Reeducation camp (trại học tập cải tạo) is the official name given to the prison camps operated by the government of Vietnam following the end of the Vietnam War. In such "reeducation camps", the government imprisoned several hundred thousand former military officers and government workers from the former Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam). Reeducation as it was implemented in Vietnam was both a means of revenge and a sophisticated technique of repression and indoctrination which developed for several years in the North and was extended to the South following the 1975 communist takeover. Combatants Republic of Vietnam United States Republic of Korea Thailand Australia New Zealand The Philippines National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam Democratic Republic of Vietnam People’s Republic of China Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea Strength US 1,000,000 South Korea 300,000 Australia 48,000... National motto: ??? Official language Vietnamese Capital Saigon Last President Duong Van Minh Last Prime Minister Vu Van Mau Area  - Total  - % water 173,809km² N/A population  - Total  - Density 19,370,000 (1973 est. ... This article is about communism as a form of society and as a political movement. ...

The term 'reeducation camp' is also used to refer to prison camps operated by the People's Republic of China during the Cultural Revolution, or to the laogai and laojiao camps currently operated by the Chinese government. Theory underlying such camps is the Maoist theory of reforming anti-revolutionaries into socialist citizens by reeducation through labor. Laogai (勞改; pinyin: láo găi), which means reform through labor, is a slogan of the Chinese criminal justice system and has been used to refer to the use of prison labor in the Peoples Republic of China. ... Reeducation through labor (laodong jiaoyang 劳动教养, abbreviated láojiào 劳教) is a system of administrative detentions in the Peoples Republic of China which is generally used to detain persons for minor crimes such as petty theft, prostitution, and illegal drug use for periods up to four years. ... Maoism or Mao Zedong Thought (Chinese: 毛澤東思想, pinyin: Máo Zédōng Sīxiǎng), also called Marxism-Leninism–Mao Zedong Thought or Marxism-Leninism-Maoism (MLM), is a variant of communism derived from the teachings of Mao Zedong (1893&#8211... Reeducation through labor (laodong jiaoyang 劳动教养, abbreviated láojiào 劳教) is a system of administrative detentions in the Peoples Republic of China which is generally used to detain persons for minor crimes such as petty theft, prostitution, and illegal drug use for periods up to four years. ...

Meaning of the term 'trại học tập cải tạo'

The term 'reeducation', with its pedagogical overtones, does not quite convey the quasi-mystical resonance of 'trại học tập cải tạo' in Vietnamese. Cải (to transform) and tạo (to create) combine to literally mean an attempt at recreation, and making over sinful or incomplete individuals. This article needs to be wikified. ... Quasi is an indie rock band formed in Portland, Oregon in 1993, consisting of the ex-husband and wife team of Sam Coomes (vocals, guitar, roxichord, various keyboards) and Janet Weiss (also drummer for punk band Sleater-Kinney) on vocals and drums. ... Mysticism (ancient Greek mysticon = secret) is meditation, prayer, or theology focused on the direct experience of union with divinity, God, or Ultimate Reality, or the belief that such experience is a genuine and important source of knowledge. ... Transformation is the genetic alteration of a cell resulting from the introduction, uptake and expression of foreign genetic material (DNA or RNA). ... ...

Historical background

In 1973, the various parties in the Vietnam War signed a peace treaty. Article 11 of the 1973 Paris Agreements guaranteed the people of South Vietnam the following rights: 1) Freedom from reprisal and discrimination against those who collaborated with one side or the other during the war, and 2) Democratic freedoms, such as freedom of speech, press, assembly, belief, movement, organization, meeting, residence and freedom of political activities. 1973 (MCMLXXIII) was a common year starting on Monday. ... Combatants Republic of Vietnam United States Republic of Korea Thailand Australia New Zealand The Philippines National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam Democratic Republic of Vietnam People’s Republic of China Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea Strength US 1,000,000 South Korea 300,000 Australia 48,000... 1973 (MCMLXXIII) was a common year starting on Monday. ... Signing the peace accords. ... In warfare, a reprisal is a limited and deliberate violation of the laws of war to punish an enemy for breaking the laws of war. ...

When the DRV and NLF launched the 1975 Spring Offensive, leading to the military takeover of South Vietnam, they claimed they did so in order to "enforce" the Paris Agreements. Yet upon taking control over the South, these new leaders did not set about to implement the rights mentioned in Article 11. The Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRVN), or less commonly, Vietnamese Democratic Republic (Vietnamese: Việt Nam Dân Chủ Cộng Hòa), also known as North Vietnam, was proclaimed by Ho Chi Minh in Hanoi, September 2nd1945 and was recognized by the Peoples Republic of China and the... A Viet Cong soldier, heavily guarded, awaits interrogation following capture in the attacks on Saigon during the festive Tet holiday period of 1968. ... Combatants Vietnam Peoples Army National Liberation Front Army of the Republic of Vietnam Commanders General Van Tien Dung President Nguyen Van Thieu (Until April 5) Strength 300,000+ (est. ... {| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%; |+Quốc gia Việt Nam (1949–1955) Việt Nam Cộng Hòa (1955–1975) Cộng Hòa Mi...

The hundreds of thousands of Vietnamese who were imprisoned in reeducation camps since 1975 basically fall into two categories: 1) Those who were detained in reeducation camps since 1975 because they collaborated with the other side during the war, and 2) Those who were arrested in the years since 1975 for attempting to exercise such democratic freedoms as those mentioned in Article 11 of the 1973 Paris Agreements. 1975 (MCMLXXV) was a common year starting on Wednesday. ...

In other words, both categories of prisoners were held in direct violation of Article 11 of the 1973 Paris Agreements, an international treaty, and therefore of international law. This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ...

After the fall of Saigon on April 30th, 1975, hundreds of thousands of South Vietnamese men, from former officers in the armed forces, to religious leaders, to employees of the Americans or the old government, were rounded up in reeducation camps to "learn about the ways of the new government." They were never trialed, judged nor convicted of any crime. Many South Vietnamese men chose to flee on boats, but others had established lives and loved ones in Vietnam, so did not flee but entered these camps in hopes of quickly reconciling with the new government and continuing their lives peacefully. The Fall of Saigon (in Vietnamese: 30 tháng tư, or April 30th), was the capture of the South Vietnamese capital of Saigon by the Vietnam Peoples Army (NVA) on April 30, 1975. ...

Government view on the reeducation camps

Officially, the Vietnamese government does not consider the reeducation camps prisons, but rather places where individuals could be rehabilitated into society through education and socially constructive labor. In reality however, the camps were terrible places in which men were forced to work at hard labor with not enough food and minimal medical attention. The inmates were forced to Vietnam's "new economic zones" - isolated areas of the country which the government hoped to make fruitful. Political rehabilitation is the process by which a member of a political organization or government who has fallen into disgrace is restored to public life. ...

The Hanoi regime and its apologists defended the reeducation camps by placing the "war criminal" label on the prisoners. A 1981 memorandum of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam to Amnesty International claimed that all those in the reeducation camps were guilty of acts of national treason as defined in Article 3 of the 30 October 1967 Law on Counter-revolutionary Crimes (enacted for the government of North Vietnam) which specifies punishment of 20 years to life imprisonment or the death penalty. But because the regime was so merciful, it was instead allowing the prisoners to experience "reeducation without trial," which "as applied in Vietnam is the most humanitarian system, and the most advantageous for law offenders... in accordance with the tradition of generosity and humanitarianism of the Vietnamese nation and the loftiest ideals of mankind." Hanoi (Vietnamese: Hà Ná»™i, Hán Tá»±: 河内)  , estimated population 3,145,300(2005), is the capital of Vietnam. ... A war crime is a punishable offense, under international (criminal) law, for violations of the law of war by any person or persons, military or civilian. ... 1981 (MCMLXXXI) was a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Amnesty International (commonly known as Amnesty or AI) is a non-governmental organization (NGO) comprising a worldwide movement of people who campaign for internationally recognized human rights.[1] Founded in the UK in 1961, AI compares actual practices of human rights with internationally accepted standards and demands compliance where these... Traitor redirects here. ... 1967 (MCMLXVII) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar (the link is to a full 1967 calendar). ... The Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRVN), or less commonly, Vietnamese Democratic Republic (Vietnamese: Việt Nam Dân Chủ Cá»™ng Hòa), also known as North Vietnam, was proclaimed by Ho Chi Minh in Hanoi, September 2nd1945 and was recognized by the Peoples Republic of China and the...

Registration and arrest

In May of 1975, various groups of Vietnamese were ordered to register with the new regime that had established control over the South on April 30, 1975. Then, in June, the new regime issued orders instructing those who had registered in May to report to various places for reeducation. Soldiers, noncommissioned officers and rank-and-file personnel of the former South Vietnamese government were to undergo three-day "reform study," June 11-13, in which they would attend during the day and go home at night.

The others ordered to report for "reform study" were not allowed to attend during the day and go home at night, but were instead to be confined to their sites of "reform study" until the course ended. Nevertheless, there was some hope, for the government gave the clear impression that reform study would last no more than a month for even the highest ranking officers and officials of the former government in South Vietnam, and ten days for lower-ranking officers and officials.

Thus, officers of the RVN armed forces from the rank of second lieutenant to captain, along with low-ranking police officers and intelligence cadres, were ordered to report to various sites, bringing along "enough paper, pens, clothes, mosquito nets, personal effects, food or money for use in ten days beginning from the day of gathering." High- ranking military and police officers of the RVN, from major to general, along with mid and high-ranking intelligence officers, members of the RVN executive, judicial and legislative branches, including all elected members of the House of Representatives and Senate, and, finally, leaders of "reactionary" (i.e. non-communist) political parties in South Vietnam, were ordered to report to various sites bringing enough "paper, pens, clothes, mosquito-nets, personal effects, food or money for a month beginning the first meeting." Official language Vietnamese Capital Saigon Last President Duong Van Minh Last Prime Minister Vu Van Mau Area  - Total  - % water 173,809km² N/A Population  - Total  - Density 19,370,000 (1973 est. ...

The new government announced there would be three days of reeducation for RVN soldiers, ten days for low-ranking officers and officials, and one month for high-ranking RVN officers and officials. Many teachers reported for reeducation, assuming that they would have to undergo it sooner or later anyway. Sick people also reported for reeducation, assured by the government (falsely) that there would be medical doctors and facilities in the "schools" and the patients would be well treated.

The camps

Indoctrination and forced confessions

During the early phase of reeducation, lasting from a few weeks to a few months, inmates were subjected to intensive political indoctrination. Subjects studied included the exploitation by "American imperialism" of workers in other countries, the glory of labor, the inevitable victory of Vietnam, led by the Communist Party, over the U.S., and the generosity of the new government toward the "rebels" (those who fought on the other aide during the war). Another feature emphasized during the early stage of reeducation, but continued throughout one's imprisonment, was confession of one's alleged misdeeds in the past. All prisoners in the camps were required to write confessions, no matter how trivial their alleged crimes might be. Mail clerks, for example, were told that they were guilty of aiding the "puppet war machinery" through circulating the mail, while religious chaplains were found guilty of providing spiritual comfort and encouragement to the enemy troops. Indoctrination is instruction in the fundamentals of a system of belief (such as a philosophy, religion or science). ... The Fall of Saigon (in Vietnamese: 30 tháng tư, or April 30th), was the capture of the South Vietnamese capital of Saigon by the Vietnam Peoples Army (NVA) on April 30, 1975. ... In modern usage, the term communist party is generally used to identify any political party which has adopted communist ideology. ... For other uses, see United States (disambiguation) and US (disambiguation). ... The word Confessions has several meanings: Confessions is a series of books composed by St. ...

The work

Much emphasis in the reeducation camps was placed on "productive labor." Such labor was described by SRV spokesman Hoang Son as "absolutely necessary" for re-education because "under the former regime, they (the prisoners) represented the upper strata of society and got rich under US patronage. They could but scorn the working people. Now the former social order has been turned upside down, and after they have finished their stay in camps they have to earn their living by their own labour and live in a society where work is held in honor." Thus, in the eyes of the Vietnamese rulers, "productive labor" was a necessary aspect in the overturning of the social order. Yet in examining the conditions under which this labor takes place, it seems that there was also an element of revenge. Anthem: Capital Hanoi Largest city Ho Chi Minh City Official languages Vietnamese Government Socialist republic1  -  General Secretary  -  President  -  Prime Minister Independence  -  From China 938   -  From France September 2, 1945   -  Recognized 1954  Area  -  Total 331,689 km² (65th) 128,065 sq mi   -  Water (%) 1. ...

The labor was mostly hard physical work, some of it very dangerous, such as mine field sweeping. No technical equipment were provided for this extremely risky work, and as a result, many prisoners were killed or wounded in mine field explosions. Other kinds of work included cutting trees, planting corn and root crops, clearing the jungle, digging wells, latrines and garbage pits, and constructing barracks within the camp and fences around it. The inmates were generally organized into platoons and work units, where they were forced to compete with each other for better records and work achievements. This often pushed inmates to exhaustion and nervousness with each person and group striving to surpass or at least fulfill the norms set by camp authorities, or they would be classified as `lazy' and ordered to do 'compensation work' on Sundays. Sometimes prisoners who missed their quota were shackled and placed in solitary confinement cells.

Conditions at the camp

The work was done in the hot tropical sun, by prisoners who were poorly nourished and received little or no medical care. The poor health, combined with hard work, mandatory confessions and political indoctrination, made life very difficult for prisoners in Vietnam, and contributed to a high death rate in the camps.

Former prisoners describe the lack of food resulting in a constant hunger while they were in the camps. It is believed that the government deliberately kept the prisoners on low rations in order to weaken their ability to unite and resist camp policies. The lack of food caused severe malnutrition for many prisoners and weakened their resistance to various diseases. Most common among the diseases were malaria, beriberi and dysentery. Tuberculosis were also widespread in some of the camps. Medical supplies were generally nonexistent in the camps and medical care were very inadequate, usually limited to a poorly trained medic and perhaps a few prisoners who had formerly been medical doctors. The result was a high death rate from diseases. Malnutrition is a general term for the medical condition caused by an improper or insufficient diet. ... Malaria is a vector-borne infectious disease that is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions. ... Beriberi is a nervous system ailment caused by thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency; its symptoms include weight loss, emotional disturbances, impaired sensory perception (Wernickes encephalopathy), weakness and pain in the limbs, and periods of irregular heart rate. ... Dysentery is an illness (formerly known as the bloody flux or simply flux) involving severe diarrhea that is often associated with blood in the feces. ... Tuberculosis (abbreviated as TB for Tubercle Bacillus) is a common and deadly infectious disease caused by the mycobacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis or Mycobacterium bovis. ...

Rules and regulations

The authorities sought to maintain strict control over the thoughts of the prisoners, and forbade prisoners from keeping and reading books or magazines of the former regime, reminiscing in conversation about "imperialism and the puppet south," singing old love songs of the former regime, discussing political questions (outside authorized discussions), harboring "reactionary" thoughts or possessing "superstitious" beliefs. It was also forbidden to be impolite to the cadres of the camp, and this rule was sometimes abused to the point where the slightest indication of a lack of reverence to the cadres had been interpreted as rudeness and therefore harshly punished.

It has been acknowledged by Hanoi that violence has in fact been directed against the prisoners, although it maintains that these are isolated cases and not indicative of general camp policy. Former prisoners, on the other hand, report frequent beatings for minor infractions, such as missing work because of illness. Violations of rules lead to various forms of punishment, including being tied up in contorted positions, shackled in connex boxes or dark cells, forced to work extra hours or reduced food rations. Many prisoners were beaten, some to death, or subjected to very harsh forms of punishment due to the cruelty of certain camp officials and guards. Some were executed, especially for attempting to escape.

Visitation

As of 1980, official regulations stated that prisoners in the camps could be visited by their immediate family once every three months. Family visits were important not only because of the personal need for prisoners and their loved ones to have contact with each other, but also because the families could bring food to their relatives in some of the camps. It has been reported that the prisoners in these camps could not survive without such food. The duration of the visits were not long, reported by former prisoners to last from 15 to 30 minutes. Moreover, family visits could be suspended for prisoners who broke the rules: and it has also been said that only families who have proven their loyalty to the regime were allowed visiting privileges. 1980 (MCMLXXX) was a leap year starting on Tuesday. ...

Most of the former prisoners interviewed have been in between three to five different reeducation camps. It is believed that the movement of prisoners from one camp to another were intended to delay both the inmates and the inmates relatives of the camp location. The first was done to prevent prison escapees, and the latter to prevent relatives from visiting.

The release of prisoners

In June of 1976, the Provisional Revolutionary Government of South Vietnam, in one of its last policy announcements before the official reunification of Vietnam, stated that those in the camps would either be tried or released after three years imprisonment. But this promise was broken. The policy announced that those still in the camps would stay there for three years, but could be released earlier if they made "real progress, confess their crimes and score merits." It also said that some Vietnamese would be brought to trial, including those who deserted the NLF during the war, those who owed "many blood debts" to the people and those who fled to "foreign countries with their U.S. masters." 1976 (MCMLXXVI) was a leap year starting on Thursday. ... For other uses, see United States (disambiguation) and US (disambiguation). ...

Since there were no clear criteria for releasing the inmates from the camps, bribery and family connections with high-ranking officials were more likely to speed up release than the prisoner's behavior. Released prisoners were put under probation and surveillance for six months to one year, and during this time they had no official status, no exit visas, no access to government food rations and no right to send their children to school. If the progress of the former prisoners is judged unsatisfactory during this period, they may be fired from their jobs, put under surveillance for another six months to a year, or sent back to the reeducation camps. Approximately 60% of those released have been re-arrested, according to a high-ranking Vietnamese official. Facing these discrimations, many chose to flee the country and become boat people, rather risking death and pirates at sea than continuing living under the supressive regime. This article is about asylum seekers travelling by boat. ...

The U.S. government considers reeducation camp inmates to be political prisoners. In 1989, the Reagan administration entered into an agreement with the Vietnamese government, pursuant to which Vietnam would free all former RVN soldiers and officials held in reeducation camps and allow them to emigrate to the United States. Thus began the third large influx of Vietnamese immigrants into the country. A political prisoner is someone held in prison or otherwise detained, perhaps under house arrest, because their ideas or image are deemed by a government to either challenge or threaten the authority of the state. ... 1989 (MCMLXXXIX) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Ronald Wilson Reagan (February 6, 1911 – June 5, 2004) was the 40th President of the United States (1981–1989) and the 33rd Governor of California (1967–1975). ... Immigration is the act of moving to or settling in another country or region, temporarily or permanently. ...

Number of victims

The number of inmates and death figures at the various camps are unclear due to the secrecy of the Vietnamese government. Crude estimates range from 500 000 to over 2 million inmates. Estimated death figures due to diseases, starvation, execution and working accidents range from tens of thousands to over 100 000 dead.

References/Further reading:

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