Reduplication, in linguistics, is a morphological process in which the root or stem of a word, or only part of it, is repeated. Linguistics is the scientific study of human language, and someone who engages in this study is called a linguist. ... Morphology is a subdiscipline of linguistics that studies word structure. ... Look up Process in Wiktionary, the free dictionary Process (lat. ... Primary and secondary roots in a cotton plant In vascular plants, the root is that organ of a plant body that typically lies below the surface of the soil (compare with stem). ... This article is in need of attention. ...

Reduplication is used both in inflections to convey a grammatical function, such as plurality, intensification, etc., and in lexical derivation to create new words. It is often used when a speaker adopts a tone more "expressive" or figurative than ordinary speech and is also often, but not exclusively, iconic in meaning. Reduplication is found in a wide range of languages and language groups, though its level of linguistic productivity varies. Inflection or inflexion refers to a modification or marking of a word (or more precisely lexeme) so that it reflects grammatical (i. ... A lexicon is a list of words together with additional word-specific information, i. ... In linguistics, derivation is the process of creating new lexemes from other lexemes, for example, by adding a derivational affix. ... A word is a unit of language that carries meaning and consists of one or more morphemes which are linked more or less tightly together. ... In cognitive linguistics, iconicity is the conceived similarity between a form of language and its meaning. ...

Typological description

The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is a system of phonetic notation devised by linguists to accurately and uniquely represent each of the wide variety of sounds (phones or phonemes) used in spoken human language. ... Phonetic (pho-NET-ic) is a nationwide voicemail-to-text messaging service available for most digital mobile phones in which a subscriber is provided a custom voice mailbox for the purpose of receiving all incoming voice messages as actual transcribed text for reading via short messaging (also known as SMS... Due to technical limitations, some web browsers may not display some special characters in this article. ... This is a concise version of the International Phonetic Alphabet for English sounds. ...

Form

Reduplication is often described phonologically in one of two different ways: either (1) as reduplicated segments (sequences of consonants/vowels) or (2) as reduplicated prosodic units (syllables or moras). In addition to phonological description, reduplication often needs to be described morphologically as a reduplication of linguistic constituents (i.e. words, stems, roots). As a result, reduplication is interesting theoretically as it involves the interface between phonology and morphology. The vowels of modern (Standard) Arabic and (Israeli) Hebrew from the phonological point of view. ... See also consonance in music. ... Note: This page contains phonetic information presented in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) using Unicode. ... In linguistics, prosody refers to intonation, rhythm, and vocal stress in speech. ... A syllable (Ancient Greek: ) is a unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds. ... Mora (plural moras or morae) is a unit of sound used in phonology that determines syllable weight (which in turn determines stress) in some languages. ... Morphology is a subdiscipline of linguistics that studies word structure. ... Constituent as used in syntactic analysis refers to a word or a group of words that function together as a unit and are embedded into a hierarchical structure. ... A word is a unit of language that carries meaning and consists of one or more morphemes. ... This article is in need of attention. ... The root is the primary lexical unit of a word, which carries the most significant aspects of semantic content and cannot be reduced into smaller constituents. ...

The base is the word (or part of the word) that is to be copied. The reduplicated element is called the reduplicant, often abbreviated as RED or sometimes just R.

In reduplication, the reduplicant is most often repeated only once. However, in some languages, reduplication can occur more than once, resulting in a tripled form, and not a duple as in most reduplication. Triplication is the term for this phenomenon of copying three times. Pingelapese has both reduplication and triplication.

(Rehg 1981)

Triplication occurs in other languages, e.g. Ewe, Shipibo, Twi, Mokilese, Min Nan. Ewe is a Kwa language spoken in Ghana and Togo by approximately three million people (Capo 1991). ... Shipibo (also Shipibo-Conibo, Shipibo-Konibo) is a Panoan language spoken in Peru by approximately 26,000 speakers. ... Twi (pronounced chwee) is a language spoken in Ghana by about 6 million people. ... Mǐn N n (Chinese: 閩南語), also spelt as Minnan or Min-nan; native name B ; literally means Southern Min or Southern Fujian and refers to the local language/dialect of southern Fujian province, China. ...

Sometimes gemination (i.e. the doubling of consonants or vowels) is considered to be a form of reduplication. The term dupleme has been used (after morpheme) to refer to different types of reduplication that have the same meaning. Listen to this article · (info) This audio file was created from the revision dated 2005-07-20, and does not reflect subsequent edits to the article. ...

Full and partial reduplication

Full reduplication involves a reduplication of the entire word. For example, Kham derives reciprocal forms from reflexive forms by total reduplication: Kham (Wylie transliteration: Khams, Tibetan: ཁམས, Simplified Chinese: 康, Pinyin: Kāng) province is one of several provinces comprising traditional Tibet (the others Amdo and Ü-Tsang). ... In some languages, there is a difference between reflexive and non-reflexive pronouns. ...

Another example is from Musqueam Halkomelem "dispositional" aspect formation: Halkomelem (Halqeméylem) is a Salish language of the First Nations around the Fraser river and the southern end of Vancouver Island in British Columbia. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article may require cleanup. ...

Partial reduplication involves a reduplication of only part of the word. For example, Marshallese forms words meaning 'to wear X' by reduplicating the last CVC sequence of a base, i.e. base+CVC:

Many languages often use both full and partial reduplication, as in the Motu example below: Motu is one of many Central Papuan languages spoken by the Motuans, native habitants of Papua New Guinea. ...

Reduplicant position

Reduplication may be initial (i.e. prefixal), final (i.e. suffixal), or internal (i.e. infixal), e.g. In linguistics, a prefix is a type of affix that precedes the morphemes to which it can attach. ... Suffix has meanings in linguistics, nomenclature and computer science. ... Infix has similar meanings in linguistics and mathematics. ...

Initial reduplication in Agta (CV- prefix): Kapre (also known as Agta in the Visayan dialect)is a Philippine mythical creature similar to that of the Bigfoot creature, but with more human characteristics. ...

Final reduplication in Dakota (-CCV suffix): Lakota (also Lakhota, Teton, Teton Sioux) is the largest of the three languages of the Sioux, of the Siouan family. ...

Internal reduplication in Samoan (-CV- infix):

Internal reduplication is much less common than the initial and final types.

Copying direction

A reduplicant can copy from either the left edge of a word (left-to-right copying) or from the right edge (right-to-left copying). There is a tendency for prefixing reduplicants to copy left-to-right and for suffixing reduplicants to copy right-to-left:

Initial L → R copying in Oykangand Kunjen (a Pama-Nyungan language of Australia): The Pama-Nyungan languages are the most widespread family of Australian languages. ...

Final R → L copying in Sirionó: Sirionó (also Mbia Chee, Mbya, Siriono) is a Tupian (Tupi-Guarani, Subgroup II) language spoken by about 400 speakers (50 are monolingual) in eastern Bolivia (eastern Beni and northwestern Santa Cruz Departments) in the village of Ibiato (Eviato) and along the Río Blanco in farms and ranches. ...

Copying from the other direction is possible although less common:

Initial R → L copying in Tillamook: Tillamook may refer to: Tillamook, Oregon, United States Tillamook County, Oregon, United States the Tillamook County Creamery Association Tillamook River, United States This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ...

Final L → R copying in Chukchi: Chukchi (Luoravetlan (in native language), Chukot, Chukcha) is a Palaeosiberian language spoken by circa 10,400 people (2001) (Chukchi) in the easternmost extremity of Siberia, mainly in the region called Chukotka. ...

Internal reduplication can also involve copying the beginning or end of the base. In Quileute, the first consonant of the base is copied and inserted after the first vowel of the base.

Internal L → R copying in Quileute: Quileute is a group of Native American peoples from western Washington state in the United States. ...

In Temiar, the last consonant of the root is copied and inserted before the medial consonant of the root.

Internal R → L copying in Temiar (an Austro-Asiatic language of Malaysia): The Austroasiatic languages are a large language family of Southeast Asia and India. ...

A rare type of reduplication is found in Semai (an Austro-Asiatic language of Malaysia). "Expressive minor reduplication" is formed with an initial reduplicant that copies the first and last segment of the base: The Semai are a semisedentary people living in the center of the Malay Peninsula in Southeast Asia. ...

Reduplication and other processes

All of the examples above consist of only reduplication. However, reduplication often occurs with other phonological and morphological process, such as deletion, affixation of non-reduplicating material, etc. In music, see elision (music). ... Affixation occurs when a bound morpheme is attached to a root morpheme. ...

For instance, in Tz'utujil a new '-ish' adjective form is derived from other words by suffixing the reduplicated first consonant of the base followed by the segment [oχ]. This can be written succinctly as -Coχ. Below are some examples: The Tzutujil are a Native American people, one of the 21 Mayan ethnic groups that dwell in Guatemala. ...

• [kaq] 'red' → [kaqkoχ] 'reddish'  (kaq-k-oχ)
• [q’an] 'yellow' → [q’anq’oχ] 'yellowish'  (q’an-q’-oχ)
• [jaʔ] 'water' → [jaʔjoχ] 'watery'  (jaʔ-j-oχ)   (Dayley 1985)

Somali has a similar suffix that is used in forming the plural of some nouns: -aC (where C is the last consonant of the base):

• [tog] 'ditch' → [togag] 'ditches'  (tog-a-g)
• [ʕad] 'lump of meat' → [ʕadad] 'lumps of meat'  (ʕad-a-d)
• [wɪːl] 'boy' → [wɪːlal] 'boys'  (wɪːl-a-l)   (Abraham 1964)

(One linguist has used the word duplifix to refer to this combination of reduplication and affixation.)

In Tohono O'odham initial reduplication also involves gemination of the first consonant in the distributive plural and in repetitive verbs: The Tohono Oodham are a Native American tribe formerly known as the Papago who reside primarily in the Sonoran Desert of the southwest United States and northwest Mexico. ... Listen to this article · (info) This audio file was created from the revision dated 2005-07-20, and does not reflect subsequent edits to the article. ...

• [nowiu] 'ox' → [nonnowiu] 'ox (distributive)'  (no-n-nowiu)
• [hódai] 'rock' → [hohhodai] 'rock (distributive)'  (ho-h-hodai)
• [kow] 'dig out of ground (unitative)' → [kokkow] 'dig out of ground (repetitive)'  (ko-k-kow)
• [gɨw] 'hit (unitative)' → [gɨggɨw] 'hit (repetitive)'  (gɨ-g-gɨw)   (Haugen forthcoming)

Sometimes gemination can be analyzed as a type of reduplication.

Function and meaning

In the Malayo-Polynesian family, reduplication is used to form plurals (among many other functions): The Malayo-Polynesian languages are a subgroup of the Austronesian languages. ...

• Malay rumah "house", rumah-rumah "houses".
• Hawaiian has the important example wiki-wiki.

In pre-1972 Indonesian and Malay orthography, 2 was shorthand for the reduplication that forms plurals: orang "person", orang-orang or orang2 "people"^[1]. The Malay language, also known locally as Bahasa Melayu, is an Austronesian language spoken by the Malay people who reside in the Malay peninsula, southern Thailand, Philippines, Singapore, central eastern Sumatra, the Riau islands, and parts of the coast of Borneo. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... The Malay language, also known locally as Bahasa Melayu, is an Austronesian language spoken by the Malay people who reside in the Malay peninsula, southern Thailand, Philippines, Singapore, central eastern Sumatra, the Riau islands, and parts of the coast of Borneo. ...

The Nama language uses reduplication to increase the force of a verb: go, "look;", go-go "examine with attention". Nàmá, previously called Hottentot, is the most populous and widespread of the Khoisan languages. ... A verb is a part of speech that usually denotes action (bring, read), occurrence (decompose, glitter), or a state of being (exist, stand). Depending on the language, a verb may vary in form according to many factors, possibly including its tense, aspect, mood and voice. ...

Chinese also uses reduplication: 人 rén for "person", 人人 rénrén for "everybody". Japanese does it too: 時 toki "time", tokidoki 時々 "sometimes, from time to time". Both languages can use a special written iteration mark 々 to indicate reduplication, although in Chinese the iteration mark is no longer used in standard writing and is often found only in Calligraphy. Iteration marks (Jp. ... Calligraphy in a Latin Bible of AD 1407 on display in Malmesbury Abbey, Wiltshire, England. ...

Indo-European languages formerly used reduplication to form a number of verb forms, especially in the preterite or perfect tenses. In the older Indo-European languages, many such verbs survive: The Indo-European languages comprise a family of several hundred languages and dialects (443 according to the SIL estimate), including most of the major languages of Europe, as well as many in Southwest Asia, Central Asia and Southern Asia. ... A verb is a part of speech that usually denotes action (bring, read), occurrence (decompose, glitter), or a state of being (exist, stand). Depending on the language, a verb may vary in form according to many factors, possibly including its tense, aspect, mood and voice. ... This article is about the grammatical term. ... Look up Perfect in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

• spondeo, spopondi (Latin, "I vow, I vowed")
• λείπω, λέλοιπα (Greek, "I leave, I left")
• δέρκομαι, δέδορκα (Greek, "I see, I saw"; these Greek examples exhibit ablaut as well as reduplication)
• háitan, haíháit (Gothic, "to name, I named")

None of these sorts of forms survive in modern English, although they existed in its parent Germanic languages. A number of verbs in the Indo-European languages exhibit reduplication in the present stem rather than the perfect stem: Latin gigno, genui ("I beget, I begat") is a surviving example. Other Indo-European verbs used reduplication as a derivational process; compare Latin sto ("I stand") and sisto ("I remain"). All of these Indo-European inherited reduplicating forms are subject to reduction by other phonological laws. Latin is an ancient Indo-European language originally spoken in the region around Rome called Latium. ... In linguistics, the term ablaut (from German ab- in the sense down, reducing + Laut sound) designates a system of vowel gradations in Proto-Indo-European and its far-reaching consequences in all of the modern Indo-European languages. ... The Gothic language (*gutiska razda, * ) is an extinct Germanic language that was spoken by the Goths and specifically by the Visigoths. ... The Germanic languages form one of the branches of the Indo-European (IE) language family. ... The present tense is the tense (form of a verb) that is often used to express: Action at the present time A state of being A habitual action An occurrence in the near future An action that occurred in the past and continues up to the present There are two...

Recent Finnish slang uses reduplicated nouns to indicate genuinity, completeness, originality and being uncomplicated as opposed to being fake, incomplete, complicated or fussy. It can be thought as compound word formation. E.g. Söin viisi jäätelöä, pullapitkon ja karkkia, sekä tietysti ruokaruokaa. "I ate five choc-ices, a long loaf of coffee bread and candy, and of course food-food". Here, the "food-food" is contrasted to the "junk-food" -- the principal role of food is nutrition, and "junkfood" isn't nutritious, so "food-food" is nutritious food, exclusively. Finnish ( ) is the language spoken by the majority of the population in Finland (92%) and by ethnic Finns outside Finland. ...

• ruoka "food", ruokaruoka "proper food", as opposed to snacks
• peli "game", pelipeli "complete game",as opposed to a mod
• puhelin "phone", puhelinpuhelin "phone for talking", as opposed to a pocket computer
• kauas "far away", kauaskauas "unquestionably far away"

These sorts of reduplicative forms, such as "food-food," are not merely literal translations of the Finnish but in fact have some frequency in contemporary English for emphasising, as in Finnish, a "authentic" form of a certain thing. "Food-food" is one of the most common, along with such a possibilities for "car-car" to describe a vehicle which is actually a car (small automobile) and not something else such as a truck, or "house-house," for a stand-alone house structure as opposed to an apartment, for instance. Look up mod in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... The driver of this DAF tractor with an auto-transport semi-trailer prepares to offload Å koda Octavia cars in Cardiff, Wales For other meanings, see Truck (disambiguation). ... Houses in Fishpool Street, St Albans, England Houses in the most general sense consist of human-built dwellings, each with enclosing walls, a floor, and a roof. ... An apartment estate in Singapore, which makes up the majority of public housing in Singapore. ...

In Swiss German, the verbs gah or goh "go", cho "come", la or lo "let" and aafa or aafo "begin" reduplicate when combined with other verbs. Swiss German (Schweizerdeutsch, Schwyzerdütsch, Schwiizerdütsch, Schwyzertütsch, Schwizertitsch) is any of the Alemannic dialects spoken in Switzerland. ...

Examples

Indo-European

English reduplication

English uses some kinds of reduplication, mostly for informal expressive vocabulary. There are three types:

• Rhyming reduplications: abracadabra, boogie-woogie, bow-wow, chock-a-block, claptrap, gang-bang, eency-weeny, fancy-schmancy, fuddy-duddy, fuzzy-wuzzy, hanky-panky, harum-scarum, heebie-jeebies, helter-skelter, herky-jerky, hi-fi, higgledy-piggledy, hobnob, Hobson-Jobson, hocus-pocus, hodge-podge, hoity-toity, hokey-pokey, honey-bunny, hubble-bubble, hugger-mugger, Humpty-Dumpty, hurly-burly, hurry-scurry, itsy-bitsy, itty-bitty, loosey-goosey, lovey-dovey, mumbo-jumbo, namby-pamby, nimbly-bimbly, nitty-gritty, nitwit, okey-dokey, pall-mall, palsy-walsy, pee-wee, pell-mell, picnic, razzle-dazzle, roly-poly, sci-fi, super-duper, teenie-weenie, tidbit, walkie-talkie, willy-nilly, wingding
• Exact reduplications (baby-talk-like): bonbon, bye-bye, choo-choo, chop-chop, chow-chow, couscous, dum-dum, fifty-fifty, go-go, goody-goody, knock-knock, no-no, pee-pee, poo-poo, pooh-pooh, rah-rah, so-so, tsk-tsk, wee-wee.
• Ablaut reduplications: bric-a-brac, chit-chat, criss-cross, dilly-dally, ding-dong, fiddle-faddle, flimflam, flip-flop, hippety-hoppety, kitcat, knick-knack, mish-mash, ping-pong, pitter-patter, riff-raff, riprap, see-saw, shilly-shally, sing-song, splish-splash, teeny-tiny, teeter-totter, tic-tac-toe, tick-tock, ticky-tacky, tip-top, tittle-tattle, wish-wash, wishy-washy, zig-zag

In the ablaut reduplications, the first vowel is almost always a high vowel and the reduplicated ablaut variant of the vowel is a low vowel. There is also a tendency for the first vowel to be front and the second vowel to be back. In linguistics, the term ablaut (from German ab- in the sense down, reducing + Laut sound) designates a system of vowel gradations in Proto-Indo-European and its far-reaching consequences in all of the modern Indo-European languages. ... A close vowel is a type of vowel sound used in many spoken languages. ... An open vowel is a vowel sound of a type used in most spoken languages. ...

None of the above types are particularly productive, meaning that the sets are fairly fixed and new forms are not easily accepted, but there is another form of reduplication that is used as a deprecative called shm-reduplication that can be used with most any word; e.g. baby-shmaby or car-shmar. This process comes to American English from Yiddish. Shm-reduplication is a form of reduplication in which the original word (the base) is repeated with the second copy (the reduplicant) beginning with shm- (IPA [ʃm]). The construction is generally used to indicate irony or scepticism with respect to comments about the discussed object: -Hes just a baby...

More can be learned about English reduplication in Thun (1963), Cooper and Ross (1975), and Nevins and Vaux (2003).

Romance

Romance languages in the world: Blue – French; Green – Spanish; Orange – Portuguese; Yellow – Italian; Red – Romanian The Romance languages, a major branch of the Indo-European language family, comprise all languages that descended from Latin, the language of the Roman Empire. ...

Lingua Franca

Common in Lingua Franca, particularly but not exclusively for onomatopoeic action descriptions: "Spagnoli venir...boum boum...andar; Inglis venir...boum boum bezef...andar; Francés venir...tru tru tru...chapar." ("The Spaniards came, cannonaded, and left. The English came, cannonaded heavily, and left. The French came, trumpeted on bugles, and captured it.") [1] Lingua franca, literally Frankish language in Italian, was originally a mixed language consisting largely of Italian plus a vocabulary drawn from Turkish, Persian, French, Greek and Arabic and used for communication throughout the Middle East. ...

French

A common use for reduplication in French is the creation of hypocoristics for names, thus Louise becomes Loulou, and Zinedine Zidane becomes Zizou. A hypocoristic is a pet name or term of endearment. ... This article describes the conventions for using peoples names in France, including the norms of custom and practice, as well as the legal aspects. ... Louise Levêque de Vilmorin (4 April 1904-26 December 1969) was a French woman of letters: novelist, poet, journalist. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

Chinese

Adjective reduplication is common in Standard Mandarin, typically denoting emphasis, less acute degree of the quality described, or an attempt at more indirect speech: xiaoxiao de 小小的 (small), chouchou de 臭臭的 (smelly). Standard Mandarin is the official Chinese spoken language used by the Peoples Republic of China, the Republic of China (Taiwan) and Singapore. ...

Noun reduplication is found in the southwestern dialect of Mandarin, which is nearly absent in standard Mandarin (Guoyu). For instance, in Sichuan, baobao 包包 (handbag) is used whereas Beijing and Guoyu use bao'r 包儿. Mandarin, or Beifanghua (Chinese: 北方話; Pinyin: BÄ›ifānghuà; literally Northern Dialect(s)), or Guanhua (Traditional Chinese: 官話; Simplified Chinese: 官话; Pinyin: Guānhuà; literally official speech) is a category of related Chinese dialects spoken across most of northern and southwestern China. ... Standard Mandarin is the official Chinese spoken language used by the Peoples Republic of China, the Republic of China (Taiwan) and Singapore. ... Sichuan (Chinese: 四川; Pinyin: ; Wade-Giles: Ssu-ch`uan; Postal Pinyin: Szechwan and Szechuan) is a province in central-western China with its capital at Chengdu. ...

Reduplicated Babbling

During the period 25-50 weeks after birth, all infants go through a stage of reduplicated babbling, as they experiment with their vocal apparatus and home in on the sounds used in their native language. This is distinguished from earlier syllabic play, which has less of a structure. Babbling is a stage in child language acquisition, during which an infant appears to be experimenting with making the sounds of language, but not yet producing any recognizable words. ...

See also

• ideophone
• augment
• amredita
• language acquisition

(For an example of a language with many types of reduplication see: St'at'imcets language#Reduplication.) Contents // Categories: Linguistics | Stub ... In linguistics, the augment is a syllable added to the beginning of the word in certain Indo-European languages, most notably Greek (the augment survives and has been generalised in Modern Greek), Armenian, and the Indo-Iranian languages such as Sanskrit, to form the perfect, preterite, or aorist tenses. ... An Amredita is a type of compound in Sanskrit grammar. ... Language acquisition is the process by which language develops in humans. ... Statimcets (also Lillooet, Lilloet) is an interior Salishan language spoken in southern British Columbia, Canada around the middle Fraser and Lillooet rivers by the Statimc people. ...

External links

• No Hocus-Pocus Here!: Repeating a word or a syllable
• Reduplication (Lexicon of Linguistics)
• What is reduplication? (SIL)
• Echo-Word Reduplication Lexicon
• Exhaustive list of reduplications in English

Bibliography

• Abraham, Roy. (1964). Somali-English dictionary. London, England: University of London Press.
• Albright, Adam. (2002). A restricted model of UR discovery: Evidence from Lakhota. (Draft version).
• Alderete, John; Benua, Laura; Gnanadesikan, Amalia E.; Beckman, Jill N.; McCarthy, John J.; and Urbanczyk, Suzanne. (1999). Reduplication with fixed segmentism. Linguistic Inquiry, 30, 327-364. (Online version ROA 226-1097 available at http://roa.rutgers.edu/view.php3?id=561).
• Broselow, Ellen; and McCarthy, John J. (1984). A theory of internal reduplication. The linguistic review, 3, 25-88.
• Cooper, William E.; and Ross, "Háj" John R. (1975). World order. In R. E. Grossman, L. J. San, and T. J. Vance (Eds.), Papers from the parasession on functionalism (pp. 63-111). Chicago, IL: Chicago Linguistic Society.
• Dayley, Jon P. (1985). Tzutujil grammar. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
• Diffloth, Gérald. (1973). Expressives in Semai. In P. N. Jenner, L. C. Thompson, and S. Starsota (Eds.), Austroasiatic studies part I (pp. 249-264). University Press of Hawaii.
• Fabricius, Anne H. (2006). A comparative survey of reduplication in Australian languages. LINCOM Studies in Australian Languages (No. 03). Lincom. ISBN 3-89586-531-1.
• Haugen, Jason D. (forthcoming). Reduplicative allomorphy and language prehistory in Uto-Aztecan. (Paper presented at Graz Reduplication Conference 2002, November 3-6).
• Healey, Phyllis M. (1960). An Agta grammar. Manila: The Institute of National Language and The Summer Institute of Linguistics.
• Hurch, Bernhard (Ed.). (2005). Studies on reduplication. Empirical approaches to language typology (No. 28). Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-018119-3.
• Inkelas, Sharon; & Zoll, Cheryl. (2005). Reduplication: Doubling in morphology. Cambridge studies in linguistics (No. 106). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-5218-0649-6.
• Key, Harold. (1965). Some semantic functions of reduplication in various languages. Anthropological Linguistics, 7 (3), 88-101.
• Marantz, Alec. (1982). Re reduplication. Linguistic Inquiry, 13, 435-382.
• McCarthy, John J.; and Prince, Alan S. (1986 [1996]). Prosodic morphology 1986. Technical report #32. Rutger University Center for Cognitive Science. (Unpublished revised version of the 1986 paper available online on McCarthy's website: http://ruccs.rutgers.edu/pub/papers/pm86all.pdf).
• McCarthy, John J.; and Prince, Alan S. (1995). Faithfulness and reduplicative identity. In J. Beckman, S. Urbanczyk, and L. W. Dickey (Eds.), University of Massachusetts occasional papers in linguistics 18: Papers in optimality theory (pp. 249-384). Amherst, MA: Graduate Linguistics Students Association. (Available online on the Rutgers Optimality Archive website: http://roa.rutgers.edu/view.php3?id=568).
• McCarthy, John J.; and Prince, Alan S. (1999). Faithfulness and identity in prosodic morphology. In R. Kager, H. van der Hulst, and W. Zonneveld (Eds.), The prosody morphology interface (pp. 218-309). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Available online on the Rutgers Optimality Archive website: http://roa.rutgers.edu/view.php3?id=562).
• Moravcsik, Edith. (1978). Reduplicative constructions. In J. H. Greenberg (Ed.), Universals of human language: Word structure (Vol. 3, pp. 297-334). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
• Nevins, Andrew; and Vaux, Bert. (2003). Metalinguistic, shmetalinguistic: The phonology of shm-reduplication. (Presented at the Chicago Linguistics Society, April 2003). (Online version: http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~nevins/schm.pdf).
• Raimy, Eric. (2000). Remarks on backcopying. Linguistic Inquiry, 31, 541-552.
• Rehg, Kenneth L. (1981). Ponapean reference grammar. Honolulu: The University Press of Hawaii.
• Reichard, Gladys A. (1959). A comparison of five Salish languages. International Journal of American Linguistics, 25, 239-253.
• Shaw, Patricia. (2004). Reduplicant order and identity: Never trust a Salish CVC either?. In D. Gerdts and L. Matthewson (Eds.), Studies in Salish linguistics in honor of M. Dale Kinkade. University of Montana Occasional Papers in Linguistics (Vol. 17). Missoula, MT: University of Montana.
• Thun, Nils. (1963). Reduplicative words in English: A study of formations of the types tick-tock, hurly-burly, and shilly-shally. Uppsala.
• Watters, David E. (2002). A grammar of Kham. Cambridge grammatical descriptions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-81245-3.
• Wilbur, Ronnie B. (1973). The phonology of reduplication. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois).

1. ^ The Malay Spelling Reform, Asmah Haji Omar, (Journal of the Simplified Spelling Society, 1989-2 pp.9-13 later designated J11)