it up in the EncyclopÃ¦dia Britannica The EncyclopÃ¦dia Britannica (properly spelled with Ã¦, the ae-ligature) was first published in 1768â€“1771 as The Britannica was an important early English-language general... October 27 is the 300th day of the year (301st in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 65 days remaining. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... This article is about the year. ... Oxford University Press (OUP) is a highly-respected publishing house and a department of the University of Oxford in England. ... For album titles with the same name, see 2002 (album). ... This article is about the year. ... The Encyclopedia of Marxism is an online encyclopedia about Marxism, part of the GFDL Marxist Internet Archive. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... November 2 is the 306th day of the year (307th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 59 days remaining. ... 1997 (MCMXCVII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Jeremy Smith is a New Zealand Rugby League player that currently plays halfback for the Parramatta Eels. ... This article is about the year 2000. ... 1999 (MCMXCIX) was a common year starting on Friday, and was designated the International Year of Old Farts by the Sometimes-United Nations. ... David Marshall Lang (May 6, 1924 â€“ March 20, 1991), was a Professor Emeritus of Caucasian Studies, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. ... 1962 (MCMLXII) was a common year starting on Monday (the link is to a full 1962 calendar). ... London (pronounced ) is the capital city of England and the United Kingdom. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... October 29 is the 302nd day of the year (303rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1999 (MCMXCIX) was a common year starting on Friday, and was designated the International Year of Old Farts by the Sometimes-United Nations. ... This article is about the year 2000. ... 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Title page of the 3rd ed. ... 1969 (MCMLXIX) was a common year starting on Wednesday (the link is to a full 1969 calendar). ... 1978 (MCMLXXVIII) was a common year starting on Sunday. ... For album titles with the same name, see 2002 (album). ... Location Location of Minsk, shown within the Minsk Voblast Government Belarus District City Belarus Minsk Voblast Minsk City City 980 (Polatsk) Mayor Mikhail Pavlov Geographical characteristics Area - City 256 kmÂ² Population - City (2006) 1,780,000 Coordinates Elevation 280. ... Sergei Petrovich Melgunov (Russian: ) (December 24 or 25, 1879-May 26, 1956) was a Russian historian, publicist and politician best known for his opposition to the Soviet government and his numerous works on the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the Russian Civil War. ... 1925 (MCMXXV) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will take you to calendar). ... 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... 2001: A Space Odyssey. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... 1992 (MCMXCII) was a leap year starting on Wednesday. ... 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Verso Books is a radical publishing house based in London and New York City, founded in 1970 by the staff of New Left Review. ... 1991 (MCMXCI) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Oxford University Press (OUP) is a highly-respected publishing house and a department of the University of Oxford in England. ... The Encyclopedia of Marxism is an online encyclopedia about Marxism, part of the GFDL Marxist Internet Archive. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... November 2 is the 306th day of the year (307th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 59 days remaining. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... May 21 is the 141st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (142nd in leap years). ... StÃ©phane Courtois is a French historian, currently employed as research director (i. ... The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression is a book authored by several European academics and senior researchers from CNRS, and edited by Dr. StÃ©phane Courtois. ... The Harvard University Press is a publishing house, a division of Harvard University, that is highly respected in academic publishing. ... Harvard University (incorporated as The President and Fellows of Harvard College) is a private university in Cambridge, Massachusetts. ... For album titles with the same name, see 2002 (album). ...

Contents

Background

Prelude to the war

Red Army invasion

Battle for Tbilisi

Kutaisi Operation

Crisis with Turkey

Aftermath

Assessment

References

Further reading

Contents

Background GA_googleFillSlot("encyclopedia_square");

Prelude to the war

Red Army invasion

Battle for Tbilisi

Kutaisi Operation

Crisis with Turkey

Aftermath

Assessment

References

Further reading

Background